Indus Basin

Pakistan Himalaya
Inventory of Glaciers and Glacial Lakes and the Identification of Potential Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) Affected by Global Warming in the Mountains of Himalayan Region

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research global change SysTem for Analysis, Research and Training International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development United Nations Environment Programme/Regional Resource Centre for Asia and The Pacific

Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research

Indus Basin

Inventory of Glaciers and Glacial Lakes and Identification of Potential Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) Affected by Global Warming in the Mountains of Himalayan Region

ICIMOD
Pradeep Kumar Mool Samjwal Ratna Bajracharya Basanta Shrestha Sharad Prasad Joshi

WRRI/PARC
Rakhshan Roohi (Ph.D) Arshad Ashraf Rozina Naz Syed Amjad Hussain M. Hamid Chaudhry

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN) Global Change System for Analysis, Research, and Training (START) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

2005

Foreword
The glaciers of the Hindu Kush-Karakoram-Himalayan (HKH) region are natures valuable source of fresh water for present and future needs of millions of people living in this region as well as down stream. These frozen reservoirs release large amounts of ice melt water to many of the major rivers of the region including Indus River in Pakistan. The glaciers, few of which consist of a huge amount of perpetual snow and ice, are found to create many glacial lakes over centuries. However, these glaciers are retreating in the face of accelerating global warming. Rapid accumulation of water in these glacial lakes, particularly in those adjacent to receding glaciers, can lead to a sudden breach of their unstable moraine dams. The resultant discharge of huge amounts of water and debris a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood or GLOF often cause catastrophic effects downstream. In Pakistan, numerous glaciers and glacial lakes are found in the high mountain ranges of HKH region. These glaciers and glacial lakes contribute more than 50% of the total flow of the lndus system and are the major source of water supply for agricultural, industrial, and hydropower development in the country. These valuable resources have never been systematically harnessed in the past. Knowledge of this resource seems to be an outstanding requirement for future planning of water resources and flood hazard monitoring in the entire lndus Basin System. Many GLOFs have been recorded in the last few decades that resulted in heavy loss of human lives and their property, destruction of infrastructure, and damage to crop fields and forests. Major parts of snow and ice mass are concentrated in the watershed of the Indus River. Under a collaborative programme with ICIMOD a study was carried out in the ten sub basins of Indus River System namely Swat, Chitral, Gilgit, Hunza, Shigar, Shyok, Upper Indus, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum, covering the HKH region of Pakistan. In the period of three years, a systematic study on the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes of this part was completed using Remote sensing satellite and topographic data and a comprehensive database was developed. The results generated from this study will provide baseline data and information for future planning and investigation of these resources and monitoring of GLOF in the area. The project has provided an opportunity for professionals of Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI) of Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) to learn more about the methodology and related activities to build up their confidence for the future work. Furthermore, a semi-automatic methodology for inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes was developed for future glacial monitoring. One of the major objectives of this study was to identify areas where GLOF events could pose a potential threat in the near future. Based on the detailed criteria the potentially dangerous lakes were identified which needs to be monitored in future. The total geographic area of the river basins studied is about 128,730.8 sq. km. Altogether 5,218 glaciers are identified in the ten basins which cover a total glaciated area of about 15,040 sq. km (About 11.7% of the total geographic area of the ten basins). The total ice reserves in HKH region of Pakistan are about 2,738.5 km3. The Shyok, Hunza and Shigar basins contain the major part (about 83%) of these ice reserves. There are altogether

2,420 glacial lakes in the study area. The highest number of lakes is in Gilgit basin (614) and minimum in Shigar basin (54). The total area covered by these lakes is around 126 sq. km. The major types of glacial lakes identified in the study, include; Erosion, Valley, End Moraine Dammed and Cirque types. Based on the detailed characteristics of each lake, 52 lakes are identified as potentially dangerous lakes which include Cirque (13), End Moraine dammed (31) and Valley lakes (8). The erosion lakes are generally stable and are therefore less susceptible to GLOF, if it is not associated with the mother glaciers. These results provide the basis for the development of a monitoring and early warning system, planning and prioritization of disaster mitigation efforts that could save many lives and properties situated downstream, and a guideline for infrastructure planning and development. In addition, it is anticipated that this study will provide useful information for many of those concerned with water resources and land-use planning. Coupled with the information on climate change and future monitoring of glaciers, this database can provide the basis for estimation of future available water resources and their planning and management. This document not only presents the description of methods used to identify glaciers, glacial lakes, and potentially dangerous glacial lakes but also includes an inventory of these glaciers and glacial lakes for future monitoring of GLOFs in the HKH region of Pakistan. We are thus confident that this comprehensive report and digital database will be of service to scientists, planners, and decision-makers in many areas. We further hope that their informed actions, will contribute to improve the lives of those living in the mountains as well as downstream and help safeguard future investments. This project has enabled further strengthening of the collaboration between APN, UNEP, START, PARC, and ICIMOD to continue to assist in developing regional capacities and co-operation.

J. G. Campbell (Ph. D) Director General, ICIMOD

Baduruddin Soomro (Ph. D) Chairman, PARC

ii

Acknowledgement and Credits

The support of Abdul Hafeez Randhawa, ex-Secretary (MINFAL), Government of Pakistan and former Board Member of ICIMOD needs special thanks in initiating this project. We would like to extend our deepest gratitude to Dr. Baduruddin Soomro, Chairman, PARC, Dr Naeem Hashmi, ex- Director General NARC and Dr. Muhammad Ashraf, Director General, NARC for their kind support and encouragement throughout the project period. Thanks are also due to Dr. Zahid Hussain (CSO, WRRI) and Dr. Shahid Ahmad (CSO, NRD) for their valuable input and advice while implementing the project. We would like to specially thank Mr. Riaz Hussain and Mr. Waqas Kareem Awan M.Sc final year students of Punjab University for working for this project. Without their support, the extensive work would not have been possible to complete within due time. We would like to thank Dr. J. Gabriel Campbell, Director General of ICIMOD for overall coordination, supervision and timely supports during the implementation of the project. Other ICIMOD staff members who have assisted in the study include Ms. Monica Moktan, Mr. Rajan Bajracharya, Mr. Lokap Rajbhandari, Mr. Sushil Pandey, Mr. Birendra Bajracharya, Mr. Sushil Pradhan, Mr. Saisab Pradhan, Ms. Mandakini Bhatta, and, Mr. Govinda Joshi, and from WRRI, Mr. Arbab Ahmad, Mr. Azhar Shafiq Butt, Mr. Muhammad Afzal, Mr. Suhail Ahmad, Mr. Khalid Mehmood and Mr. Liaqat Ali. We would like to thank them all for their contributions We would like to express appreciation and sincere thanks to Mr. Surendra Shrestha, Regional Director and Representative for Asia and the Pacific - UNEP and Director of UNEP/RRC-AP, Mr. Mylvakanam Iyngararasan, Ms. May Ann Mamicpic and Ms. Kitiya Gajesani of UNEP/RRC-AP for their strong support and advise. Thanks are due to Mr. Sombo T. Yamamura, Director, Mr. Yukihiro Imanari, Executive Manager, Ms. Jody Chambers, Programme Manager, Mr. Martin Rice, former Programme Manager, Communications and Development, Dr. Linda Anne Stevenson, Programme Manager, Ms. Sirijit Sangunurai, Programme Fellow, Mr. Tomoya Motoda, Technical Assistant, Mr. Toshiaki Mitani, Administrative Manager, Ms. Kanako Taguchi, Administrative Assistant, of Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN) for their continuous support in the implementation of the project. Last but not least we would like to express our sincere thanks to Prof. Roland Fuchs, Director, Dr. Hassan Virji, Deputy Director, Ms. Kathleen Landauer, Programme Associate Ms. Alix Cotumaccio, Programme Associate and Dr. Yna Calimon, former Programme Associate of International global change SysTem for Analysis, Research, and Training (START) Secretariat for their timely and strong support and advice while implementing the project.

Development Team
ICIMOD Pradeep Kumar Mool, Samjwal Ratna Bajracharya, Basanta Shrestha, Sharad P. Joshi, Kiran Shakya and Gauri S. Dangol PARC Rakhshan Roohi (Ph.D), Arshad Ashraf, Syed Amjnd Hussain, Rozina Naz, Hamid Chaudhary, Tariq Mustafa and Shakeel Ahmad

iii

iv

Acronyms
ADB ADRG AP AP APN APT BCM C CIDA CSO DEM DHM D.I. Khan DMA EESL ERTS ETH ETM FATA FCC FFC FFD FFS FPSP FWC GDP GIS gl GLOF GOP gr Ha. H.F HKH HRPT HRV HYCOS Asian Development Bank ARC Digitized Raster Graphics Aerial Photograph Asia and the Pacific Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research Automatic Picture Transmission Billion Cubic Meter Degree Centigrade Canadian International Development Agency Chief Scientific Officer Digital Elevation Model Department of Hydrology and Meteorology Dera Ismail Khan Defense Mapping Agency Electrowatt Engineering Service Ltd. Earth Resources Technology Satellite Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Enhanced Thematic Mapper Federally Administered Tribal Areas False Color Composite Federal Flood Commission Flood Forecasting Division Flood Forecasting System Flood Protection Sector Project Flood Warning Centre Gross Domestic Product Geographic Information System Glacial Lake Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Government of Pakistan Glacier Hectares High Frequency Hindu Kush-Himalaya High Resolution Picture Transmission High Resolution Visible (SPOT) Hydrological Observing System

IBIS ICIMOD ILWIS IR IIR IRS IRS1D IUCN KKH LANDSAT Lat/Lon LIGG LISS M masl MENRIS Met mg L 1 MINFAL MSS N.A. NACS NARC NEA NESPAK NFFB NIR NIMA NOAA NRD NWFP PAN PARC PMD RECA RGB RRC RS SPOT SoP START SWIR

Indus Basin Irrigation System International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development Integrated Land and Water Information Systems Infrared First infrared Indian Remote Sensing Satellite series Indian Remote Sensing Satellite series 1D International Union for Conservation of Natural Resources Karakoram Highway Land Resources Satellite Latitude/Longitude Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Geocryology Linear Imaging and Self Scanning Sensor (IRS) Million metre above sea level Mountain Environment and Natural Resources Information System Meteorology miligram/litre Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock Multi Spectral Scanner Not Available Northern Area Conservation Strategy National Agricultural Research Centre Nepal Electricity Authority National Engineering Services of Pakistan National Flood Forecasting Bureau Near infrared National Imagery and Mapping Agency National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Natural Resources Division North West Frontier Province Panchromatic Mode Sensor System Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Pakistan Meteorological Department Rapid Environmental Change Assessment Red Green Blue Regional Resources Centre Remote Sensing Systme Probatoire d Observation de la Terre / Satellite Pour lObservation de la Terre Survey of Pakistan global change SysTem for Analysis, Research, and Training Short Wave Infra Red (JERS)

vi

TM TDS THIR TPC TTS UNDP UNEP VNIR WAA WAPDA WECS WGI WGS WGMS WHYCOS WMO WRRI XS

Thematic Mapper (LANDSAT) Total Dissolved Solids Thermal infrared Tactical Pilotage Chart Temporary Technical Secretary United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme Visible and Near Infra Red instrument Water Apportionment Accord Water and Power Development Authority Water and Energy Commission Secretariat World Glacier Inventory World Geographic System World Glacier Monitoring Service World Hydrological Observing System World Meteorological Organization Water Resources Research Institute Multispectral Mode Sensor System (SPOT)

vii

Contents
Foreword..........................................................................................................................i Acknowledgement and Credits ............................................................................. iii Acronyms........................................................................................................................v Contents ...................................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1 Introduction to Inventory of Glaciers and Glacial Lakes ...... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................... 3 Main Objectives ............................................................................................................... 3 Long-Term Objective ...................................................................................................... 3 1.3 OUTPUTS .................................................................................................................3 1.4 ACTIVITIES ...............................................................................................................3 1.5 FLOWCHART.............................................................................................................5

Chapter 2 General Characteristics of the Country .................................. 7

2.1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................7 2.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................7 2.3 GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY ..........................................................................11 2.4 SEISMICITY .............................................................................................................17 2.5 CLIMATE ................................................................................................................17 Agro-Climatic Zones ................................................................................................. 18 Water Resources....................................................................................................... 20 Rivers ....................................................................................................................... 20 Mineral Resources .................................................................................................... 20 Soils ......................................................................................................................... 21 Forests...................................................................................................................... 22 Wildlife ..................................................................................................................... 23 2.7 LAND USE ..............................................................................................................23 2.8 AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................23

Chapter 3 Hydro-Meteorology ............................................................. 27

3.1 RIVER BASINS .................................................................................................................. 27 3.1.1 Swat River Basin.................................................................................................. 28 3.1.1 Swat River Basin.................................................................................................. 28 3.1.2 Chitral River Basin............................................................................................... 31 3.1.3 Gilgit River Basin ................................................................................................. 32 3.1.4 Hunza River Basin ............................................................................................... 33 3.1.5 Shigar River Basin ............................................................................................... 35 3.1.6 Shyok River Basin ............................................................................................... 35 3.1.7 Indus River Basin................................................................................................. 37 3.1.8 Shingo River Basin .............................................................................................. 38 3.1.9 Astor River Basin ................................................................................................. 39 3.1.10 Jhelum River Basin............................................................................................ 42 3.2 CLIMATE ...................................................................................................... 43 3.2.1 Altitudinal Zones In The Northern Mountain Region ............................................ 46

viii

3.2.2 Glaciers Velocity And Fluctuations...................................................................... 47 3.2.3 Surges And Climate Change ................................................................................ 47 3.3 HYDROLOGY ................................................................................................ 48 3.3.1 Runoff ................................................................................................................. 48 3.3.2 Sediment Yield .................................................................................................... 49

Chapter 4 Materials and Methodology ..................................................51

4.1 TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS .53 4.2 SATELLITE IMAGE ...................................................................................................53 4.3 INVENTORY METHOD ..............................................................................................54 4.3.1 Inventory of Glaciers............................................................................................ 54 Numbering of Glaciers.............................................................................................. 55 Registration of snow and ice masses ......................................................................... 55 SnowLine ................................................................................................................. 55 Accuracy Rating Table.............................................................................................. 55 Mean Glacier Thickness and Ice Reserves ................................................................. 56 Area of the Glacier ................................................................................................... 57 Length of the glacier ................................................................................................. 57 Mean width .............................................................................................................. 57 Orientation of the glacier .......................................................................................... 57 Elevation of the Glacier ............................................................................................ 57 Morphological Classification ..................................................................................... 57 4.3.2 Inventory of Glacial Lakes ................................................................................... 63 Numbering of Glacial Lakes...................................................................................... 63 Longitude and Latitude ............................................................................................ 63 Area ......................................................................................................................... 63 Length...................................................................................................................... 63 Width ....................................................................................................................... 64 Depth ....................................................................................................................... 64 Orientation ............................................................................................................... 64 Altitude..................................................................................................................... 64 Classification of lakes................................................................................................ 64 Activity ..................................................................................................................... 64 Types of Water Drainage .......................................................................................... 65 Chemical Properties ................................................................................................. 65 Other Indices ............................................................................................................ 65

Chapter 5 Spatial Data Input and Attribute Data Handling ................ 67 Chapter 6 Application of Remote Sensing ............................................. 71 Chapter 7 Inventory of Glaciers ............................................................ 93
7.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF GLACIER INVENTORY .......................................................... 93 7.2 TYPES OF GLACIER ........................................................................................ 93 7.3 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GLACIATION .................................................... 94 7.4 GLACIERS OF PAKISTAN IN HKH REGION .......................................................... 96 7.4.1 Swat River Basin.................................................................................................. 97 7.4.3 Gilgit River Basin ............................................................................................... 111 7.4.4 Hunza River Basin ............................................................................................. 119 7.4.5 Shigar River Basin ............................................................................................. 126 7.4.6 Shyok River Basin ............................................................................................. 133

ix

7.4.7 Indus River Basin............................................................................................... 140 7.4.8 Shingo River Basin ............................................................................................ 148 7.4.9. Astor River Basin .............................................................................................. 154 7.4.10. Jhelum River Basin......................................................................................... 161

Chapter 8 Inventory of Glacial Lakes ................................................. 175

8.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF GLACIAL LAKE INVENTORY..................................................... 175 8.2 GLACIAL LAKESTHEIR NUMBERING, TYPE AND CHARACTERISTICS ......................... 175 Erosion lakes .......................................................................................................... 175 Supraglacial lakes ................................................................................................... 176 Moraine Dammed lakes.......................................................................................... 177 Blocking lakes......................................................................................................... 177 Ice-dammed lakes................................................................................................... 177 8.3 GLACIAL LAKES OF RIVER BASINS OF HKH REGION OF PAKISTAN ............................ 178 8.3.1 Glacial Lakes of Swat River basin ...................................................................... 178 8.3.2 Glacial Lakes of Chitral River basin.................................................................... 181 8.3.3 Glacial Lakes of Gilgit River basin...................................................................... 185 8.3.4 Glacial Lakes of Hunza River basin.................................................................... 188 8.3.5: Glacial Lakes of Shigar River basin ................................................................... 190 8.3.6: Glacial Lakes of Shyok River basin ................................................................... 194 8.3.7 Glacial Lakes of Indus River basin ..................................................................... 197 8.3.8 Glacial Lakes of Shingo River basin ................................................................... 201 8.3.9 Glacial Lakes of Astor River Basin ..................................................................... 204 8.3.10 Glacial Lakes of Jhelum River basin................................................................. 207 8.3.11 Summary......................................................................................................... 211

Chapter 9 Glacial Lake Outburst Floods and Damages in the Country 215
9.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 215 9.2 CAUSES OF LAKE CREATION ......................................................................... 215 Global Warming ..................................................................................................... 215 Glacier Retreat........................................................................................................ 215 Causes of Glacial Lake Water Level Rise ................................................................ 216 9.3 BURSTING MECHANISMS ............................................................................................... 216 Mechanism of Ice Core-dammed Lake Failure........................................................ 217 Mechanism of moraine-dammed lake failure .......................................................... 217 Melting Ice-core ...................................................................................................... 218 Overtopping by Displacement Waves ..................................................................... 218 Settlement and/or Piping ........................................................................................ 219 Sub-glacial Drainage .............................................................................................. 219 Engineering Works ................................................................................................. 219 9.4 SURGE PROPAGATION .................................................................................. 219 9.5 SEDIMENT PROCESSES DURING A GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD .................... 223 9.6 SOCIOECONOMIC EFFECTS OF GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOODS ...................... 224 9.7 BRIEF REVIEW OF GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD EVENTS AND DAMAGES CAUSED IN PAKISTAN .................................................................................................... 225 9.8 SOME EXAMPLES OF GLOF EVENTS ................................................................ 226 9.9 LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD HAZARDS ................................................................. 236

Chapter 10 Potentially Dangerous Glacial Lakes ............................237

10.1 CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFICATION ............................................................................... 237 Rise in Lake Water Level ........................................................................................ 237

Activity of Supraglacial lakes................................................................................... 238 Position of Lakes .................................................................................................... 238 Dam Conditions ..................................................................................................... 238 Conditions of Associated Mother Glacier ................................................................ 239 Physical Conditions of the Surrounding Area.......................................................... 239 10.2 Major Glacial Lakes Associated with the Glaciers and Potentially Dangerous Glacial Lakes of Ten River Basins In Hkh Region Of Pakistan ...................................... 240 10.2.1 Swat River basin........................................................................................................240 10.2.2 Chitral River basin.....................................................................................................246 10.2.3 Gilgit River basin .......................................................................................................250 10.2.4 Hunza River basin.....................................................................................................262 10.2.5 Shigar River basin .....................................................................................................265 10.2.6 Shyok River Basin.....................................................................................................266 10.2.7 Indus River basin.......................................................................................................270 10.2.8 Shingo River basin ....................................................................................................281 10.2.9 Astor River basin .......................................................................................................287 10.2.10 Jhelum River basin .................................................................................................292 10.2.11 Summary .................................................................................................................298

Chapter 11 Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Mitigation Measures, Monitoring and Early Warning Systems ........................... 303
11.1 REDUCING THE VOLUME OF LAKE WATER ...........................................................303 Pumping or siphoning the water out from the lake .......................................................304 Making a tunnel through the moraine dam....................................................................304 11.2 PREVENTATIVE MEASURES AROUND THE LAKE AREA ...........................................305 11.3 PROTECTING INFRASTRUCTURE AGAINST THE DESTRUCTIVE FORCES OF THE SURGE

..................................................................................................................................305 11.4 MONITORING AND EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS .....................................................305 11.5: EARLY WARNING AND FLOOD FORECASTING SYSTEMS IN PAKISTAN ....................306
Existing facilities for the flood forecasting system ..........................................................308 Efficiency of flood forecasting system .............................................................................309 Future developments........................................................................................................309 Needs within the HKH regional framework....................................................................310

Chapter 12 Conclusions ....................................................................... 311 References ..................................................................................................................315

xi

Chapter 1 Introduction to Inventory of Glaciers and Glacial Lakes

1.1 INTRODUCTION The glaciers are nature's renewable storehouse of fresh water that benefits hundreds of millions of people downstream. The glaciers of the Hindu Kush - Himalayan (HKH) region, however, are retreating in the face of accelerated global warming since the second half of the 20th century and have contributed to the formation of many glacial lakes on the recent glacier terminus. A majority of these glacial lakes are formed due to damming by unstable moraines. Rapid accumulation of water in these lakes can lead to sudden breaching of the unstable moraine dams discharging huge amounts of water and debris known as a Glacial Lake Outburst Floods, or GLOFs causing loss of life, property and the destruction of valuable forest and pasture resources, farmlands, and costly mountain infrastructures. Some GLOFs are reported to have created long-term secondary environmental degradation physically and socio-economically, both locally and in neighboring downstream countries. GLOF is recognized to be a common problem in the Hindu Kush - Himalayan countries such as Bhutan, China, India, Nepal and Pakistan. The study of glaciers and glacial lakes in Nepal and Bhutan carried out by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and United Nation Environment Programme/Regional Resources Centre, Asia and The Pacific (UNEP/RRCAP) from 1999 to 2001 inventoried 3,252 glaciers and 2,323 glacial lakes in Nepal and 677 glaciers and 2,674 glacial lakes in Bhutan. The study also identified 20 glacial lakes in Nepal and 24 glacial lakes in Bhutan as potentially dangerous. Many GLOF events in Nepal and some in Bhutan, reported and unreported, were documented from the study of satellite images, aerial photographs, and available topographic maps of different years. The reported GLOF events are highly destructive downstream and lead to long-term secondary environmental degradation in the valleys, both physically and socioeconomically. A major part of the snow and ice mass of the Pakistans HKH is concentrated in the watershed of the Indus basin. This watershed can be divided into distinct ten river basins. A study was carried out in these ten river basins of HKH region of the country. This study was carried out in three phases. In the first phase the inventory work of Astor River basin was completed while in the second phase inventory of five more basins namely Upper Indus, Jhelum, Shingo, Shyok and Shigar was completed. Finally in the third year the inventory of remaining four basins namely Swat, Chitral, Gilgit and Hunza was completed and the entire database of Pakistan was compiled. The total geographic area of all these ten river basins studied is about 128,730.8 sq. km. Altogether 5,218 glaciers were identified which cover a total glaciated area of about 15,040 sq. km (about 11.7% of the total geographic area of the basins). These glaciers contribute total ice reserves of about 2,738.5 km3. The Shyok, Hunza and Shigar basins contain the major part (about 83%) of these ice reserves.

There are altogether 2,420 glacial lakes in the study area. The highest number of lakes is in Gilgit basin (614) and minimum in Shigar basin (54). The total area covered by these lakes is around 126 sq. km. Based on the detailed characteristics of each lake, 52 lakes are identified as potentially dangerous lakes which include Cirque (13), End Moraine dammed (31) and Valley lakes (8). The erosion lakes are generally stable and are therefore less susceptible to GLOF, if it is not associated with the mother glaciers. Most of these potentially dangerous glacial lakes are situated at the headwater of the river basins, settlements, agricultural fields, and infrastructure which are mostly concentrated along the river valley downstream of glaciers and glacial lakes. Therefore, accurate and comprehensive knowledge of glaciers and glacial lakes are of utmost importance. A digital repository of valuable knowledge on glaciers, glacial lakes, and GLOF events will enhance the ability to inform policy makers on the vulnerability, risk mitigation and action/adaptation measures. Specifically for Pakistan where irrigation network of the country is heavily dependent on the snow melt in summer, this information on one hand can serve to plan the agricultural activities downstream according to the ice reserves available and the prevailing climate and on the other it can provide a basis for future climate change/global warming studies. Since the total number of glaciers and potential GLOF hazards in the region is still unknown, this study will add greatly to sustainable development as well as regional and global database. The northern sector of Pakistan is a mountainous region, where all the land is in the form of rugged terrain including mountains and hills. The central and northern mountain sectors are steeper than the southern sector. The region is vulnerable to landslide and river erosion due to great elevation differences, steep sloping terrain, and fragile geological conditions. In addition, the watersheds of the region are covered by some major glaciers and glacial lakes, which are quite susceptible to disastrous hazards due to GLOFs. In general, snow clad line is found above 5,300 meters above mean sea level (masl). The glaciers, some of which consist of a huge amount of perpetual snow and ice, are found to create many glacial lakes. The glaciers and glacial lakes of the HKH region are nature's renewable storehouse of fresh water that benefits hundreds of millions of people downstream. Lakes at an elevation that is higher than 4,000 masl are considered as glacial lakes. Most of these lakes are located in the down valleys close to the glaciers. They are formed by the accumulation of vast amounts of water from the melting snow and ice cover and by blockage of End Moraines. The sudden break of a moraine dam may generate the discharge of large volumes of water and debris causing disastrous floods. In Pakistan these glaciers as well as glacial lakes are the sources of the headwaters of Indus River. For the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes, the methodology in this study is used similar to Nepal and Bhutan (Mool et al. 2001a and Mool et al. 2001b), which is based on the research study of the Temporary Technical Secretary (TTS) for the World Glacier Inventory (WGI) of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich (Muller et al. 1977; World Glacier Monitoring Service [WGMS] 1989).

1.2 OBJECTIVES Main Objectives The main objectives of the present study is to assure that mountain inhabitants in the HKH region enjoy safe and sustainable livelihoods through a better understanding of environmental hazards associated with Mountain Glaciers and glacial lakes, with which to address environmental policy, planning and impact/risk mitigation. Long-Term Objective The long-term objective of the study is to establish an inventory of and digital database on mountain glaciers/glacial lakes and change due to global warming affecting potential glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and associated hazards. The database, methodologies and information will be analyzed, synthesized, and shared nationally and regionally among the collaborating national organizations and agencies to form the foundations for both policy and planning (and, later, in a second phase under other funding, to establish GLOF hazard monitoring and early warning systems for environmental risk mitigation). 1.3 OUTPUTS The major outputs of this study are: 1. Documentation of glaciers, glacial lakes, and potential GLOFs and associated hazards. 2. Inventory of hot-spots and hazards using GIS and RS technologies 3. Strengthened institutional capacities of collaborating institutions and agencies, with special attention to training female participants. 4. Policy products for use in source and downstream countries. 5. Implementation of comprehensive communication and dissemination plans based on the results and outputs of database analysis, strengthening policy and planning within relevant agencies, and informed research institutions and the public, nationally and regionally. 1.4 ACTIVITIES The major activities of the study will be as follow: 1. Inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes and establishment of an easily-accessible digital database using GIS and RS technologies 2. Establish analytical protocols and systems to identify 'hot-spots' (existing and potentially dangerous glacial lake hazards) and to regularize GLOF hazard studies 3. Analyse and synthesize the database to determine the existence of hot-spots and potential GLOF circumstances, and to network the results among concerned agencies 4. Conduct Rapid Environmental Change Assessment (RECA) studies on GLOF hazard risks and potential impacts 5. Enhance the capacities of participating institutions to manage and regularly update the database through technology transfer to collaborating organizations and agencies

6. Prepare analytical studies and briefing papers for policy- makers/planners to be presented at regional/international workshops and conferences and publications on potential GLOF hazards and risks and their potential impacts and mitigation, through the participating country organizations 7. Help create wider awareness, locally/regionally/internationally, among governments, development agencies, and the public about GLOF phenomena and hazards through a variety of communication channels (e.g., published reports/documents in appropriate languages, Internet applications including information portals, seminars, workshops, and conferences, TV and radio documentaries, and other professional learning, capacity building and public awareness strategies).

1.5 FLOWCHART

Study and acquisition of Literature Reports Reports Reports Reports Topographic maps Maps Maps Maps Maps Satellite images Quick view IRS Landsat-7 ETM+

Inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes

Capturing digital database of glaciers and glacial lakes from the map and satellite images

Attribute database development

DD is e e mi n n a ioio no o fr e e u u lt s is s s m i a t t n f r s s lt s ( W o o r k h h o p /S e mi n n a /r / ( W r k s s o p /S e m i a r CC o n e e r e n c e )s ) on f fren ces

Analysis and identification of potential dangerous lakes

FINAL REPORT/ CD FINAL REPORT/ CD

Figure 1.1: The flow diagram of methodology used for inventory.

TT r a n fse e ro o f ran s fr f mm e h h o d oo o g y et t odol lgy

5

Chapter 2 General Characteristics of the Country

2.1 INTRODUCTION Pakistan is situated in the heart of the South Asian sub-continent; it is a country with its own fascinating history and cultural heritage. Pakistan was the site for one of the world's earliest human settlements, the great prehistoric Indus Valley Civilization, the crucible of ancient empires, religions and cultures. It extends between the latitudes 24 to 37 north and longitudes 61 to 78 east. Iran lies to the west, Afghanistan to the northwest, China to the north and India to the east (Figure 2.1). The landscape of the country ranges from lofty mountains in the north through dissected plateaus to the rich alluvial plains of the Punjab. This landscape follows desolate barrenness of Balochistan and the hot dry deserts of Sindh blending into miles and miles of golden beaches of the coastal area covering a total area of about 79.6 M ha. There are four provinces; Balochistan covering area of 34.72 M ha in the western part of the country, North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) is stretching over 7.45 M ha in the northwestern part, Punjab covering 20.53 M ha in the middle and Sindh covering 14.09 M ha in the southeastern part (Figure 2.2). There is Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) covering area of 2.72 M ha and Capital territory stretching over 0.09 M ha. About 47.59 M ha in the north, northwest and west of Pakistan form a highly differentiated mountainous terrain, while the remaining 32.02 M ha present a flat and gradational surface. 2.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY High mountains of Pakistan comprise of the western end of 2,400 km long Himalayan range and some parts in the Hindu-Kush and Karakoram ranges stretching over NWFP and the Northern Areas. Northern areas spread over 72,496 sq. Km. with amidst towering snow-clad peaks with heights varying from 1,000 meters above sea level (masl) to over 8,000 masl. Of the 14 over 8,000 masl peaks on earth, 4 occupy an amphitheater at the head of Baltoro glacier in the Karakoram Range. These are: K-2 (Mount Godwin Austen) which is 8,611 masl and is world second highest peak, Gasherbrum-I (8,068 masl), Broad Peak (8,047 masl) and Gasherbrum II (8,035 masl). There is yet another which is equally great, that is, Nanga Parbat (8,126 masl) at the western most end of the Himalayas and is rated as worlds 8th highest peak (Figure 2.3). In addition to these, there are 68 peaks over 7,000 masl (Table 2.1) and hundreds which are over 6,000 masl. Generally because of their rugged topography and the rigors of the climate, the northern highlands and the Himalayas to the east have been formidable barriers to movement into Pakistan throughout history. There are though several famous passes like Khyber, Kurrum, Tochi, Gomal, Lowari and Khunjrab, which have been used historically as trade routes.

Figure 2.1: Index map of Hindu Kush - Himalayan region showing mountains of Pakistan at the western end of the HKH region.

Figure 2.2: Administrative boundaries of Pakistan.

The Northern Pakistan has some of the longest glaciers outside Polar Region like Siachen (76 km), Hispar (61 km.), Biafo (60 km.), Baltoro (60 km.), Batura (64 km.), Yenguta (35 km), Chiantar (34 km), Trich (29 km) and Atrak (28 km). The lower Himalayan valleys of Swat, Kaghan and Chitral in the Hindukush range equally share the beauty and diverse culture of the Northern Pakistan. The HKH region in Pakistan house many gorgeous lakes especially like Saif-ul-Maluk, Satpara and Kachura. Northern Area is connected with air and road with other cities of Pakistan including Islamabad the Capital. There are daily flights to Skardu and Gilgit, subject to weather. It is also linked with the road - Karakoram Highway which is passing through the Indus valley. The Karakoram Highway, or KKH, is the greatest wonder of modern Pakistan and is highest mettle border crossing in the world. Connecting Pakistan to China, it twists through three great mountain ranges - the Himalayas, Karakoram and Pamir - following one of the ancient silk routes along the valleys of the Indus, Gilgit and Hunza rivers to Chinese border at the Khunjerab Pass. For much of its 1,284 km the KKH is overshadowed by towering, barren mountains, a high altitude desert enjoying less than 100 millimeters of rain a year. In many of the gorges through which it passes, it rides a shelf cut into a sheer cliff face as high as 500 meters above the river. The KKH has opened up remote villages where little has changed in hundreds of years, where farmers irrigate tiny terraces to grow small patches of wheat, barely or maize that stand out like emeralds against the gray stony mountains. The KKH hugs the banks of the Indus for 310 km of its climb north, winding around the foot of Nanga Parbat, the western anchor of the Himalayas. The highway then leaves the Indus for the Gilgit, Hunza and Khunjerab rivers to take on the Karakoram Range, which boat 12 of the 30 highest mountains in the world. (www.mountainleaders.com).

Table 2.1: Mountain Peaks of interest in Pakistan exceeding 7,000 metres in height.
Peaks K-2 Nanga Parbat Gasharbrum I Broad Peak Gasharbrum II Gasharbrum III Peak* Gashabrum IV Peak* Distaghil Sar Peak* Mashebrum E North Peak Mashebrum W Raka Poshi Hunza Kunji I Kanjut Sar Double East Peak Peak* Dong Dong-Gl Tirich Mir Bride Peak Hunza Kunji Peak* Masostang Kangri Rakhiot I Naushan Pumarikish Pointed Hill Peak* Skillbrum Tirich Mir II Teram Kangri I Malubating Peak* Peak* Taram Kangri II * Unnamed peaks Ht. (Metres) 8611 8126 8068 8047 8035 7952 7930 7925 7884 7884 7852 7821 7809 7806 7788 7785 7760 7750 7745 7705 7690 7654 7611 7577 7526 7510 7501 7492 7484 7468 7468 7468 7464 7458 7428 7422 7407 Lat. (,) 35-88 35-25 35-43 35-48 35-46 35-46 35-52 35-46 36-21 36-20 36-12 35-39 35-15 35-38 36-09 36-31 36-13 36-15 35-16 35-24 36-15 35-37 36-27 36-18 35-19 35-15 35-26 36-12 36-25 35-18 35-35 36-16 35-34 36-00 35-17 35-36 35-34 Long. (,) 76-50 74-60 76-42 76-34 76-37 76-39 76-34 76-37 75-02 75-11 75-12 76-19 74-36 76-18 74-31 74-31 75-25 71-50 74-35 76-51 71-51 76-34 74-41 75-05 77-38 74-37 71-50 75-15 71-50 77-08 75-50 71-50 77-05 74-53 77-01 76-45 77-05 Peaks Peak* Haramos Istoro Nal Teram Kangri III Sad Ishtrag Peak* Momhil Sad Ishtrag Sad Ishtrag II Hunza Kungi IV Peak* Peak* Sad Ishtrag III Peak* Baintha Brakk Peak Long Hill Apsarasa I Apsarasa II Peak* Tirich Mir III Peak* Peak* Peak* Peak* Peak* Peak* Tuin Peak Rakhiot II Peak* Sad Ishtrag I Chanishehish Peak* Peak* Peak* Peak* Ht. (Metres) 7407 7397 7389 7382 7367 7345 7343 7340 7336 7329 7324 7303 7300 7298 7285 7282 7280 7245 7239 7239 7238 7236 7233 7203 7169 7144 7143 7122 7074 7071 7053 7027 7018 7016 7004 7000 Lat. (,) 35-16 35-50 36-23 35-36 35-23 36-07 36-20 36-23 36-33 36-24 36-19 35-28 36-32 36-33 35-57 36-26 36-36 35-32 35-32 36-13 36-24 35-31 35-19 35-35 35-26 35-50 36-37 36-32 35-15 35-11 36-35 36-03 36-39 35-55 35-12 36-40 Long. (,) 77-22 74-54 71-54 77-02 77-07 75-12 75-03 72-07 72-07 74-42 75-14 76-47 72-07 72-08 75-45 71-52 71-52 72-09 72-10 75-23 71-54 77-12 77-23 77-59 77-23 75-49 74-19 71-59 74-39 37-35 72-07 74-58 72-09 76-34 77-32 72-14

10

Pakistan shows a great diversity of bio-climates, vegetation types and fauna. There are thick forests of Pines, Poplars, Conifers and Junipers. Major habitats consist of: a) flood and arid plains, sand and piedmont deserts and a variety of forests; b) grassy tundra and cold deserts; and c) lakes, rivers, swamps, and coastal marine habitats (GOP, 1992). The major physiographic regions in the country include; Dry and wet mountains in the north, dry mountains and plateau in the west, Indus irrigated plain and Indus delta in the east and south respectively. The northern dry and wet mountains comprise high mountain ranges of Himalayas, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush with 50 peaks of over 6,700 m. Some of the lower mountain ranges in the northeast receive high monsoon rainfall in summer and snow precipitation during winter. The forest cover is dense in this mountain region. The high northern and northwestern areas are out of monsoon reach so the climate is dry and precipitation occurs only due to depressions moving in from the west during spring and summer. Western dry mountains are lower and more arid with highest peak of 3,374 m. The Balochistan Plateau comprises of arid land in the west of the Sulaiman-Kirthar Mountains. The land mainly consists of dispersed rangelands, rugged terrain and some desert areas. Indus irrigated plain stretches from the foothills of Himalayas in the north to the coastal plains near Karachi in the south of the country. It is the main agricultural production area of the country. The Indus River forms a large delta before entering into Arabian Sea in the south. Mangrove forests are the significant feature of this area. In addition, there is barani land (rainfed) in the northwest of Indus plain comprises of Pothwar plateau and Salt range with elevations ranging from 450 to 600 m. The plateau has topography dissected badly by water and wind erosion. In the eastern parts of Punjab and Sindh provinces, there is sandy desert consisting of sand dunes and rare vegetation. 2.3 GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY The land of Pakistan provides a fascinating exhibition of geological evolution. It is a bonanza of different lithospheric plates, which have been accreted together in such a way that has a rare parallel in the world with respect to its structure, relief, rock types and landscape. The geo-history of Pakistan, as a part of the Indo-Pak Plate, is rooted in the dismemberment of a super-continent the "Gondwanaland" in about Late Jurassic period. Since 55 million years ago, India has steadily rotated counterclockwise. Coupled with Arabias separation from Africa about 20 million years ago, this rotation caused convergence in Balochistan, collision of various crustal blocks in Iran-Afghanistan region and formation of Balochistan fold and fault belt. The India-Eurasia collision produced the spectacular Himalayas along uplifted and deformed 2,500 km long Indo-Pakistan plate margin. The collision between these segments resulted in the formation of new relief and topography, which consists of series of mountain ranges located in the north, northwest and southwest of Pakistan, commonly known as the Himalayan Mountain System. Rapid uplift of the Himalayas to great heights and under the influence of very cold climate of high altitude embraced a blanket of snow and ice during the Quaternary period. Huge amount of detritus carried by the streams emerging from the glaciated Himalayas during the warm interglacial periods, deposited in the Indo-Gangetic Synclinorium gradually, built the Indus Basin with new drainage pattern and new landforms.

11

Of the physical formations present in the country, none is as impressive as the huge mountain ranges in the north. The three marvelous ranges namely Himalayas, Karakoram and Hindukush, are spectacular in its own way. These stretch like a bow in the north of Pakistan extending into the India, China, Nepal and Bhutan with a total length of 2,500 km. The Himalayas are classified as the youngest mountains of the world. The principal uplift occurred during the middle or late Tertiary period, 12 to 65 million years ago. The Himalayas serve as the divide between Central Asia and South Asia. In Pakistan, they stretch uninterruptedly from the Nanga Parbat (8,126 meters) to the Namch Barwa in Tibet (7,756 meters). The Western Himalayas is situated between Kashmir valley in the East to Indus River in the North and West, and is dominated by Nanga Parbat. Nanga Parbat complex has numerous routes but the prominent base camps are Rupal (Eastern face), Raikot / Fairy Meadows (North Western face), Diamer (the Western face) and the long West Mazeno ridge (www.hussaini.20m.com). The Himalayas have four subregions; Sub-Himalayas or Siwaliks, The lesser Himalayas, The Central or High Himalayas and the Trans Himalayas. The Sub-Himalayas or Siwaliks is a range of low hills with average height varying from 600-1,200 m. The rocks are folded and faulted to produce a most rugged landscape. The Lesser Himalayas lie north of the Siwaliks and rise to 1,800-4,600 m. The rocks in these ranges are metasedimentary and have some granitic intrusions, which are folded, faulted and over thrust. Rawalpindi, Mansehra and Abbotabad Districts form part of this range. The inner ranges are higher and parallel to the High Himalayas and comprise the north west trending Pir Panjal range, which links up with the southwest trending Hazara mountains. The Central or High Himalayas are located north of the lesser Himalayas. The central Himalayas have an average height of about 6,000 m and remain covered by snow throughout the year. The western most part of the High Himalayas within Pakistan is comprised of the Nanga Parbat range. To the north, this range is bounded by the Indus River and to the south by the Kishenganga River (Kaszmi, A. H. and Qasim, M. 1997). The highest mountain of this range in Pakistan is the Nanga Parbat. The Trans-Himalayas including the Karakoram Range are also very high which comprises some of the highest peaks, large glaciers, deepest gorges and canyons of this region. The word 'Karakoram' comes from the Turkish term meaning 'black rock', for where the snow does not cover the mountains, they emerge as dark patches of rock. The Karakoram covers 500 km from the eastern most extension of Afghanistan towards South Asia. The mountains are covered with glaciers that are the longest in this region. Passes at various altitudes cross the mountains. The more commonly used passes are included in Table 2.1. This splendid and magnificent collection of dark brown and black metamorphic rocks is the most unique mountain range. It has the largest concentration of lofty pinnacles and mountains in the world. It is bounded by Shyok River in the East and Karamber, Ishkuman and Gilgit Rivers in the West. In the North East it is bounded by Shaksgam River and in the South West by Shyok and the Indus Rivers. Karakoram is specially 12

characterised by its fissured rocks, gendarme like vertical features and steep slopes presenting great challenge to climbers and adventure seekers. The Karakoram Range has an average height of 6,100 masl north. The range boasts of the greatest concentration of high mountains in the world including K-2 (8,611m) which is the second highest peak in the world. Gasherbrum 1 (8,068m), Broad peak (8,047m) and Rakaposhi (7,788m) are other prominent peaks of this range (Figure 2.3). Four peaks above eight thousand metres i.e., K-2, Gasherbrum I and II and Broad Peak are situated in Karakoram in a radius of just 20 km around the famous glacial junction-Concordia. Table 2.2: The important passes, their location and elevation.
S.No. 1 2 3 4 Passes Babusar Pass Lowari Pass Shandur Pass Mustagh Pass Linking Towns Abbotabad-Gilgit Peshawer-Chitral Chitral-Gilgit Valley Gilgit-Sinkiang (China) masl 4,386 3,118 3,720 5,800

The sub regions of the Karakoram are Boltoro, Soltoro, Lupghar, Ghujerab, Panmah, Aghil, Masherbrum, Saser, Hispar, Siachen, Rimo, Batura, Rakaposhi/Bagrot, and Haramosh. The snow line in this range varies from 4,200 to 4,500 metres during summer. The temperatures in the area are extreme and there is large difference between lowest and highest temperatures during a day. Monsoons do not penetrate in this area. The glaciated area of this region contains some of the world's longest glaciers, such as Siachen glacier. It is said to be the highest battlefield in the world. The other glaciers include Baltoro, Batura, Biafo and Hisper. Karakoram is extremely inaccessible. Mountain passes situated at various altitudes are only open for five to six months during summer (www.hussaini.20m.com). The Hindukush range runs from the western edge of the Pamir Plateau, west of the Karakoram. These form the boundary between Pakistan, Afghanistan and China. Like the other two chains, they also have snow-covered mountains and are crossed by a number of glaciers which are not as well developed as those of the other chains. The highest peaks are Noshak (7,369 meters) and Tirich Mir (7,690 meters). A number of passes cross the mountains, which are Baroghil, Dorah, Shul, Shera Shing and Shingara. They are located in remote and tough dangerous areas and it has been historically impossible to patrol them. The Chitral, Kunar, Punjkora and Swat rivers cross the mountains. In addition to the above three chains, lesser chains of mountains cross the country. The Kabul River separates the northern mountains from the Koh-e-Safaid ranges, which are inclined on an east-west axis.

13

a. The magnificent view of K2

b. Broad Peak at Sunrise

c. Base Camp Gasherbrum I

d. Gasherbrum II from Gasherbrum I

e. Gondoro Peak Ridge

f. Nanga Parbat from Fairy Meadows

Figure 2.3: Some of the important peaks of HKH region of Pakistan. Source: (www.geocities.com/Pentagon/Barracks/9722/Mountains/index.htm)

The Koh-e-Safaid Ranges have an east-west trend and rise to an average height of 3,600 m. They are commonly covered with snow. Sikeram, the highest peak in Koh-e-Safaid Ranges rises to 4,760 m. Similarly, the elevation of Waziristan hills ranges from 1,500 and 3,000 m. Among these, the Khyber Pass is the most important that connects Peshawar in Pakistan to Kabul in Afghanistan.

14

The Sulaiman-Kirthar Mountain Ranges extending from south of Gomal River lie between Balochistan Plateau and the Indus Plains. On reaching the Mari-Bugti Hills, they turn northward and extend up to Quetta. Further south, they meet the Kirthar Mountains, which merge into the Kohistan area of Sindh. The Indus Plains begins at the southern end of the Himalayas and the Salt Range and stretches to the Arabian Sea. It covers an area of nearly 21 M ha. The flat plain is largely made of alluvium, over 300 m deep, deposited by the river Indus and its tributaries, which flow over 1,000 km through the provinces of Punjab and Sindh to the Arabian Sea near Karachi. The Indus Plain comprises the main agricultural areas of the country. Rolling Sandy Plains and Dunes: An extensive area in the southwest of the country is covered with these plains. It is separated from the Indus valley by the dry channels of Ghaggar River. This extensive desert is called Cholistan in the Punjab and Thar in Sindh, which is not drained by any perennial stream. The wind action is dominant in the formation of its topography. A vast expanse of sand plains with dunes dominates the scene. Agriculturally the area has a limited potential. In the south of Pakistan, there are coastal plains stretched along 700 km shoreline from east to west. The Makran coast is comprised of 16-32 km wide coastal plain dotted with several hills and ridges, and is extensively covered with sand dunes. Numerous small streams drain the coastal ranges and transverse the plain. Valleys Of the trans-Indus Basin, there are valleys; Peshawer, Kohat and Bannu in the northwest of Pakistan, among which, Peshawar drained by the Kabul River is the biggest one. In the northern part of the country, Swat, Kaghan, Hunza, Gilgit and Chitral are strikingly beautiful valleys (Figure 2.4). The valley of Swat is linked by road to Islamabad (257 km) as well as by air through the divisional capital at Saidu Sharif. Sparkling streams are abundant amongst thick forests of pine and conifers. The Kaghan valley lies at the northern tip of the Hazara district which is home to the exquisitely beautiful lakes like Saif-ul-Maluk and Lulusar. The valley of Hangu nestles in a sub-range of three prominent hills. The valley of Gilgit lies in a bowl shaped depression and is reached both by air and road. Early accounts of Gilgit and its surroundings have been found in the memoirs of the famous Chinese traveller Fa Hien (399 AD). In Gilgit, there are other famous valleys like Yasin, Ishkuman and Hunza. The Chitral Valley in the northwest is better known for the Kalash tribe, rivers and sulphur springs. In the northeast the Kashmir valley bounded by Pakistan, China and Afghanistan and separated by a strip of Indian land has many interspersed lakes and woodlands.

15

(a) Shimshal Valley under winter snow

(b) The lush green Lalazar, Kaghan valley

(c) The Haramosh Valley

(d) Indus Valley, descending from Thalle La

(e) Chitral Valley and Trich Mir

(f) Village in beautiful Swat Valley

Figure 2.4: Panoramic views of valleys in the northern areas of Pakistan. Source: (www.geocities.com/Pentagon/Barracks/9722/Mountains/index)

16

2.4 SEISMICITY Pakistan is characterized by extensive zones of high seismicity and contains several seismotectonic features generated by an integrated network of active faults. The earliest indication of an active fault associated with earthquakes came in 1892, when the town of Chamen was destroyed and the great Chamen fault was noted for the first time. High seismicity is observed in the collisional mountain ranges where the active faults are common whereas the more sTable Indus platform zone is characterized by relatively low seismicity. Paleo magnetic data show that Indian Eurasia collision was accompanied by a counter clockwise rotation so that the Pamir arc was probably the site of first continentcontinent contact. As the western end has been in contact for a longer time, it has wedged deeper into Eurasia, with steeper subduction and much more intense seismicity (Kaszmi et al. 1984). 2.5 CLIMATE Pakistan is basically a dry country of the warm Temperate Zone. The climate of the area is transitional between that of Central Asia and the monsoonal lands of South Asia, which, varies considerably with latitude, altitude, aspect and localized relief. There is not only high spatial variability but temporal variability is quite high as well. Except for a small strip of sub-tropical terrain in Punjab and the wet zone on the southern slopes of the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges, most of the country is arid or semi-arid steppe land (GOP et al. 1992). In general more than three-fourth of the country has less than 250 mm rainfall (Figure 2.5). There are two distinct rainy periods, one in summer and one in winter. The monsoon rainfall is extensive in period from July to September. The winter is dominated by the westerly fronts originating from Mediterranean region. In the north of the country, most of the precipitation is not only derived from the Indian monsoon but from depressions moving in from the west during the spring and summer as well. The winter snow, glaciers and snowfields start melting from April and continue till July when monsoon sets in.

17

Figure 2.5: Mean annual rainfall of Pakistan.

Agro-climatic Zones The country experiences two distinct seasons namely winter (Rabi) and summer (Kharif). The seasonal aridity and crop growth indices were used to characterize and classify the agro-environments. The aridity index refers to the ratio of 50% probability of rainfall and actual crop evapo-transpiration. The aridity classes ranged from humid to hyper-arid. Based on the seasonal aridity classes, 18 zones were delineated. The crop growth index reflects the temperature availability for crop growth and is estimated as a ratio of growing degree-days available to those required by a particular crop. The crop growth classes defined ranged from deficit to excess. A total of 9 zones were defined by superimposing the seasonal crop growth maps. The annual aridity classes and crop growth classes are shown in Figures 2.6 and 2.7. These two indices contributed to 57 agro-climatic zones in Pakistan. These agro-climatic zones show variability in terms of aridity and crop growth for both the Kharif and Rabi seasons. About 0.117 million sq. km area is characterized as arid zone both in Kharif and Rabi seasons. Generally in this zone the temperature availability is adequate or excess accept for a small portion where it is deficit. A vast tract of 0.27 million sq. km has an arid climate in Kharif with a combination of hyper-arid Rabi. Another belt of 0.14 million sq. km is characterized as hyper-arid in Kharif season with a range of semi-arid to arid Rabi.

18

Figure 2.6: Annual aridity classes of Pakistan.

Figure 2.7: Annual crop growth classes of Pakistan.

19

2.6 NATURAL RESOURCES

Water Resources The snowmelt run-off constitutes a substantial part of water resources of the rivers of Pakistan. The Indus River, primarily supplied by glaciers in its upper reaches, and subject to the least seasonal variation, still has a maximum flow more than fifty times its minimum. The Indus basin irrigation network in Pakistan stretches over an area of 14 M ha (Asim et. al. 2002). The network has three major reservoirs (Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma), 19 barrages or headworks, 12 link canals and 43 canal commands presented in (Figure 2.8). Hydrogeologically whole of the Indus alluvial complex can be treated as a huge, single unconfined aquifer, which is high yielding aquifer with substantial storage capacity (Rathur, 1987). As reported by Gazdar (1987), the aquifer is believed to extend 300 m in depth over most of the area. Rain, rivers and seepage from surface storage reservoirs, canals, watercourses and fields, recharge the aquifer. Zones of saline groundwater are found in the central and lower parts of inter fluvial regions. In the lower Indus Plain particularly in Sind province groundwater quality is poor and in large areas TDS values are greater than 3000 mg L -1 (Ahmad and Chaudhry, 1990). Water logging and salinity are severe problems due to a massive network of irrigation canals, especially, in between the rivers in Punjab. Other methods of irrigation are wells (Persian wheels) in central Punjab and Kareezes in Balochistan. There were 18 small and 97 mini dams until 1991 in the rain-fed areas of Punjab. In addition there are 272,962 private and 15,491 public sector tube wells, which irrigate 3.97 million hectares of land besides supplementing some canal-fed areas in the country. Rivers Five main rivers, namely, the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej flow through the countrys plains. Aided by a number of smaller tributary rivers and streams, these rivers supply water to the entire Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS), which forms the world's largest contiguous irrigation system. The Indus River is about 2,800 km long and 62% of its catchment lies in Pakistan (Shafique and Skogerboe, 1984). Indus system receives a number of tributaries from the west: Kabul, Kurram, Tochi and the Gomal river. The eastern tributaries are Jhelum, Ravi and Sutlej. The five major rivers combine at Panjnad. The swelling of Indus and its tributaries during summer causes floods. Mineral Resources The main economic minerals in Pakistan include Barite, chromite, copper, coal, gypsum, iron ore, limestone, marble, quartz, rock salts, fire clay, etc. Some mediums in small deposits include antimony, asbestos, china clay, gemstones, rock phosphate, manganese, sulphur, gold and silver (Kaszmi et. al. 1984). The large iron ore deposits are found in

20

Kalabagh beside Pezu, Langrial, etc. Gold and silver occurs in association with other minerals in the northern part of the Indus platforms, the Himalayan crystalline zone, Bela ophiolite, Kohistan magmatic arc, Karakoram block and the Chagai magmetic arc. Placer

Figure 2.8: Irrigation system of Pakistan.

deposits occur extensively in the upper reaches of the Chitral, Gilgit, Hunza and Indus rivers. These placers are largely thin pockets of heavy minerals concentration that are removed by floods every summer season and redepositted as the floods recede. Mining of the gold-silver bearing Saindak copper deposits were started 1995 and it is expected that processing of this ore would produce 1.47 tones of gold and 2.76 tones of silver annually. The silver bearing Duddar Lead-Zinc ore is expected to be mined in the near future and a small production of silver is likely. Other minerals of economic importance are limestone, dolomite, marble, silica sand, magnesite and china clay. The first National Mineral Policy was announced on 23rd September, 1995. It aimed at increasing the share of mineral sector in the national economy and reducing the cost of mineral exploration. Soils Pakistan possesses different types of soils, which are varied in composition, color, texture and organic content. These soils can be classified into three major categories as; a) Soils of the Indus Basin, b) Mountain-soils, and c) Sandy desert soils. Soils of the Indus basin include Bangar Soil (Old alluvium), Khaddar Soil (new alluvium) and Indus Delta Soils. Bangar soils are found over a large area of the scalloped interfluves, occupying the central parts of the land between major rivers of the Punjab, the

21

Vale of Peshawar and the Bannu Plains. Khaddar soils are relatively younger and low in organic contents. Delta soils are formed of sub-recent alluvium and estuarine deposits. Mountain-Soils are found over high land areas of northern and western mountains and also the Salt Range. These soils are transported as well as residual. These soils have a light content of organic matter and are humified to deeper depths. Sandy Desert Soils extend over some parts of western Balochistan, Cholistan and Thar Desert. Desert soils include rolling to hilly sandy soils and clayey flood plain soils (Survey of Pakistan, 1997). Forests Pakistans extremes of climate and physiography provide conditions for a rich variety of forest covers. The main types of forest which are recognized under the prevailing ecological conditions include: 1) Alpine Forests 2) Coniferous Forests 3) Sub-Tropical Forests 4) Tropical Thorn Forests 5) Irrigated Plantations 6) Riverain Forests 7) Mangrove/Coastal Forests The Alpine Forests occur in the northern districts of Chitral, Swat, Dir and Kohistan. Because of long severe winters, dwarfed and stunted trees of Silver Fir (Abies webbiana), and Juniper (Juniperus spp.) are present. The Coniferous Forests occur from 1,000 to 4,000 m altitudes. Swat, Dir, Malakand, Mansehra and Abbottabad districts of NWFP, and Rawalpindi districts of the Punjab are the main areas covered with coniferous forests. Fir (Abies spp.) and Spruce (Picea smithiana) occupy the highest altitudes, Deodar (Cedrus deodara) and Blue Pine (Pinus wallichiana), the intermediate heights, and Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii), the lower areas. The Coniferous forests also present in Balochistan hills. The Sub-Tropical Dry Forests are found in Attock, Rawalpindi, Jhelum and Gujrat districts of the Punjab, and in Mansehra, Abbottabad, Mardan, Peshawar and Kohat districts of NWFP up to a height of 1,000 m. In Balochistan, they are confined to the Sulaiman Mountains and other hilly areas. The Tropical Thorn Forests are dominated by xerophytic scrubs which are most widespread in the Punjab plains. They also occupy small areas in southern Sindh and western Balochistan. The Irrigated Plantations were first initiated in 1866 at Changa Manga (Punjab). Today they occupy an area of about 226,000 ha. Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Mulberry (Morus alba), Babul (Acacia nilotica), Eucalyptus and Populus spp. are the common tree species grown in these areas.

22

The Riverain Forests grow in narrow belts along the banks of Indus and its tributaries. They are more commonly found in Sindh and to some extent in the Punjab. Babul (Acacia nilotica), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and Tamarax dioica are the most common species. The Mangrove Forests are located in the Indus delta. However, lack of fresh water has resulted in their stunted growth. Avecennia officanilis is the main species. Wildlife The wildlife is mostly conserved through declaring special protected areas and hot spots in the country. There are three types of protected areas in the country; a) National parks, b) Wildlife Sanctuaries, and c) Game Reserves. National Parks are only meant for recreational purposes where no other activity can take place. In Wildlife Sanctuaries, no hunting is allowed as they have the endangered wildlife species. Game Reserves are areas where hunting is allowed but only in certain months in a year and after obtaining a hunting permit from the Wildlife Department. Although wildlife is fast disappearing from the country but still there are areas especially in the northern mountains inhabited by ibex, brown bear, snow leopard, mountain sheep and musk deer. In the plains and westerly mountainous areas there are found variety of game birds and animals like partridge, jungle fowl, gazelle, hog deer, stag and black buck etc. 2.7 LAND USE The main land uses in the country include forest area in the north and northwest, irrigated agriculture, rain fed agriculture, rangeland and sandy plains. Cultivable area is 24.6 million ha. Another about 12 million ha are under forage and forests (GOP, 1998). In the cropped area, food grains (wheat, rice, sorghum, maize, millets and barley) claim 56% of the area, cash crops (sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, sugar beet and jute) occupy 18%, while the remaining 26% is shared by other crops like pulses, oil seeds, vegetables, condiments etc. The entire country was classified into major land covers by using NOAA Imagery (Figure 2.9 and 2.10). The rangelands including low rangeland of rock outcrops are dominant in the north and western part of the country. Agriculture mainly lies in the irrigated plains of Punjab and Sindh provinces. In the north, the land is mainly under dense forests, some rangeland and snow and glacial covers. 2.8 AGRICULTURE Agriculture in Pakistan dates back to Neolithic times. It formed the base of the wellknown Indus Valley Civilization. Its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has decreased from 52% in 1950-51 to just 24% in 1993-94. This is primarily because of higher growth rates registered by other sectors, particularly, the manufacturing and mining. In spite of the contribution of 25% in GDP the agricultural sector provides job opportunities for 55% of the labor force. It also accounts for 80% of the total export earnings of the country. Livestock sub sector accounts for 34.1 percent of the agricultural value added and 8.3 percent to the GDP (GOP, 1998; Survey of Pakistan, 1997).

23

Within the agriculture sector, irrigation plays a predominant role as it provides 90% of the total wheat production of the country and almost 100% of cotton, sugarcane, rice, fruits and vegetables mainly within 16.4 M. ha of the Indus basin.

Figure 2.9: Landcover of Pakistan.

35%

Water bodies and snow Forest (Coniferous, Scrub and Mangrove) Forest (Riverine and plantation) 16% Agriculture (Irrigated and Rainfed) Rangeland

26% 15% 1% 5% 2%

Sandy desert Barrenlands (Rockoutcrops and Tidal flats)

Figure 2.10: Graph indicating distribution of major land covers in Pakistan.

The agricultural calendar has two main cropping seasons: a) Rabi and b) Kharif. Rabi crops which include wheat, barely, grams, tobacco and oilseeds, are sown in OctoberDecember and harvested in April-May. These have a 55 percent share in the sown area. Kharif crops are sown in April-June and harvested in October-December. They include cotton, sugarcane, rice, maize, jawar, bajra and comprise 45 percent of the sown area. The minor crops include pulses, potatoes, onions, chili and garlic, etc.

24

2.9 Population According to 1998 census results the total population of Pakistan is 130.58 million as against 84.254 millions in 1981 showing an overall percentage increase of 54.9 or an average growth rate of 2.61 percent. The Punjab province has the largest population of 72.58 millions with population density of 353 persons /sq.km. The second largest population lies in Sindh province (29.99 millions) with density of 213 persons /sq.km. The NWFP and Balochistan provinces have population of 17.55 M and 6.51 M with population densities of 236 and 19 persons /sq.km respectively. There are federally administered areas in the country which include capital territory and tribal areas with having an overall population of 3.93 millions (GOP, 2001)

25

26

Chapter 3 Hydro-Meteorology
3.1 RIVER BASINS Out of the six major key basins in Asia and Pacific namely Indus, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Yellow River, Yangtze and Mekong River, the first three falls within the HKH Region. Pakistan lies within the Indus River basin. The Indus River has its farthest sources behind the Himalayan escarpment of the Tibetan Tableland and rises in the north side of the Kailas range in 31 20' N, 82 E near the sources of the Sutlej and San Pro and within 60 miles of the Karnali, farthest head stream of the Ganges. On emerging from the Himalayas, it collects all the southern drainage of the Hindu Kush through the Kabul River, which joins its right bank at Attock. Lower down, it receives the waters of Sulaiman uplands mainly through the Kurram and Gomal Rivers. The chief accession to its volume is from the united waters of Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej all flowing from the western Himalayas and through Panjnad (means five streams) join the mainstream at Mithan Kot. Beyond Panjnad, the united stream receives no further affluent. The rivers descend south towards the Arabian Sea with a combined annual average volume of 178 BCM (for all major rivers) discharged into the Indus Plains. The Indus System Rivers form a link between two great natural reservoirs, the snow and glaciers in the mountains and the groundwater contained by the alluvium in the Indus Plains of the Punjab and Sindh provinces of Pakistan (www.waterinfo.net.pk/fsmd.htm). The tributary rivers also have their origin in the Himalayas and derive their flows mainly from snowmelt and monsoon rains. The Jhelum River rises in Kashmir at a much lower elevation than the source of the Indus River and falls much less rapidly after entering into Pakistani territory. The Chenab River originates in Himachal Pradesh in India at an elevation of over 4,900 masl. It flows through Jammu in Indian-held Kashmir and enters into Pakistani territory upstream of the Marala Barrage. The Jhelum River joins the Chenab River at Trimmu Barrage. Snowfall at higher altitudes (above 2,500 m) accounts for most of the river runoff. The active hydrological zone lies between 2,500 and 5,500 masl, and snowfall in the mountains accounts for a large portion of the total runoff into the river (PSIHP, 1991). Within this zone, snow and glacial melt contribute towards river runoff from March to September. In the upper Indus catchments, the snow line is at an elevation of 5,500 masl; above this elevation its the process of snow accumulation that dominates rather than melting of snow even during the summer months. (www.waterinfo.net.pk/fsmd.htm) The snow and ice melt from the glacial area of the upper Indus catchments supply approximately 80% of the total flow of the Indus River in the summer season. The annual flows in the Kabul River are less than one-third of that in the Indus River. However, the Kabul River starts to rise approximately a month earlier than the Indus River (Trunk River), its flows are of significance for fulfilling the late-Rabi and early-Kharif (March to May) irrigation requirements of the canals. Snowmelt accounts for more than 50% of the flow in the Jhelum River but it is much more dependent than the Indus River for variable

27

monsoon runoff. Both, the Jhelum and Chenab River catchments can simultaneously be influenced by the monsoons. Since the Chenab River rises at higher altitudes, snowmelt accounts for a considerable proportion of its runoff (www.waterinfo.net.pk/fsmd.htm) For hydrological studies, Pakistans northern area is divided into 10 major river basins (Figure 3.1). Clockwise from west, these basins are of the Swat River, Chitral River, Gilgit River, Hunza River, Shigar River, Shyok River, Indus River, Shingo River, Astor River, and the Jhelum River. Most of the snow and ice reserves are concentrated in the mountain ranges lying in these basins. These river basins contain the glaciated part of northern Pakistan, which forms the headwaters of the main Indus basin. 3.1.1 SWAT RIVER BASIN The Swat river network drains parts of the Hindu Kush, Dir, Swat, and Kohistan ranges in the western territory of Pakistan (Figure 3.2). The Swat River contributed by the Panjkora River in the northwest joins the Kabul River near Nowshera in the NWFP. The Swat range has an altitude of about 4,500 to 5,500 masl in the north, which reduces to about 2,000 masl near its southern end, west of Mingora. The upper reaches of the KohistanSwat ranges are mostly covered with snow and glaciers. Historically Swat is the most interesting valley of Pakistan. It is also one of the most beautiful, as it lies in the monsoon belt and is greener and more fertile than the valleys further north. The valley is the land of waterfalls, lakes, Lush green hills and other gifts bestowed upon it by the nature. 3.1.1 SWAT RIVER BASIN The Swat river network drains parts of the Hindu Kush, Dir, Swat, and Kohistan ranges in the western territory of Pakistan (Figure 3.2). The Swat River contributed by the Panjkora River in the northwest joins the Kabul River near Nowshera in the NWFP. The Swat range has an altitude of about 4,500 to 5,500 masl in the north, which reduces to about 2,000 masl near its southern end, west of Mingora. The upper reaches of the KohistanSwat ranges are mostly covered with snow and glaciers. Historically Swat is the most interesting valley of Pakistan. It is also one of the most beautiful, as it lies in the monsoon belt and is greener and more fertile than the valleys further north. The valley is the land of waterfalls, lakes, Lush green hills and other gifts bestowed upon it by the nature.

28

Figure 3.1: The Glaciated River basins of Northern Pakistan.

29

(a) Utrot Valley

(b) Malam Jabba under clouds

(c) Swat River near Kalam Valley Figure 3.2: Valleys and rivers of Swat River basin.

(d) Village in beautiful Swat Valley

In lower Swat the valley is wide and the fields on either side of the river are full of wheat and Lucerne surrounded by fruit orchards; the villages here are prosperous. In upper Swat the narrow river tumbles through pine forests hemmed in by snowcapped mountains. Swat offers some of the best walking trails in Pakistan, as well as excellent fishing and climbing. The excavated archaeological sites here range from prehistoric caves through Aryan graveyards to Buddhist monasteries. Saidu Sharif and Mingora are twin towns. Saidu Sharif is the administrative capital of Swat Division, and Mingora is the district headquarter and main bazar area. Both are located at an elevation of 990 masl. Mingora has been an important trading center for last 2,000 years. Its bazars are worth exploring for semi-precious stones, locally woven and embroidered cloth and tribal jewelry. At Saidu Sharif there is the Swat Museum where one can find the remains of Butkara Stupa, the Wali of Swat's palace, and the tome of the Akund of Swat. Marghazar is a small village at the top of Saidu Valley, 1,287 masl and 13 kilometers from Saidu Sharif. The Saidu stream cascades down off Mount Ilam. At Manglaur, the first town north of Mingora, a metalled road leads off to the right (east), three kilometers to the Jahanabad Buddha and 30 kilometers to Malam Jabba. Miandam is a small summer resort ten kilometers up a steep side valley, and 56 kilometers from Saidu Sharif. Madyan and Bahrain are the popular tourist resort on the Swat River. Bahrain is located at ten kilometers north of Madyan at about 1,400 masl. The bazars of Bahrain, like those of Mingora, Khwazakhela and Madyan, are worth exploring for handicrafts.

30

At Kalam, 29 kilometers from Bahrain, at about 2,000 masl, the valley opens out into a fertile little plain that was probably once the basin of an ancient lake. Just beyond Kalam is the junction of the Ushu and Utrot rivers, which together form the Swat. It is 16 kilometers up the Utrot River to Utrot village, which is about 2,200 masl. The Gabral Valley enters Utrot from the northwest. The Ushu Valley runs northeast from Kalam and offers magnificent views of Mount Falaksir. Lake Mahodand or the Lake of the Fish is about ten kilometers to the north. The Swat valley is blocked by snow above Bahrain in winter, but in summer one can drive up beyond Kalam and from there trek north to either Chitral or Gilgit valley. Swat becomes more and more beautiful as one goes at the higher altitudes. From Khwazakhela the road across the Shangla Pass to the Karakoram Highway (www.geocities.com/swat_pakistan, www.travel-culture.com/pakistan/swat). 3.1.2 Chitral River Basin The river network drains the northwest Hindu Kush-mountains including the main Chitral Valley in the NWFP province of Pakistan. The Chitral River tributaries include Arkari River, Rich Gor River, Yar Khan River, and Mastuj River. The basin is bordered in the north and northwest by Afghanistan and in the east by the Gilgit River basin. The upper reaches of the river basin comprising the Hindu Kush-mountains are mainly covered with perennial snow and glaciers. The Chitral region of the Hindu Kush in Pakistan is one of the most isolated areas of the western end of the Himalayas, and is surrounded by high mountain passes. It is also one of extreme beauty. The remote human communities, which include the Kalash, live in narrow valleys dominated by mountain rivers and natural hazards, and prehistoric sites abound. Chitral's biodiversity is unique, and many of the passes are migration routes between central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The main Chitral valley starts in the north east at an altitude of 3000 masl, and over a distance of 300 km it runs down to 2,000 masl in the SW. The valley is flanked by the High Hindu Kush in the northwest, with altitudes between 5,500 and 7,500 masl and in the southeast by the Hindu Raj, with altitudes up to 7,000 masl. North of Chitral town stands Tirich Mir - at 7,706 masl the highest peak in the Hindu Kush. About 34 % of the Chitral basin lies above 4500 masl (Kamp, 1999). The Yarkhun River in the northeast joins the Laspur River further south near Mastuj to form the Mastuj River. The latter flows south to join the Lutkho River from the west. The Lutkho River is fed by the Tirich Mir glacier. The Mastuj and Lutkho rivers combine to form the Chitral River, which flows, through Chitral Town. At this stage the plain of the Chitral River is 4km wide with cultivated alluvial fans. As the Chitral River flows further south it becomes the Kunhar River and is joined by the Ayun River from the west, which in turn is fed by the narrow rivers of Rumbur, Bumburet and Birir valleys. The Ayun valley is famous for its fertile land and lush green vegetation. The Kunhar River winds its way west into Afghanistan where it joins the Kabul River and eventually re-enters Pakistan and joins the Indus River at the historic city of Attock. The sediments of Chitral reflect a variety of sedimentation environments: glacial, glaciofluvial, fluvial, lacustrine, Aeolian and gravitational. After accumulation, the erosion 31

processes formed six types of terraces: morainic, glacio-fluvial, fluvial, lacustrine, debris and fan terraces. The most frequent type in Chitral is the alluvial fan terrace. A similar classification was also given by Owen (1988a, 1989) for the Karakoram in the east (Kamp, 1999). Huge morainic terraces can be found in Upper Chitral and upper Middle Chitral, testifying to former intense valley glaciations. Agriculture is the main occupation of the Chitralis and irrigation is highly developed with gravity flow channels, sometimes referred to as "siphon irrigation". The winter crops are wheat and barley and the summer crops are maize and rice, with fruit and vegetable. Terracing on steep slopes is normally practiced with small water channels for irrigation. Any land which has less than 45 degrees angle is termed as level land in Chitral, and there is a major problem of soil erosion because of the steep slopes. Water also plays a vital role in the lives of the locals for example water grinding mills, Hydal power generators such as the new Reshun Hydro Power station and the number of mini-hydel power stations (www.gla.ac.uk/ibls/Biosed/linprnov). 3.1.3 Gilgit River Basin The Gilgit River drains the parts of Hindu Kush and the Karakoram ranges in the northern territory of Pakistan. The river basin in the north is bordered with Afghanistan and China. The Gilgit River network comprises of the Ghizar, Yasin, Ishkuman and Hunza River and joins the Indus River near Jaglot (Figure 3.3). The upper reaches of the basin are mostly glaciated and covered with permanent snow.

(a) Yasin Valley in the Gilgit River basin

(b) Naltar Lake, Naltar Valley

(c) Shandur Lake, Shandur Pass Figure 3.3: Lake and valleys of Gilgit River Basin.

(d) Naltar River, Naltar Valley

32

Gilgit has been inhabited for thousands of years by various invaders. From the 1st century Gilgit was like Kashgar, the trade center from all places as its now. From 4th century to 11th century AD, It was under Buddhism influence of Sogdiana dynasty, Kushans Hindu Shahis and later Islam introduce in this area. (www.hgp.com.pk/northpakistan) 3.1.4 Hunza River Basin The Hunza River basin actually forms the sub basin of the Gilgit River but due to its considerable size and importance it is considered as a separate basin. The river drains the Karakoram Mountains comprising of large glaciated area in the north. The Karakoram highway linking Pakistan to China passes across this basin. Part of the road runs along Hunza River and ends near Kunjurab Pass (Figure 3.4). The tributaries joining the Hunza River are Chabursan, Khunjerab, Ghujerab, and Shunsha River. The basin comprises of major valleys and hanging glaciers on the high Karakoram Range. Karimabad, the capital of the Hunza valley, is stretched over miles and miles of terraced fields and fruit orchards. It offers a panoramic view of the Rakaposhi, Ultar and Balimo peaks (www28.brinkster.com/pakistan4ever). Nagar, the large kingdom across the river from Hunza, was possibly first settled by people from Baltistan who arrived over the mountains by walking along the Biafo and Hispar glaciers. It was settled again in about the 14th century by Hunzakuts who crossed the river. A man called Borosh from Hunza supposedly founded the first village of Boroshal, and married a Balti girl he found there. The legend says the girl and her grandmother were the sole survivors of a landslide that killed all the early Balti settlers. Gulmit is shining white and deeply crevassed - just as you would expect a glacier to look. Above the glacier to the left is the jagged line of the Passu and Batura peaks, seven of which are over 7,500 masl. On the opposite side of the river, which can be crossed over a terrifying footbridge, the valley is hemmed in by a half-circle of saw-toothed summits, down the flanks of which slide gray alluvial fans. Passu is a village of farmers and mountain guides 15 kilometers beyond Gulmit. This is the setting-off point for climbing expeditions up the Batura, Passu, Kurk and Lupgar groups of peaks, and for trekking trips up the Shimshal Valley and Batura Glacier. The Passu village is the meeting place for mountaineers and guides (www.mountainleaders.com). Today Hunza is progressing in education, agriculture, orchard, business, small industries automobile, wooden work, building construction, banking, women development programs, health programs, health units as well as first aid posts. In every village, embroidery, handicrafts, carpet industries, mining precious stones etc. has been promoted. The actual changes started after 1978, when the Karakorum highway opened between China and Pakistan. The joint efforts of Aga Khan Network and Government of Pakistan, brought fruitful result to the lives of people of Hunza (www.hgp.com.pk/northpakistan).

33

(a) Hunza River near Pasu from KKH

(d) Khunjerab Pass from Pakistan

(b) Karimabad,Hunza Valley

(c) Suspension foot bridge on Hunza River Figure 3.4: Valleys of Hunza River Basin.

(e) The beautiful Hunza Valley from HKH

34

3.1.5 Shigar River Basin Shigar River is a small right bank tributary of the Indus River. This river rises from the Hispar glacier at the base of the Haramosh and Kanjut Sar peaks in Shigar valley. Thereafter it flows towards the southeast and joins the Indus at Skardu. The Shigar River drains parts of Haramosh range and Masherbrum range in the northeast of the country. The river fed by melting water of large glaciers, joins the main Indus River near Skardu. In the east of the basin there is a tributary named Bro River entering into the Shigar River. An important tributary of the Shigar River rises from the Baltoro glacier at the base of the Masherbrum peak and flows westwards to join the main channel of the Shigar in its middle course. Thus the Shigar system drains the melt-waters of two of the most important glaciers of the Karakoram Range. This river descends along a very steep gradient. Its entire catchment has been influenced by the action of glaciers. The valley is deep in its upper reaches but widens near its mouth. A small river island has formed at the junction of the main stream with the tributary draining the Baltoro glacier. The catchment area of this river is virtually devoid of a vegetative cover due to its high altitude and scarcity of rainfall. Human habitation is sparse (www.mountainleaders.com). Shigar Valley, 32 km from Skardu is watered by the Shigar River. It forms the gateway to the great mountain peaks of the Karakoram, including K-2. The valley has an extremely picturesque landscape, and abounds in fruit such as grapes, peaches, pears, walnuts and apricots. (www.mountainleaders.com). The valley is surrounded by snow-clad peaks and runs down from the north to join the Indus just above Skardu. Raja Fort, Mosque of Amburik and Khanqah-e-Shigar are the famous historical sites in Shigar. (www.baltistantours.com) The inhabitants of Shigar are the decedents of Kirgis, who migrated from China in the region of Yarkand, when it was possible to travel from Baltistan to the North of China as a Karavan via Sinkiang and Kashmir as a trade route. 3.1.6 Shyok River Basin The Shyok River network drains large parts of glacier and snow covered mountains of the Karakoram Range in the northeast of the country. The river basin consists of some of the high mountain peaks of the Karakoram. This river crosses through parts of Laddak and the Karakoram ranges. Shyok River is an important tributary of the Indus River in Ladakh (Figure 3.5). The main stream rises from the snowy wastes on the Despang plains in northern Ladakh, north of the Karakoram Range. The river flows westwards its initial stages, then turns southeast and makes a U-turn near Shyok to flow towards the northwest. It flows into the Indus about 40 km upstream of Skardu. Many tributaries join the Shyok River. Important amongst these are Chang Celmo, Chipshap, Galiwan, Chus, Nubra and Saltoro River. The Saltoro River is a tributary of the Hughe River which, in turn drains into the Shyok. It rises as two main streams from glaciers at the base of the Saltoro Kangri peak in Baltistan. The northwestern main stream flows southeast and then turns southwest to merge with the

35

northeastern main stream flowing towards the northwest. The two main streams join together in the middle course of the river and the Saltoro flows for a short distance before draining into the Hushe River. The entire valley of the Saltoro River has been carved by the action of glaciers. Deposits of moraines brought down by ancient glaciers are found all along the river right from its origin to the mouth. Small tributary snow-fed streams empty themselves into the main river, usually from hanging valleys at different places. The discharge of this river increases in late summer when the snow on the high mountains melts at a very fast rate. The entire catchment area is devoid of a vegetative cover. Human habitation is virtually absent and the tract is bleak and desolate. (www.littletibet.org/rivers.htm) The beautiful Khaplu Valley of the Shyok River is 103 km from Skardu. This valley with lush green corn fields, located at 2,700 masl. There is a sprawling village perched on the slopes of the steep mountains that hem in the river. Khaplu is the gateway to Masharbrum Peak, K7, K6, Namika, Chogolisa for mountaineers and Gondogoro La, Gondogoro Peak, Saraksa glacier, Amin Peak Kanday, Thaley La, Daholi Lake, Kharfaq Lake, Ghangche Lake and Bara Lake for trekkers. Chaqchan Mosque Khaplu is a unique and beautiful historical mosque; founded by Syed Ali Shah Hamdani some 800 years back (www.mountainleaders.com).

(a) A Sunset on Chogoliza in Concordia

Figure 3. 5: Panoramic view of marvelous Concordia and Shyok River.

(b) Boating in Shyok River

36

3.1.7 Indus River Basin The river basin consists of part of the upper Indus basin other than the adjoining river basins mentioned above. The river system drains parts of Kohistan, Karakoram, and Central/High Himalayan ranges including Laddak and Deosai mountains. The river basin lies between Swat River on the west, Gilgit, Hunza on the north, Shigar, and Shyok River on the east and Shingo, Astor, and Jhelum River basins on the southeast side. The basin can be divided into sub-basins-Indus East and Indus West. The major river of this basin-the Indus called Senghe Chhu (the Lion River) in Balti language. The main tributaries of this river in the Ladakh region are Hanle, Gurtang, Shingo and Shigar River. The Indus River flows northwest, dividing the Himalayas from the Karakoram, before being knocked south by the Hindu Kush. The KKH hugs the banks of the Indus for 310 kilometres of its climb north, winding around the foot of Nanga Parbat the western anchor of the Himalayas. The Basin extends over an area of 11, 65,500 km2 and lies in Tibet (China), India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The drainage area lying in India is 321,289 km2, which is nearly 9.8% of the total of the total geographical area of the country. The basin lies in the states of Jammu & Kashmir (193,762 km2), Himachal Pradesh (51,356 km2), Punjab (50,304 km2), Rajasthan (15,814km2), Haryana (9,939 km2) and Union Territory of Chandigarh (114 km2). The upper part of basin lying in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh is mostly comprised of mountain ranges and narrow valleys. In Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan the basin consists of vast plains, which are fertile belt of the country. The principal soil types found in the basin are sub-montane, brown hill and alluvial soils (www.wrmin.nic.in/riverbasin/Indus) Amidst landscape of towering mountains, deep gorges, crashing waterfalls and quiet lakes, Skardu, is situated on the banks of the mighty river Indus, just 8 km above its confluence with the river Shigar (Figure 3.6). Perched at a height of 2,286 masl, Skardu offers a cool and bracing climate. During the summer, Skardu attracts a large number of trekkers and mountaineers from all parts of the world. In fact, the entire region is known as a mountaineers' paradise. Hilal Bagh and Chahar Bagh-the royal garden covered the areas from Mindoq Khan to the present bazaar at Skardu where the newly constructed road crosses the channel. A palace built in marble with towers also stood in the middle of the garden, above the Polo Ground which is called Ghudi Changra. There is only one surviving Buddhist Rock with rock carvings in the Skardu Valley located on Satpara road. Probably the rock carvings and images of Buddha date back to the period of Great Tibetan Empire (www28.brinkster.com/pakistan4ever). About 8 km south of Skardu, lies the Satpara Lake. Surrounded by high glacial mountains, this lake has an island in the middle of its clear waters, which can be reached by boat. The lake is considered ideal for fishing (www.baltistantours.com).

37

About 32 km from Skardu, lie the shimmering waters of the Kachura Lake. In the springtime its banks are adorned by a multitude of colorful flowers, while the trees are laden with peach, apricot and apple blossoms. The lake offers great opportunities for trout fishing.

(a) Indus River in Skardu

(b) Rope above Indus River for crossing

(c) Aerial view of Satpara Lake

(d) Clear waters of Shingrela Lake

Figure 3.6: The mighty Indus River and gorgeous lakes of Indus River basin.

The total length of River Indus in Pakistan is 2,682 Km. The area of the drainage basin of the Indus is of the order of 9.7 x 105 km2 making it the 12th largest among the rivers of the world. Its deltaic area is 3 x 104 km2, ranking it 7th in the world. The annual water runoff is a little under 2 x 1011 m3 per year placing it 10th, and its annual sediment discharge is 2 x 1011 kg per year placing it 6th in the world (www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/indusbasin). The Indus originates in a spring called Singikahad near Mansarwar Lake. The spring is located on the northern side of Himalayan range in Kailas Parbat, Tibet. 3.1.8 Shingo River Basin The Shingo River drains parts of High Himalayan range, including Laddakh - Deosai Mountains. There are small tributaries such as Sagad, Barwahi, Karapchu and Panultukish, Nullah joining the main Shingo River. The basin consists of Deosai plains

38

stretched over a large area and numerous glacial lakes scattered at various places. Deosai Plateau, a treeless wilderness at 4,000 meters lies south of Satpara Lake. The Deosai Plains are 32 km south of Skardu. This plateau is the habitat of the greatly threatened Himalayan Brown Bear and many other wild animals. At an average elevation of 3,500 masl, Deosai is now a National Park and protected area for wildlife. The rolling grassland here supports no trees or shrubs and the area is snow covered for seven months of the year. Spring comes to Deosai in August when millions of wild flowers begin to bloom all over the lush green grassland. This is a time when Deosai looks like a paradise with a landscape full of wild flowers on green rolling hills and crystal clear water streams with snow covered peaks in the background. 3.1.9 Astor River Basin The Astor River basin lies in the eastern side of the Nanga Parbat Mountain. The Astor River drains the snow and glacier covered mountains of Laddakh - Deosai and the High Himalayan range. The elevation of this basin ranges from 2,104 masl to 5,993 masl. Generally the western parts have higher elevation ranges than the eastern parts. Adjacent to the valleys, the slopes are steeper ranging from 20 to 60 (Figure 3.7). Furthermore, the steeper slopes are towards the northwestern part of the basin. The more prevalent slope ranges from <5 to 20. The direction of surface slopes is shown in aspect map in Figure 3.8. Astor River rises in a glacier on the north-facing slopes of the great Himalayan range near the Burzil Pass in the Laddakh region of Jammu and Kashmir. It flows in a northwesterly direction and joins the Indus River soon after it emerges from the main Himalayan gorge a little downstream of Bunji. This river drains the area lying to the east of Nanga Parbat. Many small snow-fed streams originating from different depressions on the great Himalayan range join the Astor River in its short course. Its catchment area consists of Ushaped valleys, glacial moraines, cirques and steep slopes. It is largely devoid of a vegetative cover (www.littletibet.org/rivers.) Astor Valley is situated at the back of Tatupani near Nanga Parbat peak and is prone to quakes. On Wednesday Nov 21, 2002, at 2.31am a strong earthquake, measuring 5.5 on the Richter scale, struck Astor Valley, 120 km south of Gilgit, killing 23 people, including 18 children. The quake also damaged about 60 houses in Mushkin, Hurcho and Dashkin areas of Astor valley, besides injuring over 100 people. The quake also caused landslides along the Karakoram Highway (KKH) at Tatupani. The damages to the glacial lakes, if any, are not reported. Rama Lake is a short walk from Astor and is fed by the Sachen Glacier. Surrounded by green meadows and snowcapped mountains, the lake offers superb reflections of cloud and surrounding peaks (www.geocities.com/altafjasminetours/itineries_for_jeep_safaris).

39

Figure 3.7: Slope Map of Astor River basin.

40

Figure 3.8: Aspect Map of Astor River basin.

41

3.1.10 Jhelum River Basin The Jhelum River basin lies on the south and south west of the Astor River basin which is in the south of Nanga Parbat range. The Jhelum is a large eastern tributary of the Indus. The River network drains parts of the Himalayan range extending into Kashmir valley towards the south. The main tributaries of the Jhelum River are Kunhar and Kishan Ganga rivers. It drains about 2,300 square miles of alluvial lands in the Kashmir Valley and gets water from various important sources including glaciers located in the north of the valley. The river first flows through Dal Lake and then an even bigger lake - Wular Lake, into which it drops coarse grades of sediment. On emergence from the Wular Lake near Baramula at Domel, near Muzaffarabad, the river is joined by its largest tributary, Neelum (earlier called the Kishan Ganga), which drains hilly area lying on the eastern side of the Nanga Parbat. The Neelum drains Himalayan ranges that are perpetually covered by snow and glaciers. In the lower reaches the river flows through mountainous country covered by forests. Five miles below the Domel, the Kunhar, another tributary, joins the River Jhelum, draining the famous Kaghan Valley. One of Kunar's tributaries also flows through the famous Saif-ul-Molook Lake (Figure 3.9). From Domel to Mangla two streams, the Kanshi and Poonch join the River Jhelum. The Kanshi is a floodwater stream draining eroded areas of the Jhelum and Rawalpindi districts. This stream carries mainly monsoon rain or seepage water. The Poonch is an important stream joining the Jhelum at Tangrot, about seven miles above Mangla. The site where the two rivers meet used to be a famous fishing spot but now lies within the storage area of the Mangla Dam. The Poonch drains the southern sides of Pir Panjal, which stays snow bound during winter. Its catchment area is partly covered by forests. The river flows through hilly country for its entire length and drains the areas of Poonch, Kotli and Mirpur. The discharge and sediment load of various tributaries of Jhelum River are presented in Table 3.1. The Mangla Dam has been constructed near the head regulator of Upper Jhelum Canal. From Mangla down to Rasul, several floodwater streams drain into the Jhelum. The Jhelum River Basin comprises of some dense forest covers mainly due to the monsoonal effect in this area. The mountains, dales, lakes, water-falls, streams and glaciers of Kaghan Valley are still in unbelievable pristine state, and unspoiled paradise. The valley extends for 155 km. rising from an elevation of 2,134 masl to its highest point, the Babusar Pass, at 4,173 masl. Kaghan is at its best in the summer months (May to September). In May the maximum and minimum temperatures are 11 C and the 3 C respectively. From the middle of July up to the end of September, the road beyond Naran, snow-bound throughout the winter, is open right up to Babusar Pass. (www.littletibet.org/rivers.htm).

42

Figure 3.9: View of Saiful Maluk lake and Kaghan valley.

Table 3.1: Important tributaries, their discharge and sediment load.

Tributary Neelum Kunhar Kanshi Poonch Kahan Discharge (MAF) 6.1 2.0 0.36 2.0 0.037 Sediments (Acre-ft/year) 5,224 2,861 293 5,678 425

3.2 CLIMATE The Karakoram-Himalayan region lies in an environment that is glaciological complex with high altitude source areas (above 4,500 masl) having permafrost and annual precipitation in excess of 2,000 mm. Some of the large glacier snouts extend down to semi-arid valley floors (2,700 masl) with an annual precipitation of less than 100-200 mm. Table 3.2 indicates the monthly and annual rainfall recorded at various stations in the northern areas (NACS 2001). The maximum annual rainfall is received in Astor basin followed by Skardu. The areas towards the north receive less rain. In a study to see the correlation among climatic parameters and the potential for the floods (Awan 2002) it was concluded that at an elevation of about 3,000 m, solid and liquid precipitation are about equal over a year. Seasonal proportion of rainfall differs from Outer to Greater Himalayas, with 60% during the monsoon season on the windward outer Himalayas and 35% on the Greater Himalayas (windward). For the outer Himalayas, more rainfall is received on the leeward side, except during the Monsoon season, while on the windward side the precipitation decreases at elevations over 600 masl. In the middle Himalayas rainfall on the windward side increases with elevation up to a certain altitude (varying from 1600 masl to 2200 masl depending on season) and then decreases. Rainfall on the

43

leeward side is lower and has a maximum at about the same elevation range as the windward side. Snowfall increases linearly with elevation on the windward side to a maximum of 950 mm at 2,500 masl, but on the leeward side it first increases and then

Table 3.2: Mean rainfall of selected locations of the Northern Areas (average of 1960-90).
Months January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual Mean Rainfall (mm) Astor 35.2 49.4 82.6 87.1 71.2 19.8 21.0 23.5 18.5 30.0 13.6 25.8 477.7 Bunji 4.2 6.1 16.2 22.9 28.7 7.2 14.5 18.4 8.8 10.7 2.6 4.0 144.4 Chilas 8.4 12.7 30.0 31.9 27.7 7.6 11.6 12.4 3.0 12.8 4.0 11.1 173.2 Gilgit 4.0 6.0 12.6 23.0 25.3 6.1 15.6 15.5 6.5 8.4 1.8 4.1 129.0 Gupis 5.2 6.7 9.2 20.4 24.0 8.2 11.4 15.8 8.5 3.8 1.3 4.4 118.9 Skardu 21.0 24.3 40.3 26.3 26.4 8.8 9.1 10.5 7.1 10.4 6.4 13.7 204.2

Source: Northern Area Conservation Strategy (NACS), 2001.

decreases. Total precipitation is significantly less on the leeward side. Monthly, seasonal and annual totals and seasonal distribution at Gilgit, Gupis and Bunji are very similar. These stations also receive amounts very similar to Skardu and Chilas during the period from April to September, but Skardu and Chilas receive significantly greater rainfall during the winter months. The Karakoram alpine glaciers are amongst the steepest in the world and they extend through a wide range of climatic environments. In this semi-arid environment, the summer temperature is frequently in excess of 25C. Most of the precipitation is not derived from the Indian monsoon but from depressions moving in from the west during the spring and summer. However, occasional monsoon disturbances do succeed in extending sufficiently far north so as to enter the area. Under such circumstances the precipitation levels increases substantially. The maximum normal temperature of 33.2 C is at Chilas whereas a temperature of 20.8 C is found at Astor (Table 3.3). The minimum normal temperatures at Astor and its nearby station Bunji is 2.8 C and 4.5 C respectively. The Gupis has the lowest

44

minimum temperature of 0.91 C. The mean temperature in the Northern glacieated area of the country is shown in Figure 3.10.

Table 3.3: The minimum and maximum temperature of selected stations in northern areas of Pakistan
Location Gupis Gilgit Chilas Bunji Astore Skardu Temperature (C) Minimum Maximum 0.91 22.55 6.00 27.30 5.80 33.25 4.55 30.75 2.83 20.88 2.22

Figure 3.10: Mean Temperature of January in Northern Areas of Pakistan. Source: Pakistan Germany Technical Cooperation WAPDA/GTZ Kiel March 1996

45

3.2.1 Altitudinal Zones in the Northern Mountain Region The spectacular vertical relief of the Karakoram-high Himalayan range has resulted in well-defined altitudinal zones each with its characteristic microclimate, geological processes, geomorphic features, and landforms. Hewitt (1989) has delineated four altitudinal zones in this region. Zone: I This zone lies above 5,500 masl altitude with 90% of its area under snow. It contains active glaciers. Erosion and land degradation is mainly due to rock fracture from frost action and extreme variation in diurnal temperature. There are frequent avalanches and rock falls. The summits form the glacial divide with sharp ridges, horns, spires, and pinnacles. Zone: II This zone lies between 4,500 masl and 5,500 masl altitude. It comprises of high, alpine, humid tundra and includes the upper and middle ablation zones. It has a heavy snowfall period of 6-10 months and a shorter summer. Abundant mechanical weathering and rock fragmentation occur resulting in avalanches, rock falls, and debris flow. Zone: III This zone extends between 3,000 and 4,000 masl altitude and has sub alpine features with seasonal droughts, cold sub-humid winters, warm summers, rare grassy meadows, and clumps of alpine trees. Mechanical rock weathering and per glacial processes are common features with glacial ablation, snow melt runoff, glacial lakes, glacial debris, talus cones, rock falls, and land slides. Glaciers are located in this zone and they are covered with thick rock debris. Sharp narrow and transverse ridges and intervening valleys having wide U-shaped sections characterise this zone. Zone: IV It covers an area between 1,000 to 3,000 masl altitudes and is climatically arid to semi arid, with hot summers and frequent droughts. It is comprised of mountain valleys and basins, which are in a continuous state of degradation resulting from Para glacial, fluvial, and lakebed deposits. These deposits have formed along the wider stretches of valley flanks. The upper parts of the valleys exhibit U-shaped glaciated valley floor and glaciers descending from tributary valleys often have their snouts close to the confluence with main streams. In the lower reaches this zone contains abundant defiles, gorges, and canyons.

46

3.2.2 Glaciers Velocity and Fluctuations Due to great thickness of ice, the deeper parts of the glaciers are at or close to 0 C and they behave like temperate glaciers. Owing to relatively high activity indices, these glaciers have a relatively high flow rates ranging from 100 to 1,000 m/yr (Goudie et al. 1984).Velocities of some of the selected glaciers of Karakoram are shown in Table 3.4. Historical record of glacier fluctuations in the Himalayas and the Karakoram indicate that in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the glaciers were generally advancing followed by predominant retreat during 1910-1960 (Mason 1930 and 1935 and Goudie et al. 1984). In the study of glacier behavior since 1812 A.D., Mayewski et al. (1980) found that the advancing glaciers flow most commonly eastward, southeastward, northeastward, and northward and that advance is rare in glaciers flowing south and west. High summer radiation and steep barren slopes control the glacier ablation patterns. The maximum radiation balance measured on Batura glacier was over 27.9 MWm-2 (Zhang Jinhua et al., 1980). It is estimated that melting accounts for 80% of the heat loss whereas only 20% is due to evaporation and convection (Goudie et al. 1984).

Table 3.4: Velocities of selected Karakoram glaciers.

Glaciers Velocity (m/yr) Glaciers Baltoro 300 Hasanabad Batura 1,000 Kutiah Biafo 19 Minapin Chogglungma 296-366 Pasu Fedehenko 169 Zemu Ghulkm 117 Source: Wadia 1957 and Goudie et al. 1984 Velocity (m/yr) 329-449 80-216 350-645 157 84

In a study, Hewitt (1998) observed in detail the behavior of glacier surges of Chiring glacier of Karakoram. Between 1994 and 1996 catastrophic movement of 16-km-long Chiring Glacier transferred 1-1.5 km3 of ice from its upper two thirds to its lower third, and into the main Panmah Glacier of which it is a tributary. By October 1996, a lobe of Chiring ice some 3.2 km2 in area had entered and compressed the main glacier, which was severely disturbed for 3 km above and 5 km below the junction of the glaciers. Ice streams and medial moraines were pushed into a series of looped or "tear-drop" forms, well-known in surging glaciers. Despite an observational record back to 1856, this type of glacier surge was not previously recognized. In the last 100 years, 26 sudden, rapid advances have been reported involving 17 glaciers (Hewitt, 1969). 3.2.3 Surges and Climate Change Five confirmed and three other possible tributary surges in Karakoram have occurred in the past decade. Whether this number is really exceptional or an artifact of improved observation, it raises important questions of interpreting glacier fluctuations and their normally sensitive response to climate change. The Karakoram is of unusual interest and perhaps sensitive to climate change, since its glaciers lie within the variable influence of

47

three major weather systems: the sub-Mediterranean regime of mainly winter, westerly storms; the summer monsoon; and the Tibetan anticyclone. Winter storms dominate glacier nourishment at present. However, nearly one third of the high-elevation snow accumulation which has been measured occurs in summer (Hewitt, 1990). It has been argued that general patterns of advance and retreat in the region relate to changing vigor of the summer monsoon (Mayewski et al., 1980). The possibility of such large shifts in the atmospheric sources, regime, and seasonal occurrence of glacier nourishment, does not seem to be a factor in other regions with surging glaciers. This seems to be a further reason to give more attention to surging glaciers in a relatively neglected region. 3.3 HYDROLOGY The Karakoram and Himalayan mountains form the main source of snow and ice melt runoff to the Indus River System. The precipitation enhancing and shadowing effects of the main mountain ranges provide dramatic contrasts that greatly complicate the hydrological picture. Snowmelt predominates the south of the Himalayan crest. The Indus and its tributaries form the main drainage in the Karakoram-High Himalayan region. East to west, its main tributaries are Shyok, Shigar, Hunza, Astor, Gilgit, Ishkuman, Yasin, Ghizer, Yarkhun, Rich Gol, Arkari, Kunar, Panjkora, and Swat rivers. The Astor River flows in the northwest direction and joins Indus River just north of Nanga Parbat range. 3.3.1 Runoff The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) have gauged the flow of the upper Indus since the early 1960s, at a string of flood monitoring stations upstream of Terbela. The gauging station on the Indus River at Partab Bridge just below the confluence of the Gilgit River covers the runoff of 142,700 km2 catchment including the whole of the Karakoram mountains except for their NE slopes draining to the interior basins in western China. WAPDA also operates gauging stations on the upper Indus at Kachura near Skardu south of the central Karakoram; on the Shyok River, which drains the eastern Karakoram; on the Hunza River at Dainyor Bridge near Gilgit in the western Karakoram; and on the Gilgit River just downstream of its confluence with the Hunza. The data of Table 3.5 show a marked spatial variation in the annual runoff and sediment yield. The Batura is the first of a series of large glacier-fed tributaries of the Hunza River, which increase its annual runoff from 320 mm above the Batura confluence of 5,000 km2 to a mean of 910 mm during 1966-79 near Gilgit (catchment 13,200 km2). The other gauged catchments in the Karakoram region have lesser percentages of permanent snow and ice cover and correspondingly lower annual runoff depths (Goudie et al. 1984). The monthly stream regimes throughout the Karakoram show very strong summer peaks attributing to glacier melt. Discharge decreases progressively throughout autumn and winter to a minimum in March, begins to rise with April snowmelt, but does not peak until July or August. A clear but considerably lagged diurnal cycle is interrupted by sharp recessions when snowfall or prolonged cloud cover halts glacier ablation. The general 20th century movements of the Karakoram glaciers must also have affected runoff but no attempt has been made to quantify this. The river flow is affected by the creation of major natural dams as a consequence of either glacial, mudflow or landslide blocking (Goudie et al. 1984).

48

3.3.2 Sediment Yield A considerable amount of the sediments carried by the Indus River is derived from glaciers or debris flow in the catchment. During the winter months, the Himalayan Rivers transport relatively fine suspended load. During this period there is little deposition of sediments on the flood plains. During the monsoon floods, large quantities of sediments are deposited on the flooded areas of the plain and vast tracts of land along the riverbeds. There are number of factors, which ensure that large quantities of material are delivered to the trunk stream for evacuation from the area. These include: (a) the glaciated nature of the catchment (b) the limited vegetation cover, (c) the steep relief, (d) the fractured and distorted nature of the bedrock, (e) the efficacy of frost and salt weathering, (f) the presence of an easily eroded store of Pleistocene debris, (g) the frequency and magnitude of landslides, mudflows, avalanches, etc. (Goudie et al. 1984). Table 3.5: Annual runoff and suspended sediment load from Rivers of Karakoram Range.
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 River and site of measurement Hunza (Dainvor Bridge) Gi1git (Gilgit Town) Gilgit (Alam Bridge) Shyok (Yugo) Indus (Kachura) Indus (Partab Bridge) Record Period 1966-75 1963-72 1966-75 1973-75 1970-75 1963-75 Catchment area (km2) 13,200 12,100 26,200 3,3700 112,700 142,700 Runoff m3s-1 mm a-1 380 280 700 310 960 1760 910 740 840 290 270 390 Sediment load/yr Mt t.km-2 63 14 70 34 87 160 4800 1100 2700 1000 770 1100

Source: WAPDA 1976; converted to SI units

49

50

Chapter 4 Materials and Methodology

The basic materials required for the compilation of an inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes are high quality topographic maps and remote-sensing data. The remote sensing data of land observation satellite Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) are used for the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes and the identification of potentially dangerous glacial lakes. The combination of digital satellite data and the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the area are also used for better and more accurate results for the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Three dimensional view of the northern glaciated area of Pakistan.

4.1 TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS The glaciers and glacial lakes are mostly concentrated in the north. The river basin boundary and spatial distribution of glaciers and glacial lakes were identified from the satellite images and supplemented with the available topographic maps at scales of 1:500,000, 1:250,000 and 1:50,000. The sheet numbers of topographic maps used for analysis of all the ten river basins are given in Table 4.1. The topographic maps are the map series of the 1960s published by the Survey of Pakistan. These topographic maps are based on aerial photographs, field surveys at various times, and verification through large-scale top sheets.

51

Table 4.1: List of Topographic Maps used in the Study.

Grid Map (NIMA) 1:500,000 scale Go7a Go7d Go6b Longitude (Degree) 74- 81 74-81 67-74 Latitude (Degree) 36-40 32-36 36-40 Map Sheet 1:250,000 scale 42L, P 43I, J, M, N; 52A, E 42D, H Map Sheet 1:50,000 scale 43 I/1, 5, 9 42D/4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16; 38 M/13, 14, 15, 16; 37 P/16; 38 N/11, 12, 14, 15, 16; 43 A/1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; 43 B/1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; 43 F/1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14;

Go6c

67-74

32-36

38M, N; 43A, B, E,F

The detail projection parameter of the map is not available and, on the other hand, the digital topographic map (ARC digitized Raster Graphics (ADRG) published in January 1996 by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) and Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) of the U.S. Government at the scale of 1:500,000 with detail projection parameter are used in the geo-reference of the satellite images (Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2: Sub-set of a digital topographic map (ARC Digitized Raster Graphics) of the basins under investigation published in January 1996 by NIMA and DMA of the U.S. Government.

52

4.2 SATELLITE IMAGE The remote sensing data of Landsat-7 ETM+ have been used for the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes. The image data are in digital format and have a pixel size of 15m and 30m. Thirteen full or partial scenes of Landsat-7 ETM+ are required to cover the glaciated part of Northern Pakistan (Figure 4.3). For analysis of all the ten river basins, eleven scenes of Landsat-7 of period 2000 - 2001 were used in the ILWIS software (Table 4.2). The mosaic of Landsat-7 images covering the glaciated region of Pakistan is shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.3: Index map of Landsat-7+ ETM scenes of northern Pakistan.

Table 4.2: The Details of Landsat-7 ETM+ Scenes (2000-2001).

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Path 148 148 149 149 149 150 150 150 151 151 151 Row 035 036 034 035 036 034 035 036 034 035 036 Date 21-07-2001 18-05-2001 30-09-2001 30-09-2001 30-09-2001 07-10-2001 07-10-2001 07-10-2001 28-09-2001 09-09-2000 28-09-2001

53

Figure 4.4: Mosaic of Landsat-7 ETM+ images of the northern glaciated region of Pakistan.

4.3 INVENTORY METHOD The methodology for mapping and inventory of the glaciers is based on instructions for compilation and assemblage of data for the World Glacier Inventory (WGI), developed by the Temporary Technical Secretary (TTS) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich (Muller et al. 1977). The methodology for the inventory of glacial lakes is based on that developed by the Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Geocryology, the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, and the Nepal Electricity Authority (LIGG/WECS/NEA. 1988). The inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes has been systematically carried out for the drainage basins on the basis of topographic maps and satellite images. The following sections describe details of the methodologies used for inventory of both glaciers and glacial lakes. 4.3.1 Inventory of Glaciers The glacier margins are delineated on the geo-referenced Landsat-7 ETM+ of panchromatic mode and compared with other individual bands as well as in different color composite bands, and the exact boundaries between glaciers and seasonal snow cover are delineated. The coding system is based on the subordinate relation and direction of river progression according to the World Glacier Inventory. The descriptions of attributes for the inventory of glaciers are given below.

54

Numbering of Glaciers The lettering and numbering start from the mouth of the major stream and proceed clockwise round the basin. The inventory of glaciers is carried out throughout the ten basins separately. Registration of snow and ice masses All perennial snow and ice masses are registered in the inventory. Measurements of glacier dimensions are made with respect to carefully delineated drainage area for each ice stream. Tributaries are included in main streams when they are not differentiated from one another. If no flow takes place between separate parts of a continuous ice mass, they are treated as separate units. Delineation of visible ice, firn, and snow from rock and debris surfaces for an individual glacier does affect various inventory measurements. Marginal and terminal moraines are also included if they contain ice. The inactive Ice apron, which is frequently found above the head of the Valley Glacier, is regarded as part of the Valley Glacier. Perennial snow patches of large enough size are also included in the inventory. Rock glaciers are included if there is evidence of large ice content. SnowLine In the present study, the snow line specially refers to the firn line of a glacier, not the equilibrium line. The elevation of the firn line of most glaciers was not measured directly but estimated by indirect methods. For the regular Valley and Cirque glaciers, from the topographical maps, Hosss method (i.e., studying changes in the shape of the contour lines from convex in the ablation area to concave in the accumulation area) was used to assess the snow line. Accuracy Rating Table The accuracy rating Table proposed by Muller et al. 1977 on the basis of actual measurements (Table 4.3) is used in the present study. For the snow line an error range of 50100m in altitude is entered as an accuracy rating of 3. In the glacier inventory, different methods or a combination of methods are usually chosen for comparison with satellite images in order to assess the elevation of the firn line for different forms of glacier. Table 4.3: Accuracy rating adopted from Muller et al. 1977.
Index 1 2 3 4 5 Area/length (%) 05 510 1015 1525 >25 Altitude (m) 025 2550 50100 100200 >200 Depth (%) 05 510 1020 2030 >30

55

Mean Glacier Thickness and Ice Reserves The data based on different geophysical techniques available for the measurement of glacial ice thickness in the northern parts of Pakistan are available for only selected glaciers. Such information is not available for most of the glaciers in these areas. Measurements of glacial ice thickness in the Tianshan Mountains, China, show that the glacial thickness increases with the increase of its area (LIGG/WECS/NEA 1988). The relationship between ice thickness (H) and glacial area (F) was obtained there as: H = 11.32 + 53.21 F0.3 This formula has been used to estimate the mean ice thickness of the glaciers. The ice reserves are estimated by mean ice thickness multiplied by the glacial area. Muller et al. 1977 roughly estimated the ice thickness values for Khumbu Valley using the relationship between glacier type, form, and area (Table 4.4). The same method was used by WECS to calculate the thickness values for Rolwaling Valley. Table 4.4: Relationship between glacier type, form, area, and depth given by Muller et al. 1977.
Glacier type Form Compound basin Valley Glacier Compound basins Area (km2) 110 1020 2050 50100 15 510 1020 2050 50100 15 510 1020 01 12 25 510 1020 Depth (m) 50 70 100 120 30 60 80 120 120 40 75 100 20 30 50 90 120

Simple basins

Mountain Glacier

Cirque

According to Muller et al. 1977, the mean depth can be estimated with the appropriate model developed for each area by local investigators. For example, the following model was used for the Swiss Alps:

where h is the mean depth, F is the total surface area, and a and b are arbitrary parameters that are empirically determined. The measured depth is shown on the data sheet only if

56

the depths of large parts of the glacier bed are known from literature and field measurements. Area of the Glacier The area of the glacier is divided into accumulation area and ablation area (the area below the firn line). The area is given in square kilometers. The delineated glacier area is digitized in the Integrated Land and Water Information Systems (ILWIS) format and the database is used to calculate the total area. Length of the glacier The length of the glacier is divided into three columns: total length, length of ablation, and the mean length. The total (maximum) length refers to the longest distance of the glacier along the centerline. The mean value of maximum lengths of glacier tributaries (or firn basins) is the mean length. Mean width The mean width is calculated by dividing the total area (km2) by the mean length (km). Orientation of the glacier The orientation of accumulation and ablation areas is represented in eight cardinal directions (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW). Some of the glaciers are capping just in the form of an apron on the peak, which is inert and sloping in all directions, and is represented as open. The orientations of both the areas (accumulation and ablation) are the same for most of the glaciers. Elevation of the Glacier Glacier elevation can be divided into highest elevation (the highest elevation of the crown of the glacier), mean elevation (the arithmetic mean value of the highest glacier elevation and the lowest glacier elevation), and lowest elevation. The glaciers identified and mapped in the satellite images are not mapped in the available topographic map and hence in this study the elevation of the glaciers is not considered. Morphological Classification The morphological matrix-type classification and description is used in the study. It was proposed by Muller et al. 1977 for the TTS to the WGI. Each glacier is coded as a sixdigit number; the six digits being the vertical columns of Table 4.5. The individual numbers for each digit (horizontal row numbers) must be read on the left-hand side. This scheme is a simple key for the classification of all types of glaciers all over the world. Each glacier can be written as a six-digit number following Table 4.5. For example, 520110 represents 5 for a Valley Glacier in the primary classification, 2 for compound basins in Digit 2, 0 for normal or miscellaneous in frontal characteristics in Digit 3, 1 for even or regular in longitudinal profile in Digit 4, 1 for snow and/or drift 57

snow in the major source of nourishment in Digit 5, and 0 for uncertain tongue activity in Digit 6. Table 4.5: Classification and description of glaciers.
Digit 1 Primary classification 0 Uncertain or miscellaneous sheet Digit 2 Form Uncertain or miscellaneous basins Compound basin Simple basin Cirque Niche Expanded foot Lobed Calving Confluent Hanging Cascading Ice fall Interrupted Digit 3 Digit 4 Digit 5 Digit 6 Frontal Longitudinal Major source of Activity of characteristic profile nourishment tongue Normal or Uncertain or Uncertain or Uncertain miscellaneous miscellaneous miscellaneous Piedmont Even: regular Snow and/or drift snow Avalanche and/or snow Superimposed ice Marked retreat Slight retreat Stationary Slight advance Marked advance Possible surge Known surge Oscillating

1 Continental ice Compound 2 Ice field 3 Ice cap 4 Outlet glacier 5 Valley Glacier

6 Mountain Glacier Crater 7 Glacieret and

snow field Ice apron Group Remnant

8 Ice shelf 9 Rock glacier

The details for the glacier morphological code values according to TTS are explained below: Digit 1. Primary Classification 0 1 2 Miscellaneous: Any not listed. Continental ice sheet: Inundates areas of continental size. Ice field: More or less horizontal ice mass of sheet or blanket type of a thickness not sufficient to obscure the sub-surface topography. It varies in size from features just larger than glacierets to those of continental size. Ice cap: Dome-shaped ice mass with radial flow. Outlet glacier: Drains an ice field or icecap, usually of Valley Glacier form; the catchment area may not be clearly delineated (Figure 4.5a).

3 4

58

Valley Glacier: Flows down a valley; the catchment area is in most cases well defined. Mountain Glacier: Any shape, sometimes similar to a Valley Glacier, but much smaller; frequently located in a Cirque or Niche. Glacieret and snowfield: A glacieret is a small ice mass of indefinite shape in hollows, river beds, and on protected slopes developed from snow drifting, avalanching and/or especially heavy accumulation in certain years; usually no marked flow pattern is visible, no clear distinction from the snowfield is possible, and it exists for at least two consecutive summers. Ice shelf: A floating ice sheet of considerable thickness attached to a coast, nourished by glacier(s), with snow accumulation on its surface or bottom freezing (Figure 4.5b). Rock glacier: A glacier-shaped mass of angular rock either with interstitial ice, firn, and snow or covering the remnants of a glacier, moving slowly downslope. If in doubt about the ice content, the frequently present surface firn fields should be classified as glacieret and snowfield.

Fig. 4.5a: Outlet

Figure 4.5b: Ice shelf

Figure 4.5: Primary Classification of glaciers. Digit 2 Form 1 Compound basins: Two or more tributaries of a Valley Glacier, coalescing (Figure 4.6a) Compound basin: Two or more accumulation basins feeding one glacier (Figure 4.6b) Simple basin: Single accumulation area (Figure 4.6c). Cirque: Occupies a separate, rounded, steep-walled recess on a mountain (Figure 4.6d)

3 4

59

Niche: Small glacier formed in initially a V-shaped gully or depression on a mountain slope (Figure 4.6e) Crater: Occurring in and /or on a volcanic crater Ice apron: An irregular, usually thin ice mass plastered along a mountain slope Group: A number of similar ice masses occurring in close proximity and too small to be assessed individually Remnant: An inactive, usually small ice mass left by a receding glacier

6 7

Figure 4.6a: Compound basins

Figure 4.6b Compound basin

Figure 4.6c Simple basin

Figure 4.6d: Cirque

Figure 4.6e: Niche

Figure 4.6: Different forms of glaciers.

Digit 3 Frontal Characteristics 1 Piedmont: Ice field formed on low land with the Lateral Moraine expansion of one or the coalescence of several glaciers (Figures 4.7a and b) Expanded foot: Lobe or fan of ice formed where the lower portion of the glacier leaves the confining wall of a valley and extends on

60

to a less restricted and more level surface. Lateral Moraine expansion markedly less than for Piedmont (Figure 4.7c) 3 Lobed: Tongue-like form of an ice field or Ice cap (see Figure 4.7d) Calving: Terminus of glacier sufficiently extending into sea or occasionally lake water to produce icebergs Confluent: Glaciers whose tongues come together and flow in parallel without coalescing (Figure 4.7e)

Figure 4.7a: Piedmont

Figure 4.7b: Piedmont

Figure 4.7c: Expanded

Figure 4.7d Lobed

Figure 4.7e Confluent

Figure 4.7: Different frontal characteristics of glaciers.

Digit 4 Longitudinal Profile 1 Even /regular: Includes the regular or slightly irregular and stepped longitudinal profile. Hanging: Perched on a steep mountain slope, or in some cases issuing from a steep hanging valley. Cascading: Descending in a series of marked steps with some crevasses and seracs. Ice fall: A glacier with a considerable drop in the longitudinal profile at one point causing a heavily broken surface.

61

Interrupted: Glacier that breaks off over a cliff and reconstitutes below.

Digit 5 Major Source of Nourishment The sources of nourishment could be uncertain or miscellaneous (0), snow and/or drift snow (1), avalanche and/or snow (2), or superimposed ice (3) as indicated in Table 4.4.

Digit 6 Activity of Tongue A simple-point qualitative statement regarding advance or retreat of the glacier tongue in recent years, if made for all glaciers on earth, would provide the most useful information. The assessment of an individual glacier (strongly or slightly advancing or retreating etc.) should be made in terms of the world picture and not just that of the local area. However, it seems very difficult to establish the quantitative basis for the assessment of the tongue activity. A change of frontal position of up to 20m per year might be classed as slight advance or retreat. If the frontal change takes place at a greater rate it would be called marked. Very strong advances or surges might shift the glacier front by more than 500m per year. Digit 6 expresses qualitatively the annual tongue activity. If observations are not available on an annual basis then an average annual activity is given. Moraines: Two digits to be given. Digit 1: moraines in contact with present-day glacier. Digit 2: moraines further downstream. 0 no moraines 1 terminal moraine 2 Lateral Moraine and/or medial moraine 3 push moraine 4 combination of 1 and 2 5 combination of 1 and 3 6 combination of 2 and 3 7 combination of 1, 2, and 3 8 debris, uncertain if morainic 9 moraines, type uncertain or not listed. Remarks: The remarks can, for instance, consist of the following information:

Critical comments on any of the parameters listed on the data sheet (e.g., how close is the snow line to the firn line, comparison of the year concerned with other years). Special glacier types and glacier characteristics which, because of the nature of the classification scheme, are not described in sufficient detail (e.g., melt structures, glacier-dammed lakes). Additional parameters of special interest to the basins concerned (e.g., area of altitudinal zones, inclination, etc).

62

It is often useful to divide the snow line into several sections (because of different exposition or nourishment). In such cases, the snow line data of each section can be recorded separately. Literature on the glacier concerned. Any other remarks

The inventory database form (see Annex) used for compilation of the inventory of glaciers includes map/satellite codes, aerial photographs, and basin numbers, as well as the glacier parameters described above. 4.3.2 Inventory of Glacial Lakes The glacial lakes on satellite image of Landsat-7ETM+ of panchromatic mode, other individual bands and different colour combinations are delineated and compared with other satellite images and data sources. The descriptions of attributes for the inventory of glacial lakes based on LIGG/WECS/NEA. 1988 and Mool et al. (2001a) are given below: Numbering of Glacial Lakes The glacial lakes in the river basin are identified and demarcated using the spectral and spatial characteristics of the image data supplemented with the topographic maps. The global climatic change during the first half of the twentieth century had a tremendous impact on the high mountainous glacial environment. Many of the big glaciers melted rapidly and gave birth to a large number of glacial lakes. Due to the faster rate of ice and snow melting, possibly caused by global warming, the accumulation of water in these lakes has been increasing rapidly. The isolated lakes above 3,500m are assumed to be the remnants of the glaciers left due to the retreat of the glaciers. The attributes used for the present inventory are similar to the lake inventories that were carried out in the Pumqu (Arun) and Poiqu (Bhote-SunKoshi) basins in Tibet-China (LIGG/WECS/NEA. 1988), Nepal, and Bhutan by ICIMOD in 2001. The numbering of the lakes starts from the outlet of the major stream and proceeds clockwise round the basin. Longitude and Latitude Reference longitude and latitude are designated for the approximate centre of the glacial lake by creating a digital point map over the screen digitized glacial lakes. Area The area of the glacial lake is determined from the digital database after digitization of the lake from the image data and topographic maps. Length The length is measured along the long axis of the lake, and represented in meter units.

63

Width The width is normally calculated by dividing the area by the length of the lake, down to one decimal place in km units (100 m). Depth The depth is measured along the axis of the cross section of the lake. On the basis of the depth along the cross section, the average depth and maximum depth are estimated. The data are collected from literature, if available. Orientation The drainage direction of the glacial lake is specified as one of eight cardinal directions (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW). For a closed glacial lake, the orientation is specified according to the direction of its longer axis. Altitude The altitude is registered by the water surface level of the lake in masl. Classification of lakes Genetically glacial lakes can be divided into the following: Glacial erosion lakes, including Cirque lakes, Trough Valley lakes, and Erosion lakes Moraine Dammed lakes (also divided into neo End Moraine and paleo End Moraine lakes), including End Moraine lakes and Lateral Moraine lakes Blocking lakes formed through glaciers and other factors, including the main glacier blocking the branch valley, the glacier branch blocking the main valley, and the lakes formed through snow avalanche, collapse, and debris flow blockade Ice Surface and Sub-Glacial lakes In the glacial lake inventory, End Moraine Dammed lakes, Lateral Moraine lakes, Trough Valley lakes, Glacial Erosion lakes, and Cirque lakes are represented by the letters M, L, V, E, and C respectively; B and S represent Blocking and Supraglacier lakes. Activity According to their stability, the glacial lakes are divided into three types: STable, Potentially Dangerus, and Outburst (when there have been previous bursts). The letters S, D, and O represent these types respectively.

64

Types of Water Drainage Glacial lakes are divided into drained lakes and closed lakes according to the drainage condition. The former refers to lakes from which water flows to the river and joins the river system while in the latter, water does not flow into the river. Ds and Cs represent those two kinds of glacial lakes respectively. Chemical Properties This attribute is represented by the degree of mineralization of the water, mg l1. Other Indices One important index for evaluating the stability of a glacial lake is its contact relation with the glacier. So an item of distance from the upper edge of the lake to the terminus of the glacier has been added and the code of the corresponding glacier registered. Since an End Moraine Dammed lake is related to its originating glacier, this index is only referred to End Moraine lakes. As not enough field data exist, the average depth of glacial lakes is difficult to establish in most cases. Based on field data, and as an indication only, the average depth of a glacial lake formed by different causes can be roughly estimated as follows: Cirque Lake, 10m; End Moraine Lake, 30m; Trough Valley Lake, 25m; Blocking lake and Glacier Erosion Lake, 40m; and Lateral Moraine Lake, 20m. The water reserves of different types of glacial lakes can be obtained by multiplying their average depth by their area (LIGG/WECS/NEA. 1988).

65

66

Chapter 5 Spatial Data Input and Attribute Data Handling

One of the main objectives of the present study is to develop a digital database of glaciers and glacial lakes using GIS. A digital database is necessary for monitoring of glaciers and glacial lakes and to identify the potentially dangerous lakes. GIS is the most appropriate tool for spatial data input and attributes data handling. It is a computer-based system that provides the following four sets of capabilities to handle geo-referenced data (Arnoff 1989):

data input, data management (data storage and retrieval), data manipulation and analysis, and data output

Any spatial features of the earths surface are represented in GIS by the following: Area/polygons: features which occupy a certain area, e.g. glacier units, lake units, land-use units, geological units etc; Lines/segments: linear features, e.g. drainage lines, contour lines, boundaries of glaciers and lakes etc; Points: points define the discrete locations of geographic features, the areas of which are too small to illustrate as lines or polygons, e.g. mountain peaks or discrete elevation points, sampling points for field observations, identification points for polygon features, centers of glaciers and lakes etc. and attribute data refer to the properties of spatial entities.

The spatial entities described above can be represented in digital form by two data models: vector or raster models. In a vector model the position of each spatial feature is defined by a series of X and Y coordinates. Besides the location, the meaning of the feature is given by a code. In a raster model, spatial data are organized in grid cells or pixels, a term derived for a picture element. Pixels are the basic units for which information is explicitly recorded. Each pixel is assigned only one value. For the present study, Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) 3.1 for Windows is used for the spatial and attribute database development and analysis. ILWIS for Windows is an object oriented image processing and GIS setup. Analysis and modeling in a GIS requires input of relevant data. Delineation of all the glaciers and glacial lakes was done on the satellite images supplemented by the available topographic maps of scale 1:63,360 (one inch to one mile) and 1: 250,000 published by the Survey of Pakistan in 1960s to 70s. The detail projection parameter of the topographic maps published by the Survey of Pakistan is not available. The digital topographic map named ARC digitized Raster Graphics (ADRG) at the scale of 1:500,000 published in 1996 by

67

NIMA and DMA of the U.S. Government has the projection parameter, which is shown in the Table 5.1. Table 5.1: Coordinate system and map parameters of NIMA and DMA of the U.S. Government.
Name of the map Series Item ARC Digitized Raster Graphics (ADRG) Tactical Pilotage Chart (TPC) ARC2 TPC XXG06B TPC XXG06C TPC XXG07A TPC XXG07D 001 Tuesday January 09, 1996

Edition number Publication date Geographical area coverage: Latitude Longitude Projection Spheroid Datum Unit Pixel size

32 00 N to 36 00 N 74 00 E to 81 00 E Geographical Lat/Lon WGS84 WGS84 Degree decimal 0.00051714 (1.86 sec)

For the uniformity with other regions and precise digitization, the projection parameter of NIMA map is converted to Transverse Mercator. The details of projection parameter given in Table 5.2 are used to geo-reference the satellite image. The digitization of the glaciers and glacial lakes was performed on geo-referenced satellite images. The details of the methodology for the delineation and attributes are given in Chapter 4. This map projection defines the relationship between the map coordinates and the geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude). The most common method of entering spatial data is by manual digitization using a digitizer. For the current study, the data was entered mainly by on-screen digitization. Table 5.2: Coordinate system used for the maps and satellite images.
S No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Projection Ellipsoid Datum False easting False northing Central meridian Central parallel Scale factor Coordinate system Transverse Mercator WGS84 WGS84 0 0 60 E 0 N 0.9996 metre

68

It is always necessary to maintain the details, smoothness, and accuracy of the input spatial data of all the required information as in the maps of the given map scale. They are defined by the snap and tunnel tolerances in the system. The snap and tunnel tolerances in the system are defined by the extent of the minimum and maximum X and Y values. To increase the detail and accuracy, the coordinate systems with the required X and Y extents for each one degree area were created to digitize all the topographic maps. These subcoordinate systems were very useful and made easy the input and handling of the data. The segment code values are necessary for data retrieval and analysis in GIS. Therefore, after the delineation of the glaciers, glacial lakes, and ridges on the maps, the segments were digitized using the following codes: 1 2 3 5 10 11 12 20 23 25 100 = = = = = = = = = = = lake boundary glacier boundary ridge line basin or international boundary dry lake drainage line lake attached to glacier common boundary rock glacier boundary only glacier attached to ridge line common boundary glacier attached to basin boundary common boundary tic points reference lines

All the polygons representing glaciers and glacial lakes are numbered as mentioned in Chapter 4. Points showing the location of glaciers and glacial lakes were digitized. They were used later for identification of the polygons of the glaciers and glacial lakes. After digitization, the segments were checked and the glaciers and glacial lakes were numbered using point identifiers. In an object oriented GIS, polygon maps with identifier domains of the objects have a related attribute Table with the same domain. The domain defines the possible contents of a map, a Table, or a column in a Table (attribute). Some examples of domain are class domain (a list of class names), value domain (measured, calculated, or interpolated values), image domain (reflectance values in a satellite image or scanned aerial photograph), identifier domain (a unique code for each item in the map), string domain (columns in a Table that contain text), bit domain (value 0 and 1), bool domain (yes or no) etc. An attribute Table is linked to a map through its domain. An attribute Table can only be linked to maps with a class or identifier domain. An attribute Table may contain several columns. The required attributes of the glaciers and glacial lakes as explained in Chapter 4 were derived or entered in the attribute database in the GIS. Most of the attributes were derived from the topographic maps, satellite images, reports, etc. Attributes such as area, location (latitude, longitude), etc. were derived from the spatial database. If other necessary digital spatial data layers, such as digital elevation models (DEM), are available, it is possible to

69

generate terrain parameters such as elevation, slope, length, etc. as measuring units for glaciers and glacial lakes. Other attributes, such as aspect, mean length, elevation, map code, name, etc. were manually entered in the attribute database. Additional attributes, such as mean elevation, volume, etc. were derived using logical calculations. For each basin, attribute Tables were developed for glaciers and glacial lakes. Some of the attributes were also derived from the results of an aggregation in the same Table or from another Table using the Table joining operations, such as glaciers associated with the glacial lakes, etc. The attribute database for glaciers and glacial lakes is given in the annexes. The criteria for the identification of potentially dangerous glacial lakes are explained in Chapter 10. Using the logical calculation in the GIS, the potentially dangerous glacial lakes were determined. Traditionally to study the geomorphic characteristics of these potentially dangerous lakes, time-series of satellite image and topographic maps are used for the identification of potentially dangerous lakes. In the case of current study the time series data is not available so based on the available data the potentially dangerous lakes are identified.

70

Chapter 6 Application of Remote Sensing

Glaciers and glacial lakes are generally located in remote areas mainly in the high mountains, where access is through tough and difficult terrain. The study of glaciers and glacial lakes, as well as carrying out inventories and field investigations of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) using conventional methods, require extensive time and resources together with undergoing hardship in the field. Creating inventories and monitoring of the glaciers, glacial lakes, and extent of GLOF impact downstream can be done quickly and correctly using satellite images and aerial photographs. Use of these images and photographs for an evaluation of the physical conditions of the area provides greater accuracy. The multistage-approach using remotely sensed data and field investigation increase the ability and accuracy of the work. Visual and digital image analysis techniques integrated with techniques of GIS are very useful for the study of glaciers, glacial lakes, and GLOFs. For the present inventory, satellite images of Landsat7 ETM+ supplemented with relevant topographic maps were used to identify and demark the glaciers and glacial lakes. Remote sensing is the science and art of acquiring information (spectral, spatial, and temporal) about material objects, areas, or phenomena through the analysis of data acquired by a device from measurements made at a distance, without coming into physical contact with the objects, area, or phenomena under investigation. There are different types of commercial satellite data available. Generally high and medium digital data sets like of the Land Observation Satellite (Landsat)-5 Thematic Mapper (TM), Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM +), Systme Probatoire Pour lObservation de la Terre (SPOT) Multi-Spectral (XS) and SPOT Panchromatic (PAN) are used for such studies. Some other data sets like the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite Series 1D (IRS 1D), (LISS)-3 can also be used. The Landsat-7 ETM+ sensor is a nadir-viewing, seven-band plus multi-spectral scanning radiometer that detects spectrally filtered radiation from several portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Nominal ground sample distances or pixel sizes include 30 meters each for the six visible, near-infrared, and short-wave infrared bands, 60 meters for the thermal infrared band, and 15 meters for the panchromatic band (Table 6.1). The list of the Landsat-7 ETM+ images covering the study area is given in Chapter 4. A scene of a Landsat-7 data gives a synoptic view of an area of 183 km by 170 km of the earths surface sensed by the American Landsat satellite from an altitude of 705 km, sun-synchronous orbit at an inclination of 98.2 degrees, imaging the same 183 km swath of the earth's surface every 16 days. The Landsat-7 satellite carries the ETM+ sensor. The bandwidth of TM and ETM+ are slightly different ranging from the blue to far infrared wavelength (Table 6.1). The individual bands are Band 1 (0.450.52m), Band 2 (0.53 0.60m), Band 3 (0.62 0.69m), Band 4 (0.780.90m), Band 5 (1.571.78m), and Band 7 (2.102.35 m) with the spatial resolution of 30m in the visible, near infrared and middle infrared bands, and Band 6 (10.4511.66 m) in the far infrared with low gain and

71

high gain bands with 60m resolution. Band 1, 3, 5, and 6 are same in TM and ETM+. Band 2, 4, and 7 are slightly different and the visible panchromatic mode is only available in ETM+. Some of the potential applications of different spectral bands of Landsat TM and ETM+ are given in Table 6.2. Table 6.1: Some optical sensor system characteristics of Earth Resources Satellites
Satellite system Optical sensor system (Launch dates) Sensor altitude Landsat 4/5 MSS (1982 Landsat-4) (1985 Landsat-5) Landsat 1,2,3 = 900 km Landsat 4, 5 = 705 km 80m Landsat 4/5 TM (1982 Landsat-4) (1984 Landsat-5) (1999 Landsat-7) 705 km Landsat 7 ETM+ IRS-1C LISS-III (1995 IRS-1C) (1997 IRS-1D) 817 km

705 km

Spatial resolution

30m

Temporal resolution (Revisit cycle in days) Radiometric resolution (Bits per pixel) Swath width

16

16

15 m (pan) 30m 60m 16 8-bit

24m

24 (nadir) 7-bit

6-bit (scaled to 7 or 8-bit 8-bit during ground processing) 185 km 185 km Scene area = 185*170 Scene area = 185*170

183 km

Off-nadir viewing capability for PAN mode for stereo image data acquisition (26 off-nadir viewing) Spectral resolution (Number of bands)

141 km 124*141 133*148 IRS-1C PAN (6m resolution) (70 km swath) 0.500.70 m (6-bit) 3 days revisit 4

7 plus

The TM and ETM+ sensors greatly facilitate the multi-temporal data availability (repeated coverage of 16 days) for studying the temporal changes of glaciers, lakes, and other features. The Landsat-7 ETM+ sensor is a nadir-viewing, eight-band multi-spectral scanning radiometer that detects spectrally filtered radiation from several portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The list of the Landsat-7 ETM images covering the study area is given in Chapter 4. The individual bands and sample of colour composite in Pan(R), 7(G) and 2(B) of subset of Landsat-7 ETM+ of a part of study area is shown in the Figure 6.1. The SPOT series of French satellites and recent series of IRS satellites have more advantages for the study of glaciers, glacial lakes, and GLOFs due to their stereo data acquisition capacity (26 off-nadir viewing capability of the system) and higher spatial resolutions of 6 (IRS1C/IRSID PAN data) to 10m (SPOT PAN data). LISS3 sensors on board IRS1C/D satellites provide multi-spectral data collected in four bands of VNIR (visible and the near infrared) and SWIR (short wave infrared) regions

72

(Tables 6.2 and 6.3). LISS3 images cover an area of 124 by 141 km for the VNIR bands (B2, B3, and B4) and 133 by 148 km for the SWIR band (B5) sensed from an altitude of 817 km (IRS1C) to 780 km (IRS1D) with repetitive coverage of 25 days. The spatial resolution of VNIR bands is 24m and that of SWIR is 71m. The spatial resolution of LISS3 of the IRS satellite series and XS of the SPOT satellite series are greater than that of Landsat TM. With a greater number of spectral bands and spatial resolution of 30 by 30m close to the former two data types, cloud free Landsat TM data are equally good for the inventory and evaluation of glaciers, glacial lakes, and GLOFs in the medium scale (1:100,000 to 1:25,000). One can compare the amount of detail in different images covering the same area. Table 6.2: Spectral band ranges (m) used in TM on board Landsat-7 ETM+ sensor system and their potential applications
Band number 1 Band range (m) Potential applications 0.450.52 Coastal water mapping; soil/vegetation differentiation; deciduous/coniferous differentiation (sensitive to chlorophyll concentration), etc 0.530.61 Green reflectance by healthy vegetation, etc 0.630.69 Chlorophyll absorption for plant species differentiation 0.780.90 Biomass surveys; water body delineation 1.551.75 Vegetation moisture measurement; snow/cloud differentiation; snow/ice quality study 10.412.5 Plant heat stress management; other thermal mapping; soil moisture discrimination 2.092.35 Hydro-thermal mapping; discrimination of mineral and rock types; snow/cloud differentiation; snow/ice quality study 0.52 0.90 General picture in gray scale

2 3 4 5 6 7 Pan

When electro-magnetic energy is incident on any given earth surface feature, three fundamental energy interactions with the feature are possible. Various fractions of energy incident on the element are reflected, absorbed, and/or transmitted. All components of incident, reflected, absorbed, and/or transmitted energy are a function of the wavelength. The proportions of energy reflected, absorbed, and transmitted vary for different earth features, depending on their material types and conditions. These differences permit us to distinguish different features on an image. Thus, two features may be distinguishable in one spectral range and may be very different on another wavelength band. Within the visible portion of the spectrum, these spectral variations result in the visual effect called colour. For example, blue objects reflect highly in the blue portion of the spectrum, likewise green reflects highly in the green spectral region, and so on. Thus, the eye uses spectral variations in the magnitude of reflected energy to discriminate between various objects.

73

Figure 6.1.a: Band 1 (0.45 0.52 m)

Figure 6.1.b: Band 2 (0.53 0.61 m)

74

Figure 6.1.c: Band 3 (0.63 0.69 m)

Figure 6.1.d: Band 4 (0.78 0.90 m)

75

Figure 6.1.e: Band 5 (1.55 1.75 m)

Figure 6.1.f: Band 6a (10.4 12.5 m) high gain

76

Figure 6.1.g: Band 6b (10.4 12.5 m) low gain

Figure 6.1.h: Band 7 (2.509 2.35 m)

77

Figure 6.1.i: Panchromatic (0.52 0.90m) band

Figure 6.1.j: Panchromatic (0.52-0.90 m) band of Landsat-7 ETM+ images of 2001 showing a tributary glacier of complex valley glacier in Shigar basin

78

Figure 6.1.k.: Panchromatic (0.52-0.90 m) band of Landsat-7 ETM+ images of 2001 showing a portion of complex valley glacier in Shyok basin

79

Figure 6.1.l:

Subset and colour composite of bands Pan (R), 7(G), and 2(B) of Landsat-7 ETM+ image of the study area

Table 6.3: Wavelength ranges of the optical sensor system of earth resources satellites
Satellites systems Optical sensor system Blue Green Red NIR NIR IIR IIR IIR (MIR) ThIR Pan 10.4511.66 m (B6) 10.412.5 m (B6) 0.52 0.90m (panchromatic) 0.500.60 m (Ch1 or B4) 0.600.70 m (Ch2 or B5) 0.700.80 m (Ch3 or B6) 0.801.10 m (Ch4 or B7) Landsat 4/5 Landsat 4/5 Landsat-7 IRS-1C/1D

MSS

TM 0.450.52 m (B1)

ETM+

LISS-III

0.450.52 m (B1) 0.530.61 m 0.530.61 m (B2) (B2) 0.630.69 m 0.620.69 m (B3) (B3) 0.780.90 m 0.780.90 m (B4) (B4)

0.520.59 m (B2) 0.620.68 m (B3) 0.770.86 m (B4)

1.551.75 m (B5) 2.092.35 m 2.102.35 m (B7) (B7) 1.571.78 m (B5)

1.551.75 m (B5)

80

Satellite data are digital records of the spectral reflectance of the earths surface features. These digital values of spectral reflectance are used for image processing and image interpretations. A graph of the spectral reflectance of an object as a function of wavelength is called a spectral reflectance curve. The configuration of spectral reflectance curves provides insight into the characteristics of an object and has a strong influence on the choice of wavelength region(s) in which remote-sensing data are acquired for a particular application. Figure 6.2 shows the typical spectral reflectance curves for three basic types of earth feature: green vegetation, soil, and water. The lines in this figure represent average reflectance curves compiled by measuring large sample features. It should be noted how distinctive the curves are for each feature. In general, the configuration of these curves is an indicator of the type and condition of the features to which they apply. Although the reflectance of individual features may vary considerably above and below the average, these curves demonstrate some fundamental points concerning spectral reflectance. When more than two wavelengths are involved, the plots in multi-dimensional space tend to increase the separability among different materials.

Figure 6.2: Typical spectral reflectance curves for vegetation, soil, and water (after Swain and Davis 1979)

Spectral reflectance curves for vegetation almost always manifest the peak-and-valley configuration (Figure 6.2). Valleys in the different parts of the spectral reflectance curve are the result of the absorption of energy due to plants, leaves, pigments, and chlorophyll content at 0.45 and 0.67 m wavelength bands and water content at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 m wavelength bands. In near infrared spectrum wavelength bands ranging from about 0.7 1.3 m, plants reflect 4050% of energy incident upon them. Different plant species reflect differently in different portions of wavelength. The soil curve in Figure 6.2 shows considerably less peak-and-valley variation in reflectance. This is because the factors that influence soil reflectance act over less specific spectral bands. Some of the factors affecting soil reflectance are moisture content, soil texture (proportion of sand, silt, and clay), surface roughness, presence of iron oxide, and

81

organic matter content. These factors are complex, variable, and inter-related. For example, the presence of moisture in soil will decrease its reflectance. As with vegetation, this effect is greatest in the water absorption bands at about 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 m. When considering the spectral reflectance of water, probably the most distinctive characteristic is the energy absorption at near infrared wavelengths. Water absorbs energy in these wavelengths, whether considering water features per se (such as lakes and streams) or water contained in vegetation or soil. Locating and delineating water bodies with remotesensing data are carried out easily in near infrared wavelengths because of this absorption property. However, various conditions of water bodies manifest themselves primarily in visible wavelengths. Clear water absorbs relatively little energy with wavelengths of less than about 0.6 m. High transmittance typifies these wavelengths with a maximum in the blue-green portion of the spectrum. However, as the turbidity of water changes (because of the presence of organic or inorganic materials), transmittance, and therefore reflectance, changes dramatically. This is true in the case of water bodies in the same geographic area. Spectral reflectance increases as the turbidity of water increases. Likewise, the reflectance of water depends on the concentration of chlorophyll. Increases in chlorophyll concentration tend to decrease water reflectance in blue wavelengths and increase it in green wavelengths. Many important water characteristics, such as dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and salt concentration, cannot be observed directly through changes in water reflectance. However, such parameters sometimes correlate with observed reflectance. In short, there are many complex inter-relationships between the spectral reflectance of water and its particular characteristics. One must use appropriate reference data to correctly interpret reflectance measurements made over water. Snow and ice are the frozen state of water. Early work with satellite data indicated that snow and ice could not be reliably mapped because of the similarity in spectral response between snow and clouds due to limitations in the then available data set. Today satellite remote sensing systems data are available in more spectral bands (e.g., Landsat bands). It is now possible to differentiate snow and cloud easily in the middle infrared portion of the spectrum, particularly in the 1.551.75 m and 2.102.35 m wavelength bands (bands 5 and band 7). The reflectance of snow is generally very high in the visible portions and decreases throughout the reflective infrared portions of the spectrum. The reflectance of old snow and ice is always lower than that of fresh snow and clean/fresh glacier in all the visible and reflective infrared portions of the spectrum. Compared to clean glacier and snow (fresh as well as old), debris covered glacier and very old/dirty snow have much lower reflectance in the visible portions of the spectrum and higher in the middle infrared portions of spectrum (Figure 6.3).

82

Figure 6.3: Spectral reflectance characteristics of snow/ice, clean glaciers, debris-covered glaciers, clouds, and water bodies. Reflectance in terms of pixel value based on a September 22, 1992, Landsat TM seven-band data set of the Tama Koshi and Dudh Koshi areas of Nepal. Red linesclean glaciers and fresh snow (A); black linesclouds (B); green linesrecent debris from GLOFs (C); maroon linesdebris covered glacier (D); blue linesclean/melted (E) and silty and/or partly frozen water (lake) (F)

The technique of digital image analysis facilitates image enhancement and spectral classification of the ground features and, hence, greatly helps in the study of glaciers and glacial lakes. Monitoring of the lakes and glaciers can be done visually as well as digitally. In both the visual interpretation and digital feature extraction techniques, the analysts experience and adequate field knowledge are necessary. The satellite images have to be geometrically rectified based on the appropriate geo-reference system and cell sizes. The same geo-reference system is required for the integration and analysis of the remote sensing satellite data in the GIS database.

83

A FCC R4G3B2
Figure 6.4: False Colour Composite (FCC) of Red(4) Green(3) Blue(2) Indicating; Fresh Snow (A), Glacier Ice (B), and Glacier Ice Covered with Debris (C). Subset of Landsat-7 ETM+ Images of the of the study area

To identify the individual glaciers and glacial lakes, different image enhancement techniques are useful. However, complemented by the visual interpretation method (visual pattern recognition), with the knowledge and experience of the terrain conditions, glacier and glacial lake inventories and monitoring can be done. For glacier and glacial lake identification from satellite images, the images should be with least snow cover and cloud free. Least snow cover in the Himalayas occurs generally in the summer season (MaySeptember). But during this season, monsoon clouds will block the views. If snow precipitation is late in the year, winter images are also suitable except for the problem of long relief shadows in the high mountain regions. For the present study, most of the images are of the winter season under conditions of least seasonal snow cover and cloud free. With different spectral band combinations in False Colour Composite (FCC) and in individual spectral bands, glaciers and glacial lakes can be identified and studied using the knowledge of image interpretation keys: colour, tone, texture, pattern, association, shape, shadow, etc. Combinations of different bands can be used to prepare FCC. Different colour composite images highlight different land-cover features. Colours in the colour composite images and tones in the individual band images are the outcome of the reflectance values. Glaciers appear white (in individual bands and colour composite) to light blue (in colour composite only) of variable sizes, with linear and regular shape having fine to medium texture, whereas, in the thermal band, they appear gray to black (Figure 6.1 f and g).

84

The distinct linear and dendritic pattern associated with slopes and valley floors of the high mountains covered with seasonal snow can be distinguished in the river basin. Bands 5 and band 8 show drainage pattern and topographic features distinctly. Band 1 shows the clear demarcation between fresh snow and the surroundings. In false color composite of 4(R)3(G)2(B) the fresh snow appearing in white (A) can be differentiated from the glacier ice (B) in light blue. The glacier ice mixed with debris (C) is appearing dark due to low radiation reflectance of the debris material (Figure 6.4). The glacial lake is not prominent in this FCC 432 while in FCC 543 the lake can be identified easily in dark blue color and some of the glacial types can even be demarked (Figure 6.5). The Valley Glacier with mixed ice and debris (Figure 6.5 C) resembles in color with the surrounding rocks and soil. The debris cover of the glacier can be differentiated on the basis of its coarse texture and presence of supraglacial lakes over it. The reddish color in the FCC 543 represents the non-glaciated area i.e. indicating portions of rocks, bare ground and vegetation cover in reddish green as shown in figure 6.5 D. The water bodies like lakes in blue color can be differentiated from the shadow areas appearing black in this band combination. The mountain peaks/ ridges like Ghur and tango towers can be identified on the basis of associated shadow pattern giving idea of the elevation from the ground surface. The physical features of the glaciated area and types of glacier can be displayed distinctly using the suitable band combination. In figure 6.6, the valley and mountain glaciers appearing in light blue color can be differentiated on the basis of their physical characteristics and association with their surrounding. The eroded surface developed from the retreat of the glacier is shown in parallel pattern (Figure 6.6 C) of left over moraine/debris material by the glacier. The glacial lake like the end moraine dammed lake, developed at the terminus of the glacier Ind_gr 707 can be seen in dark blue color (Figure 6.6 D).

The Galcial lakes can be easily identified in the band combination of RGB Pan,7,6b due to their better contrast with the surrounding features (Figure 6.7). In this FCC, the fresh snow and ice of the glaciers appear in light to dark red color. The lake Shin_gl 75 shown in figure 6.7 is a large cirque type lake having closed drainage. In the image of winter season the glacial lakes can be identified on the basis of their smooth texture and varying gray tone due to their semi frozen ice surface (Figure 6.8).

85

Figure 6.5: Image in false color composite of Red (5),Green (4), and Blue (3) Indicating; Fresh Snow (A), Glacier Ice and snow mixed with debris (B), Glacial lakes (C) and Pastures (D).

Figure 6.6: FCC of R5G4B3 Image Indicating Valley Glacier (A), Hanging Glacier (B), Eroded surface containing rock debris (C) and Glacial Lake (D). Subset of Landsat-7 ETM+ Image of the Indus River basin (30th September 2001)

86

Figure 6.7: Glacial lake Shin_gl 75 in False Color Composite of R(Pan) G(7) B(6b). Landsat-7 ETM+ Image of the Shingo River basin (30th September 2001)

In panchromatic image, the glaciers can be well identified by increasing the reflectance values of the image. This is especially helpful when one is using the image of winter season for the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes.

Figure 6.8: Panchromatic band of Landsat-7 ETM+ image of 30th September 2001 showing the Lake Shin_gl 75 under snow cover.

87

The technique of integrating remote sensing data with GIS does help a lot with identification and monitoring of lakes and glaciers. The DEM of an area can be generated by using stereo satellite images, aerial photographs, or digitization of topographic map data. It can play a major role in deciding the rules for discrimination of features and land cover types in GIS techniques and help in better perspective viewing and presentations. DEM itself can be used to create various data sets of the area like slope and aspect as indicated in Chapter 3. For example, even though glacial lakes are covered by snow, the lake surfaces are flat, and glaciers, snow, and ice create slope angles. In this case, decision rules for integrated analysis in GIS can be assigned, that is, if the slope is not too pronounced and the texture smooth, then such areas are recognized as frozen glacial lakes. DEM generated from satellite images, aerial photographs, or topographic maps should be compatible with and of reliable quality to other data sets.

Figure 6.9: FCC of R5G4B3 Image Indicating Valley Glacier (A), Hanging Glacier (B), and Glacial Lake (C)

88

Figure 6.10: Image in false color composite of Red (Pan),Green (7), and Blue (6b)

Figure 6.11: False Color Composite of Red (5) Green (4) Blue (2)

89

Figure 6.12: Landsat ETM+ Image of 30 September 2001 of Part of the of the study area in False Colour Composite of Red(Pan) Green(7) Blue(6b)

FCC R(Pan)G(7)B(6b) Figure 6.13: False Colour Composite of Red(Pan) Green(7) Blue(6b) Indicating; (A) Supraglacial Lakes, (B) Blocked Lake, (C) Valley Glacier with Debris Cover, and (D) Fresh Snow

90

Figure 6.14: DEM based on SRTM3 and GTPO of Northern Pakistan and surrounding area

Figure 6.15: GeoCover Landsat TM draped over DEM based on SRTM3 and GTPO of Northern Pakistan and surrounding area

91

92

Chapter 7 Inventory of Glaciers

7.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF GLACIER INVENTORY The inventory of glaciers based on topographic maps and satellite images. As the scale of the topographic maps is 1: 250,000 and not all topographic maps are available for the northern areas, for the identification, classification, and characterization of glaciers, satellite images were studied closely. The source of the topographic maps is the Survey of Pakistan. The images of Landsat-7 ETM+ were geo-referenced using digital topographic maps at a scale of 1: 500,000 published by NIMA and DMA of the US Government in January 1996. All the projection parameters of the topographic maps were incorporated to make the image compatible with the topographic maps. For the inventory of glaciers, the northern area is divided into 10 river basins, (Figure 3.1). The aerial extension of the glaciers is determined by using remote sensing satellite image and Geographic Information System (GIS). To estimate the ice reserves, it is of an utmost necessity to have the mean thickness of the glaciers. Since the mean glacier thickness data are not available, it has been estimated using the equation developed for the Tianshan Mountains (Chaohai Liu and Liangfu Ding 1986) and applied in Nepal and Bhutan (Mool et al., 2001). H = 11.32 + 53.21F 0.3 Where, H = mean ice thickness in meter and F = area of glacier in square kilometer The ice reserves were estimated by multiplying the mean thickness by the area of the glacier. 7.2 TYPES OF GLACIER The classification of glaciers is adopted from the morphological classification of glaciers by the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS) defined by Muller et al. 1977. Details of the classification parameters are mentioned in Chapter 4. The glaciers are divided into different classes, combining Digit 1 of primary classification and Digit 2 of form. Generally, six types of glacier are observed in HKH region of Pakistan namely Mountain, Valley, Cirque, Niche, Ice caps, and Ice aprons. Mountain glaciers are the dominant ones and by profile due to steepness of the slope, they are of hanging nature. Other glaciers, except for Valley glaciers, generally fall into the category of Mountain glaciers but the thickness of ice is comparatively low. The number of Valley glaciers is comparatively low but the corresponding area and ice reserves are higher than those of Mountain glaciers. The area and ice reserves of the Valley glaciers are generally large owing to the fact that the ice thickness increases with increase in the area of the glacier.

93

The Mountain glaciers are uncertain or miscellaneous, compound basins, compound basin, or simple basin in the form of a hanging glacier. The Mountain glaciers sometimes join with the Valley glaciers and make a big mass of ice (Figure 7.1 and 7.2). The major source of nourishment is snow and/or drift snow. Ice caps, Cirque, Niche, and Ice apron type glaciers are other types of hanging Mountain glaciers, but they are considered to be of a different type due to their significance in size, shape, form, and ice thickness.

Figure 7.1: An example of Mountain glaciers entering into Valley glaciers in Shimshal valley of Hunza River basin (FCC 7(R)4(G)2(B)).

The most significant Valley type glaciers are fewer in number and are characterized by compound basins, compound basin, and simple basin. They are mainly nourished by snow and drift snow at the headwater and by snow and ice avalanches at the lower valley. The adjoining part of the Valley glacier at the headwater is characteristically a Mountain glacier, but due to its continuation into a Valley glacier, the whole ice mass will be considered as a Valley glacier. This is the reason for higher area of Valley glaciers than that of the Mountain glaciers. The longitudinal profile of the Valley glacier from crown to toe shows an even or regular shape. As the headwater is steeper and has a gentle slope in the lower reaches, the profile makes the curve concave upward. Due to the gentle slope at the lower reaches and the accumulation of debris derived from the headwater, the glacial lakes develop in the form of supra glacial or moraine dammed. Generally, the stability of glacial lakes is poor and there is always the chance of avalanches from Mountain glaciers, which may break the damming material and cause GLOFs.

7.3 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GLACIATION The occurrence of glaciers has always been linked to climatic conditions. Climate is of fundamental importance to the inception and growth of glaciers. The form of the landscape dictates the threshold conditions for glacier occurrence and determines glacier morphology. Under certain climatic conditions for glaciation, glaciers of different shapes

94

and sizes are formed depending on the landscape. Mountain glaciated regions are associated with climatic fronts and zones of maximum precipitation. The Central Himalayas receive moisture from the summer monsoons and the western Himalayas from winter and summer fronts.

(a) Bazhin Glacier, Nanga Parbat

(b) Ghondogoro Glacier

(c) A beautiful Lake in the middle of Biafo Glacier

(d) Hopper Glacier Valley

(e) Passu Glacier

(f) Out of this world, Baltoro Glacier

Figure 7.2: Few glimpses of huge glaciers of Pakistan. Source: (www.geocities.com/Pentagon/Barracks/9722/Mountains/index.htm)

95

7.4 GLACIERS OF PAKISTAN IN HKH REGION The glacier area of northern Pakistan forms the single most concentrated source of runoff for the whole Indus basin. Since this frozen precipitation contributes more than 50% of the total flow of the Indus River System and a larger part of the future supplies upon which Pakistan can depend, knowledge of this resource would seem an outstanding requirement for water resource and flood hazard monitoring on the Indus basin. Wissman (1959) has estimated that 33,200 km2 of the Himalayan range and 16,000 km2 of the Karakoram Range are covered with ice, which constitutes 17% of the Himalayas and 37% of the Karakoram respectively. In the 1940s estimates were made for the Sutlej River basin and a total ice cover of 6,390 km2 was computed. This area is roughly 11% of the total area of the Sutlej River basin (Khan 1994). Crests of the high ranges in the KarakoramHimalayan region are largely snow bound. The Karakoram has greater ice and snow cover (27 to 37%) than any other mountain system outside the polar region (Wissman 1959). In Hindu Kush, western Karakoram and High Himalaya, ice and snow cover is relatively less extensive, and in other ranges west of Nanga Parbat only the highest peaks are snow bound. Snow line is at about 5,200 masl to 5,800 masl along the northern aspects of the High Himalaya. It is at 5,100 masl to 5,600 masl in southern Karakoram and 4,700 masl to 5,300 masl in the northern part of the Karakoram (Kick 1964). The glaciers in Karakoram region are high activity glaciers and have some of the steepest gradients in the world. According to their movement patterns, Mercer (1975) has grouped Karakoram and Himalayan glaciers into the following three categories:

Glaciers with steady movement (these are also the longer ones) Glaciers having cyclic advances (these have short steep crevasses) Surging glaciers characterized by catastrophic advances

During most of the summer season, high flows in the Indus River system are due to snow and ice melt. Evidence over the past 150 years indicates that the snow and ice cover of the upper Indus River basin undergoes large spatial as well as temporal variations. Many minor ice masses are important to village water supplies in the region and the threat to these masses is creating acute water shortages. Knowledge of glacier storage and transfer of ice down slope and area altitude relations of ice cover are integral parts of the water balance. Knowledge of glacier activity is also required, in relation to glacier hazards such as ice dams and surges. To systematically identify and make an inventory of different types of glaciers and to estimate the ice reserves in the HKH region of Pakistan, the northern area is divided into 10 river basins. As a first step, the Astor River basin was selected and a detailed inventory was carried out. In the second phase of the project Indus, Jhelum, Shingo, Shyok, and Shigar River basins were selected and the inventory of glaciers was completed. In the final phase of the phase of the project, inventory the remaining four basins namely Swat, Chitral, Gilgit and Hunza was completed. The basin-wise outcome of this inventory is summarized here.

96

7.4.1 Swat River basin Swat River with many other major tributaries like Panjkora River joins Kabul River which is the western tributary of Indus River. The northern and north eastern part of basin has the glaciated area. The Basin is located in the northern areas with the latitude and longitude range of 34 06' to 35 53' and 71 to 72 48' respectively (Figure 7.4.1.1). This basin is bounded in southwest by Afghanistan, northwest by Chitral River basin, north by Gilgit River basins and east and southeast by Indus River basin. In the south of the basin, Peshawar Valley is located. The northern part of the basin has mountainous terrain with an elevation range of about 750 masl to more than 5,800 masl. The basin occupies an area of 14,656.2 sq. km out of which the glacier area is about 223.55 sq. km (Table 7.4.1.1). The distribution of different types of glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.1.2 and 7.4.1.3. Most of the glaciers (about 90%) are classified as Mountain glaciers including the Cirque, Ice cap, Niche, and Ice apron (sub types). These sub-types are based on the characteristics of position, thickness of the ice, topographical locations, etc. Among these sub types the maximum number is of Mountain type (47%) followed by Cirque and Niche (21.5% each), and Ice apron (8%). Only about two percent of glaciers are classified as Ice caps. Generally the Valley glaciers are large in size and length. In spite of having only about 10 percent share in total number, they cover an area of about 71 sq. km, which is about 32% of the total glacier area. The largest and smallest glacier of this category has an area of about 8 and 0.44 sq. km respectively. The Mountain glaciers are generally small in size even though some of these glaciers are of large size. These glaciers altogether contribute 47 % of the total glacier area. Among the specialized Mountain glaciers, the Niche glaciers are relatively larger in size and cover an area of 25.53 sq. km. The Ice caps are the smallest glaciers and contribute only 0.48% of the area. Clips of some of the typical Mountain and Valley glaciers of this basin are presented in Figure 7.4.1.4.

Table 7.4.1.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Swat River basin

Number Type Total % Smallest Largest Total Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total 45 19.3 16 6.9 5 2.1 99 42.5 45 19.3 23 9.9 233 0.06 0.09 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.44 1.25 0.89 0.28 5.69 4.99 8.02 % Min. Max. Total Area (km2) Length (m) Ice reserve (km3) Total %

14.78 6.6 278 1806 34855 0.455 3.7 5.86 2.6 532 2109 15776 0.176 1.4 1.07 0.5 301 640 2408 0.024 0.2 105.32 47.1 326 3873 141689 5.45 44.6 25.53 11.4 487 3347 57274 1.118 9.1 70.99 31.8 948 6731 77834 4.998 40.9 223.55 12.221

97

Figure 7.4.1.1: Location map of the Swat River basin.

98

Valle y 10% Niche 19%

Cirque 19%

Ice apron 7% Ice cap 2%

Valle y 32%

Cirque 7%

Ice apron 3%

Mountain 43%

Niche 11%

Mountain 47%

(a) Number percentage

(b) Area percentage

Figure 7.4.1.2: Distribution of different types of glaciers in Swat River basin.

The total 233 glaciers of the Swat River basin contribute 12.22 km3 of ice reserves. The Mountain glaciers contribute about 45% to the ice reserves followed by about 41 percent contribution by Valley glaciers. Rest 14 percent ice reserves are contributed by Mountain sub-type glaciers (Figure 7.4.1.5). Most of the Valley glaciers are concentrated only in the northern aspects of this basin. There are altogether 23 Valley glaciers and the largest (Swat_gr 216) and smallest (Swat_gr 30) glaciers have the area of 8.02 and 0.44 sq. km respectively. There are eight Valley glaciers which have area of more than 4 sq. km. Six of this type of glaciers has area less than 1 sq. km out of which three are less than half a sq. kilometer in size. Among the Niche glaciers there is high variability in size ranging from about 5 sq. km (Swat_gr 108) to about 0.1 sq. km (Swat_gr 161). Out of 99 Mountain glaciers, 66 have area less than 1 sq. km while only two glaciers are more than 5 sq. km in size. All the Ice apron type Mountain glaciers have area less than 1 sq. km. There is only one Cirque glacier (Swat_gr 169) which has area more than 1 sq. km. The details of each glacier of Swat River basin are given in the Annex_gr_7.1.

99

Figure 7.4.1.3: The glacier distribution in the Swat River basin.

100

(a) Few of the Mountain glaciers in FCC Pan(R)7(G)6b(B)

(b) Few scattered glaciers and lakes in the basin

(c) A Valley glacier (Swat_gr 54) draining into the lakes Figure 7.4.1.4: Typical glaciers in the Swat River basin.

101

The glaciers in Swat River basin are classified into various ordinal directions. Table 7.4.1.2 includes the details of the distribution of glaciers in different ordinal directions. Aspect-wise, generally the glaciers are distributed evenly in all the different directions except east. About 16% glaciers are oriented towards NW and 15% in SW. The distribution in W, SE and S is about the same (12%) while in N and NE directions the glacier number is also same (about 13%). The glacier area follows the same pattern i.e. maximum in NW and minimum in E. The smallest and largest glacier does not follow the pattern of glacier number and total glacier area while the total length of the glaciers and ice reserves follow the pattern. Table 7.4.1.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Swat River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Number Total 32 31 13 28 27 35 29 38 233 % 13.7 13.3 5.6 12.0 11.6 15.0 12.4 16.31 Area (Km2) Smallest Largest Total 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.17 0.12 5.7 8.02 1.76 7.55 5.69 4.69 3.67 5.15 % Length (m) Min. Max. 4097 5439 1816 6731 3509 4895 3926 4290 Total 42255 51131 14004 42614 33346 51029 41852 53605 Ice reserve (Km3) Total % 1.39 1.922 0.223 1.744 1.365 1.803 1.341 2.433 12.221 11.4 15.7 1.8 14.3 11.2 14.7 11.0 19.9

26.82 12.00 278 33.90 15.2 300 6.01 2.7 403 28.99 13.0 316 24.69 11.0 301 33.87 15.2 326 26.99 12.1 552 42.28 19.0 344 223.55

Table 7.4.1.3 and Figure 7.4.1.5 show the distribution of various types of glaciers in different ordinal directions. The Mountain glaciers are more on northern and western aspects while the southern and eastern aspects have the minimum number. Out of 23 Valley glaciers there are 8 glaciers on N and 4 each on NE and NW aspects followed by 2 each on SE and W. There are no glaciers present on S and E aspects. The Ice cap glaciers are present only on S and SW aspects. Similarly the Ice apron glaciers are missing on southern aspect. Out of total 16 glaciers of this type 4 are present on NW, 3 each on NE and SW and 2 each on N and W. Maximum Cirque glaciers (12) are oriented towards SE while the minimum (2 each) are orientated towards E and NW. The Niche glaciers are mostly oriented toward NE, SW and NW.

102

Table 7.4.1.3 : Distribution of glacier types on different aspects in Swat River basin
Glacier Types Aspect Mountai n 13 N 12 NE 5 E 11 SE 8 S 14 SW 16 W 20 NW Total 99 Valley 8 4 2 3 2 4 23 Ice cap Ice apron 3 2 5 2 3 1 1 3 2 4 16 Cirque 5 4 2 12 9 5 6 2 45 Niche 4 8 5 2 7 8 3 8 45 Total 32 31 13 28 27 35 29 38 233

Cirque 4% Valle y 41% Niche 9%

Ice apron 1%

Mountain 45%

Figure 7.4.1.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Swat River basin.

103

(a) Mountain glacier

(b) Valley Glacier

NW 21%

N 13%

NE 12% E 5%

W 9%

NW 17%

N 35%

W 16% SW 14% S 8% SE 11%

SW 13%

SE 9%

NE 17%

(c) Ice cap glaciers

(d) Ice apron glaciers

SW 40%

NW 24%

N 13%

NE 19%

S 60%

W 13% SW 19%

SE 6%

E 6%

(e) Cirque glaciers

(f) Niche glaciers

W 13% SW 11%

NW 4%

N 11%

NE 9% E 4%

NW 18% W 7%

N 9% NE 17%

S 20%

SE 28%

SW 18%

S 16%

SE 4%

E 11%

Figure 7.4.1.6: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Swat River basin.

7.4.2 Chitral River basin The major tributaries of Chitral River are Lutkha, Rich Gor, Yar Khan and Mastuj. Rich Gor and Mastuj join at Kosht and flows down to Birmogh Lasht town where it joins Lutkha to form Chitral River. The Chitral River first flow southwards and then turns southwest near Darosh and enters into Afghanistan near Arandu. Most of the northern and northeastern part of the basin is glaciated. The Basin is located in the northern areas with the latitude and longitude range of 35 13' to 36 54' and 71 12' to 73 53' respectively (Figure 7.4.2.1). The basin is bounded in west and north by Afghanistan, in the east by Gilgit River basin and southeast by Swat River basin. The major part of the basin consists of mountainous terrain with an elevation range of about 1,300 masl to more than 7,500 masl close to Tirich Mir the highest peak of the basin in the northwest.

104

Figure 7.4.2.1: Location map of Chitral River basin.

105

The basin occupies an area of 15,322.4 sq. km out of which the glacier area is about 1,903.7 sq. km (Table 7.4.2.1). The distribution of different types of glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.2.2 and 7.4.2.3. Most of the glaciers (77%) are classified as Mountain glaciers including the sub types like Ice cap, Cirque, Niche, and Ice apron. Among these sub types the maximum number is of Niche type (36%) followed by Mountain (31%) and Cirque (29%). There are only 2 Ice apron glaciers. Out of 542 glaciers, 125 are classified as Valley glaciers. The inventory of glaciers is given in the Annex_gr_7.2.

Table 7.4.2.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Chitral River basin

Number Type Total % Smallest Largest Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total 123 2 12 130 150 125 542 22.7 0.4 2.2 24.0 27.7 23.1 0.04 0.30 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.09 Total % Min. Max. Total 127432 2042 8203 268662 233997 775724 Total 1.728 0.030 0.124 15.368 2.819 238.748 258.817 % 0.67 0.01 0.05 5.94 1.09 92.25 1.96 49.48 2.6 144 3665 0.63 0.93 0.0 760 1282 1.24 3.87 0.2 349 1943 26.56 224.84 11.8 316 8079 2.26 77.02 4.0 512 3451 231.57 1547.53 81.3 570 33755 1903.67 Area (km2) Length (m) Ice reserve (km3)

Generally the Valley glaciers are large in size and length and contribute about 81% to the glacier area of the basin owing to the fact that the smallest and largest glaciers of this category are of largest size among all the categories. The largest (Chiantar--Chitr_gr 316) and smallest (Chitr_gr 20) Valley glacier have an area of 231.6 and 0.09 sq. km respectively. There are quite a few large size Valley glaciers e.g. three glaciers (Chitr_gr 316, 129 and 140) have area more than 120 sq. km while two (Chitr_gr 177 and 169) have area more than 50 sq. km (Annex_gr_7.2). There are 22 Valley glaciers having less than one sq. km area.

Valle y 23%

Cirque 23% Ice cap 2%

Cirque 3%

Mountain 12%

Niche 4% Valle y 81%

Niche 28%

Mountain 24%

(a) Number percentage

(b) Area percentage

Figure 7.4.2.2: Distribution of different types of glaciers in Chitral River basin.

106

Figure 7.4.2.3: The glacier distribution in Chitral River basin.

107

Generally the Mountain glaciers are smaller in size and altogether contribute 19% of the total glacier area. Among these glaciers 28% Niche, 24% Mountain and 23% Cirque contribute to total glacier area only 4, 11 and 3 percent respectively. Mostly the Niche glaciers are small in size since out of total of 150 glaciers of this type only 18 have an area of more than one sq. km. The largest Niche glacier (Chitr_gr 468) has an area of 2.26 sq. km while the smallest is 0.074 sq. km in size. The Mountain glaciers are relatively larger in size since the largest (Chitr_gr 209) and smallest (Chitr_gr 76) glaciers have area of more than 26.56 and 0.1 sq. km respectively. Some of the image clips of Mountain and Valley glaciers are presented in Figure 7.4.2.4. The one Ice cap glacier (Chitr_gr 324) is large in size having an area of 1.24 sq. km. The two Ice apron glaciers contribute less than one sq. km of the glacier area. A total of 123 Cirque glaciers contribute 2.6% of the total glacier area. Among these 11 glaciers have an area more than 1 sq. km.

(a) A big Valley glacier Chiantar (Chitr_gr 316) covering an area of 231.5 sq. km, draining into Yarkhun River.

(b) Two valley glaciers Risht (Upper) and Madit (Lower side).

(c) Most of large valley glaciers have their snouts close to the Yarkhun River

Figure 7.4.2.4: Typical large size glaciers in Chitral River basin, in FCC Pan(R)7(G)6b(B).

108

The total 542 glaciers of Chitral River basin are the good source of ice reserves of about 259 km3. The Valley glaciers contribute more than 92% to the ice reserves of the basin while rest is contributed by the Mountain type glaciers (Figure 7.4.2.5). Out of 8% remaining ice reserves, the subtypes of Mountain glaciers contribute very little (less than 2%).

Valley 92%

Niche 1% Mountain 6%

Cirque 1%

Figure 7.4.2.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Chitral River basin.

Table 7.4.2.2 includes the details of glaciers in different ordinal directions. Aspect-wise, most of the glaciers are oriented towards N and NW (20% each) followed by NE and SW (15 and 11% respectively). The eastern aspect has the lowest number (5%) of glaciers. More than 57 percent of the glaciated area is concentrated on the northern aspects due to large size glaciers. The W, SW and S aspects have the lowest glacier area due to high sunshine hours while SE aspect has 20% contribution to the glacier area of the basin. The total length of the glaciers is highest on NW, N and SE aspects.

Table 7.4.2.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Chitral River basin
Number Aspect Total N NE E SE S SW W NW Total 111 84 28 66 42 59 44 108 542 % 20.5 15.5 5.2 12.2 7.7 10.9 8.1 19.9 Smallest 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.1 0.11 0.05 0.18 0.06 Area (Km2) Larges t 53.64 56.59 134.85 120.50 26.56 16.46 16.44 231.57 Total Length (m) % Min. Max. Total Ice reserve (Km3) Total % 12.7 15.4 8.1 36.0 4.1 20.2 2.1 1.3

349.71 18.4 317 16210 265604 32.871 179.79 9.4 344 15649 167944 39.923 179.42 9.4 409 21753 87000 20.981 377.25 19.8 144 22336 232937 93.269 120.20 6.3 448 8079 109042 10.695 75.80 4.0 306 10176 106003 52.375 49.59 2.6 703 6824 81913 5.380 571.91 30.0 197 33755 365617 3.323 1903.67 258.817

109

The major ice reserves are on SE (36%) followed by SW (20%), NE (15%) and N (13%). The lowest ice reserves are on W and NW (2 and 1% respectively). Table 7.4.2.3 shows the distribution of various types of glaciers in different ordinal directions. The Mountain glaciers are more (22 each) on SE and SW aspects while the W and E have the minimum number. Out of 125 Valley glaciers there are 47 glaciers on NW and 35 on N followed by 14 on SE. The E and SW have only 4 and 3 Valley glaciers respectively. The Ice cap type Mountain glaciers are missing on E and W. Out of total of 12 glaciers of this type 4 are oriented towards S, 2 each on NE, SE and SW (Figure 7.4.2.6). There is only one glacier each on N and NW. There are only 2 Ice apron type glaciers one oriented towards N and one towards SE. Out of 123 Cirque type glaciers maximum (71) are oriented towards northern aspects followed by southern aspects (32). Niche glaciers follow the distribution pattern of Cirque glaciers.

Table 7.4.2.3: Distribution of glacier types on different aspects in Chitral River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Mountain Valley 19 35 18 8 6 4 22 14 15 8 22 3 8 6 20 47 130 125 Glacier Types Ice cap Ice apron Cirque 1 1 29 2 28 9 2 1 12 4 9 2 11 11 1 14 12 2 123 Niche 26 28 9 15 6 21 19 26 150 Total 111 84 28 66 42 59 44 108 542

110

(a) Mountain glacier

(b) Valley Glacier

W 6% SW 17%

NW 15%

N 15%

NE 14% E 5%

NW 39% W 5% SW 2% S 6%

N 28% NE 6% SE 11% E 3%

S 12%

SE 16%

(c) Ice cap glaciers

(d) Ice apronglaciers

SW 17%

NW 8%

N 8%

NE 17%

S 33%

SE 17%

SE 50%

N 50%

(e) Cirque glaciers

(f) Niche glaciers

W 9% SW 9% S 7%

NW 11%

N 24%
W 13%

NW 17%

N 17% NE 19%

SE 10%

E 7%

NE 23%

SW 14%

S 4%

SE 10%

E 6%

Figure 7.4.2.6: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Chitral River basin.

7.4.3 Gilgit River basin In this basin, Ghizar River in the west flows eastwards and joins Yasin River coming from the north near Gupis. Further in the east Ishkuman and Hunza Rivers join this river and form Gilgit River which flow southeast wards and join Indus River near Jaglot. In the west of the basin is Chitral River basin. A small portion in the northern boarder with Afghanistan, in the east by Hunza River basin and south by Indus and Swat River basins. The Basin is located in the northern areas with the latitude and longitude range of 35 49' to 36 54' and 72 30' to 74 45' respectively (Figure 7.4.3.1). The mountainous terrain is dominant with an elevation range of about 1,500 masl to more than 6,500 masl. The basin occupies an area of 14,082.4 sq. km out of which the glacier area is about 968 sq. km

111

Figure 7.4.3.1: Location map of the Gilgit River basin.

112

(Table 7.4.3.1). The distribution of different types of glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.3.2 and 7.4.3.3. In this basin a total of 585 glaciers are identified covering an area of about 968 sq. km. Most of the glaciers (93%) are classified as Mountain glaciers including the Ice cap, Cirque, Niche, and Ice apron (sub types). Among these sub types the maximum number is of Mountain type (47%) followed by Niche (24%), Cirque (12%) and Ice apron(9%). Only 6 glaciers are classified as Ice caps.

Table 7.4.3.1 : Details of various types of glaciers of Gilgit River basin

Number Type Total % Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total 68 55 6 276 140 40 585 11.6 9.4 1.0 47.2 23.9 6.8 Smallest Largest Total 0.06 0.05 0.11 0.07 0.08 0.97 2.81 27.71 1.46 15.99 0.40 1.26 12.98 399.42 7.56 69.56 63.32 454.16 968.10 % 2.9 1.6 0.1 41.3 7.2 46.9 Min. Max. Total Area (km2) Length (m) Ice reserve (km3) Total %

270 3386 71572 1.022 1.23 187 2542 48867 0.480 0.58 271 883 3300 0.031 0.04 126 6806 543284 23.673 28.40 147 9228 232329 2.944 3.53 2055 19231 286098 55.195 66.22 83.345

Generally the Valley glaciers are large in size and length. In spite of having only about 7 percent share in total number, they cover an area of about 454 sq. km, which is about 47% of the total glacier area. The largest glacier (Karambar- Gil_gr 529) and smallest glacier (Gil_gr 172) of this category has an area of 63.32 and 0.97 sq. km respectively. Few of the important glaciers are shown in Figure 7.4.3.4. Except the smallest glacier of this category, all have the area more than one sq. km.There are total of 12 Valley glaciers having area more than 10 sq. km (Annex_gr_7.3). Some of the important large size Valley glaciers of this basin include Hinacna (Gil_gr 578), Salili (Gil_gr 581), Chhateboi (Gil_gr 487), Pekin (Gil_gr 479), etc. The Mountain glaciers are smaller in size and altogether contribute 53% of the total glacier area. Among these Mountain glaciers have the maximum coverage (41%) followed by Niche (7%). The Ice caps are the smallest glaciers and contribute only 1.26 sq. km to the glacier area. The largest Mountain glacier (Gil_gr 304) and smallest (Gil_gr 50) have area of 13 and 0.067 sq. km respectively. Some of the important Mountain glaciers of this basin are Kerum Bar (Gil_gr 294), Dadaril (Gil_gr 137), Ghasho Bar (Gil_gr 277), Thish Bar (Gil_gr 114), Ochhono (Gil_gr 155), etc. The largest Niche glacier (Chllinji_Gil_gr 515) has an area of 7.56 sq. km. There are 97 glaciers of this type which have area ranging from 0.1 to 0.5. Generally Ice capand Ice apron glaciers are small in size. There are only two Ice apron type glaciers ((Gil_gr 554 and Gil_gr 546) which have an area of more than one sq. km. Out of total 68 Cirque glaciers only five have the area exceeding one sq. km.

113

Due to high number of Mountain glaciers the total length is also higher for this category. The Valley glaciers are generally longer glaciers having total length of 286 km with a minimum and maximum length of 2.1 and 19 km respectively. Mountain glaciers have a total length of about 543 km followed by Niche having total length of 232 km. The other subtypes of Mountain glaciers are relatively smaller in length.

Niche 24%

Valley 7%

Cirque 12%

Ice apron 9% Ice cap 1%

Cirque 3% Valley 47%

Ice apron 2% Mountain 41%

Mountain 47%

Niche 7%

(a) Number percentage

(b) Area percentage

Figure 7.4.3.2: Distribution of different types of glaciers in Gilgit River basin.

The total ice reserves of 83 km3 of Gilgit River basin are contributed by 585 glaciers of Table 7.4.3.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Gilgit River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Number Total 74 127 77 52 62 63 48 82 585 Area (Km2) % 16.3 9.9 10.8 5.2 15.9 10.4 18.7 12.7 Min. 270 147 271 328 301 241 400 126 Length (m) Max. 15507 6291 11116 5463 16833 14446 19231 8325 Total 173882 196843 152137 85559 151462 132536 146961 146070 Ice reserve (km3) Total % 13.807 16.6 4.547 5.4 7.382 8.9 3.079 3.7 15.47 18.5 9.727 11.7 21.183 25.4 8.15 9.8 83.345

% Smallest Largest Total 12.6 0.1 38.1 158.28 21.7 0.07 5.49 95.85 13.2 0.07 12.46 104.82 8.9 0.06 12.98 50.33 10.6 0.1 51.26 153.82 10.8 0.08 41.9 100.88 8.2 0.08 63.32 180.86 14.0 0.05 13.19 123.26 968.1

the basin. The Valley glaciers contribute about 66% to the ice reserves of the basin while rest is contributed by the Mountain type glaciers (Figure 7.4.3.5). Following the Valley glaciers, Mountain glaciers contribute the maximum ice reserves (28%) due to their higher number as well as area. The contribution of Ice apron and Ice cap glaciers in the total Ice reserves is very low.

114

Figure 7.4.3.3: The glacier distribution in the Gilgit River basin.

115

(a) Ochhono glacier (Gil_gr 155) draining into a large glacial lake

(b) Large size Mountain glacier (Gil_gr 289) entering into a Valley glacier (Gil_gr 288)

(c) Valley glaciers (Mushk Bar Gil_gr 283 and Ghalsapar Gil_gr 284)

(d) Karambar a large size Valley glacier having an area of 63.3 sq. km.

Figure 7.4.3.4: Clips of various large size Valley and Mountain glaciers in Gilgit River basin.

Niche 4% Mountain 28% Ice apron 1%

Valley 66%

Cirque 1%

Figure 7.4.3.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Gilgit River basin.

Table 7.4.3.2 includes the details of the glaciers in different ordinal directions. Aspectwise, most of the glaciers are oriented towards NE (22%) and NW (14%) followed by E and N (13 % each). The other aspects have more or less uniform distribution. Most of the

116

glaciated area is concentrated on the western aspects (W-19%, NW-12.73 and SW-10%) followed by northern aspects. The total length of the glaciers is maximum on the northern aspects followed by E and S. The minimum length of glaciers is on SE due to minimum number of glaciers. Out of total of 83.35 km3 ice reserves of the basin, maximum are on W (25%) followed by S (19%), N (17%) and SW (12%). The minimum ice reserves of 4% are on SE aspect.

Table 7.4.3.3: Distribution of glacier types on different aspects in Gilgit River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Mountain Valley 40 11 62 4 29 3 25 29 7 26 4 17 9 48 2 276 40 Ice cap 1 1 1 1 2 6 Glacier Types Ice apron Cirque 8 5 18 16 8 11 1 10 8 5 5 5 2 10 11 55 68 Niche 10 26 25 16 17 22 15 9 140 Total 74 127 77 52 62 63 48 82 585

Table 7.4.3.3 shows the distribution of various types of glaciers in different ordinal directions. Out of total of 585 glaciers in the basin maximum (127) are oriented towards NE mainly of Mountain type. Minimum representation of the glaciers is on the W. Out of 276 Mountain glaciers, 150 are distributed on northern aspects. The eastern aspects also have the higher number of Mountain glaciers. Valley glaciers are mainly distributed on northern and western aspects (Figure 7.4.3.6). No Valley glacier was found on SE. Two Ice cap glaciers are oriented towards NW while the NE, E, S and SW aspects have one each of this type of glaciers. Since the Ice apron glaciers are small in size so they are missing on S while northern aspects have maximum number of this type. Generally Cirque and Niche glaciers are maximum on eastern aspects.

117

(a) Mountain glacier

(b) Valley Glacier

W 6% SW 9%

NW 17%

N 14% NE 23% SE 9% E 11%

W 22% SW 10%

NW 5%

N 27% NE 10%

S 11%

S 18%

E 8%

(c) Ice cap glaciers

NW 32%

(d) Ice apron glaciers

NE 17%

W 9%
E 17%

NW 19%

N 15%

SW 17%

S 17%

SW 9%
(f) Niche glaciers

NE 33% E 15%

(e) Cirque glaciers

NW 16% N 7% NE 24%

W 3% SW 7% S 12%

W 11% SW 16%

NW 6%

N 7% NE 19% E 18%

SE 15%

E 16%

S 12%

SE 11%

Figure 7.4.3.6: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Gilgit River basin.

118

7.4.4 Hunza River basin In this basin the two tributaries each in the west (Chapursan and Kilik) and east (Khunjerab along with Ghujerab) join near Kudabad. After joining the river flows southwards and joins the Shimshal River. It flows further south and near Atabad turns westward and a small tributary originating from Hispar glacier joins at Aliabad. Further flowing westwards it takes a turn near Chalt towards south and another tributary Bola Das joins near Nomal and forms the Hunza River. The Basin is located in the high Karakoram Range and the latitude and longitude range from 35 54' to 37 05' and 74 02' to 73 03' respectively (Figure 7.4.4.1). In the west of the basin is Gilgit River basin and in the north partly bordered with Afghanistan. In the north and northeast the basin is boarded with China and in the south by Shigar and Indus river basins. The small portion in the northeast of this basin drains in the Chinese territory and does not contribute to the Hunza River flow. Most of the terrain of the basin falls in the high mountains of Karakoram with an elevation range of about 1,500 masl to more than 7,500 masl. The basin occupies an area of 16,389.4 sq. km out of which 87.5% contributes to Hunza River flow. The glacier area of the basin is about 4,677.3 sq. km (Table 7.4.4.1). The distribution of different types of glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.4.2 and 7.4.4.3. In the Hunza River basin a total of 1050 glaciers are identified out of which more than 80% are classified as various types of Mountain glaciers. The maximum number is of Mountain type followed by Niche glaciers. There are 201 Valley glaciers. About 14 percent glaciers are classified as Cirque glaciers while the Ice cap and Ice apron are quite low in number.

Table 7.4.4.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Hunza River basin

Type Number Area (km2) Length (m) Total 193382 24805 18391 723300 431008 Ice reserve (km3) Total % 3.251 0.40 0.282 0.03 0.199 0.02 31.469 3.89 6.497 0.80

Total 149 Cirque Ice apron 31 27 Ice cap Mountain 407 235 Niche Valley Total 1050

% Smallest Largest Total % Min. Max. 14.2 0.07 3.10 82.03 1.7 223 4029 2.9 0.08 1.08 9.48 0.2 239 2028 2.6 0.10 0.71 7.29 0.2 236 1852 38.8 0.06 31.92 520.83 11.2 300 11052 22.4 0.05 5.43 153.50 3.3 215 7076 4677.34

201 19.1

0.23 521.15 3904.21 83.4 414 65560 1523924 767.096 94.84 2914810 808.794

The total 1,050 glaciers of this basin contribute an area of more than 4,677 sq. km and length of about 2,915 km. Due to higher elevation; generally the Valley glaciers are large in size and length. They contribute more than 83% to the total glacier area. Among 201 Valley glaciers there are quite a few important and well known glaciers like Hispar, Batura, Gulmit, Khunjarab, etc. (Annex_gr_7.4). Figure 7.4.4.4 shows the clips of some of the important large size Valley glaciers. The largest glacier is Hispar (Hunza_gr 830) which is more than 521 sq. km in size and is about 52.8 km long. There are 10 Valley glaciers which have an area of more than 100 km. Another 7 glaciers of this category 119

Figure 7.4.4.1: Location map of the Hunza River basin.

120

Niche 22%

Valley 19%

Valley 84%
Cirque 14% Ice apron 3%

Mountain 39%

Ice cap 3%

Niche 3%

Cirque 2% Mountai n 11%

(a) Number percentage

(b) Area percentage

Figure 7.4.4.2: Distribution of number and area percentage of different types of glaciers in Hunza River basin.

contribute area of more than 50 sq. km each. There are only 10 glaciers of this type which have area less than one sq. km. The Mountain glaciers are though highest in number but they contribute only 11% of the glacier area. The largest Mountain glacier (Hunza_gr 177) is about 32 sq. km in size while it is only about 4 km long. More than half (147) of these glaciers have an area ranging between 0.1 to 0.98 sq. km. There are only three small size Mountain glaciers Hunza_gr 612, 801 and 628 having area of 0.085, 0.08 and 0.064 sq. km. The Cirque glaciers contribute only 1.7% of the glacier area and the smallest (Hunza_gr 874) and the largest (Hunza_gr 49) glacier of this type have an area of 0.07 and 3.1 sq. km respectively. The area contribution of Ice cap as well as Ice apron glaciers is very low due to small size and low number. The total 1050 glaciers of this river basin are the highest source of ice reserves in the entire HKH region of Pakistan. A total of about 809 km3 ice reserves are there in the basin. About 95% of these reserves are contributed by the Valley glaciers (Figure 7.4.4.5). The contribution of Mountain glaciers to the total ice reserves of the basin is generally low especially of those of subtypes of the Mountain glaciers.

121

Figure 7.4.4.3: The glacier distribution in Hunza River basin.

122

(a) Barldu glacier (Hunza_gr 937) draining into Braldu River

(b) Large glaciers (from top down); Batura, Pasu, Ghulkin and Gulmit

(c) Virjerab glacier (Hunza_gr 744) draining into Shimshal River

(d) Hispar glacier (Hunza_gr 830) draining into Hispar River

(e) Batura glacier (Hunza_gr 120)

(f) Yazgil glacier (Hunza_gr 771) in Shimshal valley

Figure 7.4.4.4: Typical large size Valley glaciers in Hunza River basin.

123

Valley 95%

Niche 1%

Mountain 4%

Figure 7.4.4.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Hunza River basin.

Based on the ordinal directions the glaciers are distributed more or less uniformly in all directions except NW and W (Table 7.4.4.2). On contrary the glaciated area is higher on NW, N, E and NE. The other aspects have relatively few smaller glaciers. The ice reserves of various ordinal directions follow the pattern of total glaciated area i.e. maximum on the aspects having highest glacier coverage and vice versa. Table 7.4.4.3 shows the distribution of various types of glaciers in different ordinal directions. Generally all types of glaciers on western aspect are low in number. Out of 407 Mountain glaciers maximum (22%) are located on S followed by E and SE (15% each). Only 6% of this type of glaciers is oriented towards W (Figure 7.4.4.6). The Valley glaciers are mostly oriented towards northern aspects. Among these N, NW and NE have 54, 38 and 32 glaciers respectively out of a total of 201. In the NW the Ice cap and Ice apron glaciers are not found. The Ice cap are maximum (13) on S while Ice apron are maximum (6 each) on N and E. Cirque glaciers are mainly concentrated on eastern and northern aspects. The Niche glaciers also follow the pattern of Cirque glaciers. Table 7.4.4.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Hunza River basin
Aspect Number Area (Km2) Length (m) Ice reserve (km3) Total % 175.071 21.6 63.369 7.8 165.422 20.4 34.029 4.2 34.230 4.2 30.456 3.8 9.274 1.1 296.943 36.7 808.794

Total 159 N NE 173 E 152 SE 118 S 176 SW 117 W 56 NW 99 Total 1050

% Smallest Largest Total % Min. Max. Total 15.1 0.10 186.59 1116.92 23.9 457 34998 614348 16.5 0.0 5 134.27 513.44 11.0 357 29270 446334 14.5 0.07 336.72 827.82 17.7 350 58800 420654 11.2 0.06 106.93 291.45 6.2 292 22018 267067 16.8 0.09 85.06 331.04 7.1 236 65560 369004 11.1 0.08 93.45 265.74 5.7 321 20422 276348 5.3 0.08 31.92 104.44 2.2 215 7430 107233 9.4 0.07 521.15 1226.49 26.2 414 52774 413822 4677.34 2914810

124

Table7.4.4.3: Distribution of glacier types on different aspects in Hunza River basin

Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total
(a) Mountain glacier

Mountain Valley 40 52 61 60 91 44 26 33 407 54 32 24 12 16 18 7 38 201

Glacier Types Ice Ice Cap Cirque Apron 1 6 20 2 3 33 1 6 35 3 3 15 13 5 19 6 5 4 1 3 6 17 27 31 149

(b) Valley Glacier

Niche 38 51 25 25 32 40 13 11 235

Total 159 173 152 118 176 117 56 99 1050

W 6% SW 11% S 22%
(c) Ice cap glaciers

NW 8%

N 10%

NE 13% E 15%

SW 9% S 8% SE 6%

W 3%

NW 19%

N 27%

SE 15%
S 48%

E 12%

NE 16%

(d) Ice apronglaciers

W 10% N 19%

SW 16%

SE 11% E 4% NE N 7% 4% W 4%

SW 22%
S 16% SE 10% E 19%

NE 10%

125

(d) Cirque glaciers

(e) Niche glaciers

S 13% SE 10% E 24%

SW W 3% 4% NW 11%

W 6% SW 16% S 14%

NW N 5% 16% NE 21%

N 13%

NE 22%

SE 11%

E 11%

Figure 7.4.4.6: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Hunza River basin.

7.4.5 Shigar River Basin The Shigar River basin has the latitude and longitude range of 35 19' to 36 07' and 74 53' to 76 45' respectively (Figure 7.4.5.1). This basin is located in the northern areas bordering with China and Shyok River basin in the east, Hunza River basin in the north and Indus River basin in the south and west. The elevation range varies from about 2,500 masl to more than 8,600 masl.

126

Figure 7.4.5.1: Location map of the Shigar River basin.

127

The basin stretches over an area of 7,382 sq. km out of which, glacier area is about 2,240 sq. km (Table 7.4.5.1). The distribution of different types of the glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.5.2 and 7.4.5.3. The basin has a total of 194 glaciers out of which around 30 % are Mountain glaciers, 25% Niche, 24 % Valley and 18% Cirque glaciers. The Ice apronand Ice cap glaciers are 2% each. These 194 glaciers cover about 30.34 % of the total basin area. Some of the Valley glaciers in this basin are also of extensive size. The large size glaciers are mainly concentrated on the N, NE and NW aspects. Table 7.4.5.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Shigar River basin
Number Type Total Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total 34 4 3 58 49 46 194 % 17.5 2.1 1.5 29.9 25.3 23.7 Smallest Largest Total % Min. Max. Total 62848 2936 1661 142938 88970 500915 0.06 2.88 25.69 1.1 250 6460 0.08 0.37 0.92 0.0 380 1215 0.15 0.23 0.56 0.0 392 754 0.08 7.4 102.36 4.6 290 6354 0.08 1.74 29.01 1.3 344 3850 0.99 641.21 2081.54 92.9 2670 62624 2240.08 Area (km2) Length (m) Ice Reserves (km3) Total % 1.146 0.197 0.022 0.004 0.012 0.002 6.257 1.076 1.121 0.193 572.71 98.528 581.27

Ice apron 2% Niche 25%

Ice cap 2% Mountain 29% Valley 24%

Valley 93%

Cirque 18%

Mountain 5%

Cirque Niche 1% 1%

(a) Number percentage

(b) Area percentage

Figure 7.4.5.2: Distribution of number and area percentage of different types of glaciers in Shigar River basin.

128

Figure 7.4.5.3: The glacier distribution in the Shigar River basin.

The 24% Valley glaciers contribute 93% of the total glacier area followed by Mountain glaciers (30%) contributing 5% to the glacier area. The contribution of other types of glaciers like Niche and Cirque is 1% each. The largest Valley glaciers are Baltoro (Shig_gr129), Biafo (Shig-gr105), Panmah (Shig_gr 113) and Chogo lungma (Shig_gr 52) few of which presented in Figure 7.4.5.4. The details of all the glaciers of the basins are presented in Annex_gr_7.5. The Baltoro glacier with a length of 59 km has the maximum area of about 641 sq. km. The Biafo glacier has the maximum length of 62.6 km covering an area of 426 sq. km. The smallest valley glacier (Shig_gr 163) has an area of 0.99 sq. km.

129

(a) Numerous Valley glaciers entering into gigantic Baltoro glacier (Shig_gr 129)

(b) Panmah glacier (Shig_gr 113) in FCC 5(R)4(G)2(B)

(c) Chogo Lungma (mean Big valley) glacier (Shig_gr 52)

(d) Sosbun glacier (Shig_gr _95) in FCC Pan(R)4(G)2(B)

Figure 7.4.5.4: Typical large size and complex Valley glaciers in Shigar River basin

The Mountain glaciers altogether have the maximum total length of about 143 km. The minimum and maximum length of this category is 0.29 and 6.3 km respectively. The total length of Valley glaciers is 501 km. The Niche and Cirque glaciers contribute 89 km and 63 km to the total length of the glaciers. The total ice reserves of this basin are 581 km3. The two types of glaciers namely Valley and Mountain contribute to these ice reserves (Figure 7.4.5.5). The share of Valley glaciers to this reserve is 98.5% while about 1% is contributed by the Mountain glaciers. Less than half percent of the ice reserves is contributed by Niche, Cirque, Ice cap and ice apron type glaciers.

130

Valley 98.5%

Mountain 1.1% Cirque 0.2%

Niche 0.2%

Figure 7.4.5.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Shigar River basin.

The details of the distribution of glaciers on different aspects are presented in Table 7.4.5.2. Overall the glaciers are distributed uniformly in all directions. The maximum number of glaciers (38) is on the NE aspect while minimum number (16) is on the western aspect. The maximum glacier area (49.6%) is on the SE aspect followed by 31% on the western aspect. Rest of the area is distributed on all other directions. The extensive area on SE is due to the fact that most of the large Valley and Mountain glaciers are oriented towards this aspect. The total length of the glaciers follows almost the same pattern as that of the area. Table 7.4.5.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Shigar River basin
Aspect Number Total % Area (km2) Smallest Largest 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.11 0.26 0.23 0.08 0.13 27.74 11.19 10.47 53.27 7.40 641.21 11.97 Total 97.64 79.97 36.70 124.54 41.60 54.63 2240.08 % 4.36 3.57 1.64 5.56 1.86 2.44 Length (m) Min. Max. 290 13123 469 250 8559 6460 Total 89716 113071 51590 230256 74293 60337 107300 66950 793513 Ice Reserves (km3) Total % 9.98 5.81 2.42 304.69 16.67 2.85 234.79 4.07 581.27 1.72 1.00 0.42 52.42 2.87 0.49 40.39 0.70

N
NE E SE S SW W NW

26 13.40 38 19.59 27 13.92 32 16.49 17 17 16 8.76 8.76 8.25

426.09 1111.14 49.60

344 62624 724 15324 392 604 6675 8233 355 58970

693.86 30.97

21 10.82

Total 194

More than 50% ice reserves are on SE followed by 40% on the western aspect. Rest of the aspects contributes very little to the ice reserves. The distribution of Mountain glaciers is higher on NE, E and SE directions (Figure 7.4.5.6). The Valley glaciers are mostly concentrated on northern, north eastern and western aspects. Table 7.4.5.3 represents the orientation of various types of glaciers. Generally in this basin the glaciers are oriented towards northern and eastern aspects. The Mountain glaciers are more oriented towards eastern aspects followed by northern aspects. Out of 46 Valley glaciers, 18% are oriented towards N and 15% each towards NE and W (Figure 7.4.5.6). The southern aspects have the equal distribution of this type of glaciers. The Ice

131

cap and Ice apron glaciers are predominantly present on SE. The Cirque type glaciers distribution is low on southern aspects. Niche glaciers follow the same pattern.

Table 7.4.5.3: Distribution of glacier types in different aspects in Shigar River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Mountain 3 14 10 10 4 6 2 9 58 Valley 8 7 2 6 6 6 7 4 46 Glacier Types Ice cap Ice apron 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 4 Cirque 5 6 7 2 3 2 4 5 34 Niche 10 10 7 10 3 2 3 3 48 Total 26 38 27 32 17 17 16 21

132

(a) Mountain glaciers

(b) Valley glaciers

S 7%

SW 10%

W 3%

NW 16%

N 5%

W 15% SW 13% S 13%

NW 9%

N 18% NE 15%

SE 17%

E 17%

NE 25%

SE 13%

E 4%

(c) Ice cap glaciers

(d) Ice apron glaciers

SW 25%

NE 25%

S 25%

E 25%

SE 50%
(e) Cirque glaciers (f) Niche glaciers

SE 50%

SE 6% E 20%

S 9%

SW 6%

W 12% NW 15%

SE 21%

S 6%

SW 4%

W 6%

NW 6%

NE 17%

N 15%

E 15%

NE 21%

N 21%

Figure 7.4.5.6: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Shigar River basin.

7.4.6 Shyok River basin The Shyok River basin stretches over a latitudinal and longitudinal range of 34 39' to 35 42' and 75 56' to 77 27' respectively (Figure 7.4.6.1). This river basin is bounded with Jammu and Kashmir disputed Territory in south, China in northeast and Shigar and Indus River basins in the west. The elevation in the basin varies from more than 2,500 masl to more than 7,700 masl.

133

Figure 7.4.6.1: Location map of the Shyok River basin.

134

This basin has high peaks with the elevation of more than 7,000 masl. The total area of the basin is about 10,235 sq. km out of which 34.67% is under the glacier cover. The huge size glaciers are concentrated on NE and SE side of the basin.

There are 372 glaciers in the basin out of which 86% can be classified as mountain type glacier while only 14% are the Valley glaciers (Table 7.4.6.1). Among the Mountain glaciers 19 % are Niche, 16 % Cirque, 9 % Ice cap and 4 % Ice apron while the rest are categorized as Mountain glaciers (Figure 7.4.6.2).

Table 7.4.6.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Shyok River basin

Number Type Total Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total 61 13 32 143 71 52 372 % Area (km2) Length (m) Min. Max. 265 4888 398 1437 368 2835 353 11311 288 5014 540 76641 Total Ice Reserves ( km3) Total %

Smalle Largest Total % st 16.4 0.11 4.06 54.69 1.5 3.5 0.25 1.59 9.14 0.3 8.6 0.17 3.18 26.11 0.7 38.4 0.22 32.68 471.06 13.3 19.1 0.08 4.42 72.69 2.1 14.0 1.10 1112.03 2914.15 82.1 3547.84

89449 2.57 0.29 11204 0.35 0.04 31770 1.18 0.13 322917 38.16 4.28 137296 3.56 0.40 500844 845.98 94.86 1093480 891.80

The 372 glaciers contribute to a vast glacier area of about 3,548 sq. km (Figure 7.4.6.3). Though the Valley glaciers are only 14 % of the total number, they contribute more than 82 % to the glacier area. This high contribution is mainly due to larger area of the individual glaciers. Some of the important Valley glaciers shown in Figure 7.4.6.4 include Siachen (Shyk_gr 202), Kondus (Shyk_gr 69), Bilafond (Shyk_gr 98), Chogolisa (Shyk_gr 36), Ghandogoro (Shyk_gr 34) and Masherbrum (Shyk_gr 33).

Mountain 39%

Niche 19%

Valley 82%
Valley 14% Cirque 16%

Niche 2% Mountain 13% Ice cap 1%

(b) Area percentage

Ice cap 9%

Ice apron 3%

Cirque 2% Ice apron 0%

(a) Number percentage

Figure 7.4.6.2: Distribution of different types of glaciers in Shyok River basin.

135

Figure 7.4.6.3: The glacier distribution in the Shyok River basin

136

The Siachen is the biggest valley glacier of this basin (Figure 7.4.6.4) having an area of 1,112 sq. km followed by Shyk_gr 218 having an area of more than 323 sq. km (Annex_gr_7.6). The Bilafond glacier is a large size Valley glacier having several supra glacial lakes (Figure 7.4.6.4). The smallest Valley glacier (Shyk_gr 18) has an area of 1.1 sq km.

(a) A complex valley glacier - Siachen (Shyk_gr 202)

(b) Bilafond glacier (Shyk_gr 98)

(c) Ghandogoro (Left) and Chogolisa (Right) glaciers

(d) A Large Valley Glacier Masherbrum (Shyk_gr 33)

Figure 7.4.6.4: Some of the important Valley glaciers in Shyok River basin in FCC 5(R)4(G)2(B)

The Mountain glaciers are also of large size. The largest Mountain glacier (Shyk_gr 122) has an area of more than 32.67 sq. km while the smallest one (Shyk_gr 249) stretches over an area of 0.22 sq. km. The contribution of Mountain glaciers in the total glacier area is more than 13 %. The Niche and Cirque glaciers contribute almost 2% each to the total glacier area. The Cirque glaciers are larger in size as the largest glacier of this category (Shyk_gr 95) has an area of more than 4 sq. km and the smallest one has (Shyk_gr 319) an area of 0.11 sq. km. Ice cap and Ice apron types of glacier are also of reasonable size. As mentioned earlier the Valley glaciers are of huge size and it is reflected in the total length of these glaciers as well. The total length covered by the Valley glaciers is more than 500 km. The maximum length recorded for the Siachen glacier is 76.6 km. The minimum length recorded for the Valley glacier (Shyk_gr 18) is more than 2.6 km. The

137

total length of Mountain glaciers is about 323 km followed by Niche glaciers (137 km). Ice apron has the minimum length of about 11 km. Among the Mountain glaciers, the Table 7.4.6.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Shyok River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Number Total 48 % 12.9 Area (km2) Smallest Largest 0.23 0.17 0.08 0.18 0.28 0.36 0.11 13.65 140.15 322.78 177.69 81.63 9.43 84.51 Total 111.63 311.35 % 3.15 8.78 Length (m) Min. Max. 390 5348 552 15085 288 30587 540 76641 533 21362 548 18219 5353 265 19948 Total 90014 154196 Ice Reserves (km3) Total % 7.802 44.975 0.87 5.04 12.07 64.69 9.77 2.86 0.19 4.51

70 18.82 57 15.32 48 30 9 12.9 8.06 2.42 57 15.32

471.04 13.28 500.74 14.11 198.98 23.63 273.95 3547.84 5.61 7.72

152962 107.603 254334 576.934 186446 109754 22387 123387 87.127 25.507 1.658 40.195

0.21 1112.03 1656.52 46.69

0.67 1135

53 14.25 Total 372

1093480 891.801

longest one is Shyk_gr 122 and the smallest one is Shyk_gr 249.

The glacier area of the basin contributes to about 892 km3 of the total ice reserves of the basin. Again the major source of this huge ice reserve is the Valley glaciers which contribute more than 94% (Figure 7.4.6.5). The Mountain glaciers contribute 4.3% while the Niche and Cirque glaciers contribute 0.4 and 0.3 % respectively. Aspect wise the basin has been divided into various ordinal directions. Distribution of glaciers with respect to different aspects is presented is Table 7.4.6.2. Cirque glaciers are oriented towards NE (29%), NW (24%) and E (18%) but are absent on the western aspects. Niche glaciers are common on S, E and SE aspects. Aspect wise generally the glaciers distributed uniformly except the W and SW. The SE and S aspects have the maximum glacier area of about 1,657 and 501 sq. km respectively owing to the fact that the larger glaciers like Siachen, Kondus, Bilafond, Ghandogoro, Masherbrum, etc. are facing to these aspects. The E and NE also have higher percentage of total glacier area. Generally the total length of the glaciers is more than 100 km except for W and N. The glaciers on southeastern aspect have a total length of 254.3 km while the west facing glaciers have a length of more than 22 km.

In the total ice reserve, the glaciers on SE have a share of about 65%. About 12 % is contributed from the eastern aspect followed by southern (10 %) aspect. The contribution from western and the northern aspects is relatively low. The distribution of various types of glaciers in different ordinal direction is presented in Table 7.4.6.3 and Figure 7.4.6.6. Out of 143 Mountain glaciers, the distribution on western aspect is low while on the other aspects they are more or less uniformly distributed in the glaciated part of the basin. The

138

Valley glaciers are mostly oriented towards SE and NE. On the western aspects the distribution of Ice cap is poor while on northern aspect they are more in number. The Ice apron glaciers are only present on the NW, N, and NE aspects.

Table 7.4.6.3: Distribution of glacier types in different aspects in Shyok River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Mountain Valley 18 4 24 11 20 6 18 12 23 10 16 4 4 2 20 3 143 52 Ice cap 8 9 5 3 3 0 1 3 32 Glacier Types Ice apron Cirque 5 7 1 18 0 11 0 4 0 4 0 2 0 0 7 15 13 61 Niche 6 7 15 11 17 8 2 5 71 Total 48 70 57 48 57 30 9 53 372

Ice cap 0.1% Ice apron 0.0%

Cirque 0.3%

Mountain 4.3% Niche 0.4%

Valley 94.9%
Figure 7.4.6.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Shyok River basin.

139

(a) Mountain glacier

W 3% SW 11% S 16% E 14% NW 14% N 13%

(b) Valley Glacier

SW 8% W NW 4% 6%

NE 16%

S 19%

N 8%

SE 13%

SE 22%

E 12%

NE 21%

(c) Ice cap glaciers

NE 29% E 16% NW 9% W 3% S 9% SE 9%

(d) Ice apronglaciers

NW 54% N 38% NE 8%

N 25%

(e) Cirque glaciers

N 11% NE 29% E 18% NW 25% SW 3% S 7% SE 7%

(f) Niche glaciers

SW 11% S 25% SE 15% E 21% W NW N 3% 7% 8% NE 10%

Figure 7.4.6.6: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Shyok River basin.

7.4.7 Indus River basin The Indus River is the trunk river of Pakistan with many other major tributaries. The northern part of the basin with mostly glaciated area is considered as the upper Indus River. The Basin is located in the northern areas with the latitude and longitude range of 33 55' to 36 02' and 72 11' to 76 36' respectively (Figure 7.4.7.1). It is the largest river basin of Pakistan bounded in west by Swat River basin, in the north by Gilgit and Hunza River basins, in the northeast by Shigar River basin and in the east by Shyok River basin. In the south the Shingo, Astor and Jhelum River basins are located. The major portion of the basin consists of mountainous terrain with an elevation range of about 1,000 masl to more than 7,500 masl close to the Nanga Parbat in the west. The basin occupies an area of 32,571.2 sq. km out of which the glacier area is about 688 sq. km (Table 7.4.7.1). The distribution of different types of glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.7.2 and 7.4.7.3.

140

Most of the glaciers (97%) are classified as Mountain glaciers including the Ice cap, Cirque, Niche, and Ice apron (sub types). These sub-types are based on the characteristics of position, thickness of the ice, topographical locations, etc. Among these sub types the maximum number is of Cirque type (43%) followed by Mountain (23%), Niche (19%) and Ice apron (9%). Only about three percent of glaciers are classified as Ice caps.

Generally the Valley glaciers are large in size and length (Figure 7.4.7.4). In spite of having only about 3 percent share in total number, they cover an area of 291 sq. km, which is about 42% of the total glacier area. The largest and smallest glacier of this category has an area of 41 and 1 sq. km respectively. The Mountain glaciers are smaller in size and altogether contribute 58% of the total glacier area. Among the specialized Mountain glaciers, the Cirque glaciers are relatively larger in size and cover an area of 106 sq. km. The Ice caps are the smallest glaciers and contribute only 1.4% of the area.

Table 7.4.7.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Indus River basin

Type Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total Number Total 471 103 33 254 205 32 1098 Area (km2) % 15.4 3.4 1.4 31.5 6.1 Length (m) Min. Max. 136 122 121 132 136 3737 2519 2716 4989 3224 Total 278847 56769 19172 169074 Ice reserve (km3) Total % 2.62 0.53 0.28 0.90 5.65 1.14 0.60 22.70 1.94 67.96

% Smallest Largest Total 42.9 9.4 3.0 23.1 18.7 2.9 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 1.02 4.45 105.91 2.15 1.32 1.13 23.34 9.63 41.75 688.00

5.29 216.67 40.74 290.70

304650 10.53 213861 31.52 1042373 46.38

42.2 2215 18284

141

Figure 7.4.7.1: Location map of the Indus River basin.

142

Niche 19%

Valley 3% Cirque 43%

Valley 43%

Cirque 15%

Ice apron 3% Ice cap 1% Mountain 32%

Mountain 23%

Ice cap 3%

Ice apron 9%

Niche 6%

(a) Number percentage

(b) Area percentage

Figure 7.4.6.2: Distribution of different types of glaciers in Indus River basin.

The total 1,098 glaciers of the Indus River basin are the good source of ice reserves of about 46 km3. The Valley glaciers contribute more than 67% to the ice reserves of the basin while rest is contributed by the Mountain glaciers and their subtypes (Figure 7.4.7.5). Most of the Valley glaciers are concentrated only in the northern aspects of this basin. There are altogether 32 Valley glaciers and the largest (40.7 sq. km) glacier is Kotha Lungma (Ind_gr 378). Other major Valley glaciers are Mani (Ind_gr 350), Rakhiot (Ind_gr 811), Phuparash (Ind_gr 342), Diamir (Ind_gr 824), Baskai (Ind_gr 347) and Goropha (Ind_gr 386). The Valley glaciers are mostly fed by snow avalanches and adjacent ice masses. The inventory of glaciers is given in the Annex_gr_7.7. The extensive coverage of Valley glaciers is because of the fact that the Mountain glaciers join the Valley glaciers and so the whole ice mass is classified as a Valley Glacier. Some of the important and well known Mountain glaciers include Chambar (Ind_gr 1086), Saigal (Ind_gr 1083) and Patro (Ind_gr 819).

143

Figure 7.4.7.3: The glacier distribution in the Indus River basin.

144

(a) Buldar (Ind_gr 803) covering an area of 11.2 sq. km.

(b) Diamir (Ind_gr 824) covering an area of 18.3 sq. km.

(c) Rakhiot (Ind_gr 811) covering an area of 23.5 sq. km. Figure 7.4.7.4: Typical large size Valley glaciers in the Indus River basin.

145

Niche 2% Mountain 23%

Valley 67%

Cirque Ice cap 1% Ice apron 6% 1%

Figure 7.4.7.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Indus River basin.

This river basin is divided into various classes based on the aspect. Table 7.4.7.2 includes the details of the various types of glaciers in different ordinal directions. Aspect-wise, most of the glaciers are oriented towards N (21%) and NE ((20%) followed by the E aspect (13 %). On the southern aspects like S, SW and SE the glacier percentage (9, 8 and 8 respectively) is low. Similarly the total glacier area on N and NE aspects is highest. The minimum area under snow is on W, E and SW aspects. The major ice reserves are on N, SE, S, NE and NW aspects for being 21, 19, 18, 12 and 11 percent respectively. The E, W and SW aspect have the minimum ice reserves probably due to the reason that most of the Mountain glaciers dominate on these aspects. Table 7.4.7.3 shows the distribution of various types of glaciers in different ordinal directions. The Mountain glaciers are more on northern and eastern aspects while the south western and south eastern aspects have the minimum number. Out of 32 Valley glaciers there are 7 glaciers facing towards N and 6 towards S followed by 5 on NE. The E, SE and SW have 3 Valley glaciers each. There is only one glacier of this type on NW. The specialized type of Mountain glaciers - Ice apron are mostly concentrated on northern aspect while Cirque and Niche type glaciers are predominant on north eastern and northern aspects (Figure 7.4.7.6).

Table 7.4.7.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Indus River basin
Number Aspect Total N NE E SE S SW W NW Total 231 218 142 83 98 89 118 119 1098 % 21.0 19.8 12.9 7.6 8.9 8.1 10.7 10.8 Smalles t 0.041 0.031 0.032 0.022 0.033 0.034 0.040 0.059 Area (Km2) Length (m) Ice reserve (km3) % 20.78 11.77 4.98 19.40 17.81 9.10 5.35 10.80 Larges Total % Min. Max. Total Total t 23.81 146.61 21.31 122 12165 197131 9.64 11.20 105.32 15.31 132 9306 198489 5.46 4.34 57.24 8.32 136 4989 117766 2.31 40.74 85.37 12.41 154 18284 88064 9.00 23.10 99.33 14.44 226 15171 115096 8.26 17.35 61.84 8.99 136 12056 102189 4.22 4.98 56.83 8.26 171 5195 116764 2.48 23.48 75.44 10.97 121 13725 106874 5.01 688.00 1042373 46.38

146

Table 7.4.7.3: Distribution of glacier types on different aspects in Indus River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Mountain Valley 62 7 40 5 41 3 16 3 25 6 14 3 17 4 39 1 254 32 Ice cap 3 10 2 5 4 3 3 3 33 Glacier Types Ice apron Cirque 36 85 11 96 11 56 6 40 12 45 6 45 8 58 13 46 103 471 Niche 38 56 29 13 6 18 28 17 205 Total 231 218 142 83 98 89 118 119 1098

(a) Mountain glacier

N 24% NW 15% W 7% SW 6% S SE 10% 6% NE 16% E 16%

(b) Valley Glacier

W 13% SW 9% S 19% NE 16% NW 3% N 22%

SE 9%

E 9%

(c) Ice cap glaciers

W 9% SW 9% S 12%
(e) Cirque glaciers

(d) Ice apronglaciers

N 9%
N 34% NE 11%

NW 9%

NE 31%

E 11% SE 6%

SE 15%

E 6%

NW 12%

W 8%

SW 6%

S 12%

(f) Niche glaciers

N 19%

N 18% NW 10% W 12%

NE 20%

E 12% SE 8%

NW 8% W 14%

NE 27%

SW 10%

S 10%

SW S 9% 3%

SE 6%

E 14%

Figure 7.4.7.4: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Indus River basin.

147

7.4.8 Shingo River basin The latitude and longitude range of Shingo River basin is 34 40' to 35 11' and 75 06' to 76 15' respectively (Figure 7.4.8.1). It is bounded in west by Jhelum and Astor River basins, in the north and east by eastern part of Indus River. In the basin, elevation ranges from 3,800 masl to about 6,000 masl. The basin occupies an area of 4,679.5 sq. km out of which the glacier area is about 36.9 sq. km (Table 7.4.8.1). Generally the glaciers in this river basin are small which are distributed along the basin boundary and along the drainage. The distribution of different type of glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.8.2 and 7.4.8.3. Generally the glaciers in this basin are small in size and of Cirque and Mountain type (Figure 7.4.8.4). There are total of 172 glaciers identified in the basin. The Cirque type glaciers dominate the basin and contribute more than 45% of the total glacier number. These are followed by Mountain glaciers, which are 28% of the total glaciers in this basin. The Ice apron and Niche glaciers contribute about 16 and 8% respectively. There are only 5 glaciers classified as Ice cap and only one Valley glacier. The detailed attribute data of all the glaciers is included in the Annex_gr_7.8. Table 7.4.8.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Shingo River basin
Type Number Area (km2) Length (m) Max. 1397 586 718 1617 1972 1683 Total 43225 10109 1916 31743 10981 1683 99657 Ice Reserves (km3) Total % 0.331 32.8 0.049 4.86 0.008 0.79 0.532 52.73 0.067 6.64 0.022 2.18 1.009

Total Cirque 77 Ice apron 27 Ice cap 5 Mountain 49 Niche 13 Valley 1 Total 172

% Smallest Largest Total % Min. 44.8 0.05 0.77 13.98 37.9 162 15.7 0.03 0.23 2.71 7.3 166 2.9 0.05 0.17 0.46 1.2 277 28.5 0.05 1.37 16.58 44.9 158 7.6 0.05 0.75 2.56 6.9 381 0.6 0.62 1.7 1683 36.91

Out of the total glacier area of 36.9 sq. km, the Mountain glaciers contribute maximum (44.9%) followed by Cirque glaciers (37.9%). The largest Cirque glacier (Shin_gr 92) has an area of about 0.77 sq. km while the smallest glacier (Shin_gr 84) has an area of 0.046 sq. km. In this class there are 9 glaciers having an area of more than 0.3 sq. km, 24 more than 0.2 sq. km and 52 more than 0.1 sq. km. The largest Mountain glacier (Shin_gr 15) has an area of about 1.38 sq. km while the smallest one (Shin_gr 32) has an area of only 0.047 sq. km.

148

Figure 7.4.8.1: Location map of the Shingo River basin.

149

Niche 8% Mountain 28% Ice Cap 3%

Valley 1% Cirque 44%

Niche 7% Mountain 45% Ice Cap 1%

(b) Area percentage

Valley 2% Cirque 38% Ice Apron 7%

Ice Apron 16%

(a) Number percentage

Figure 7.4.8.2: Distribution of number and area percentage of different types of glaciers in Shingo River basin.

The Ice apron and Niche type glaciers contribute about 7% each in the glacier area of the basin. The Ice cap glaciers are of smaller in size and because of less number they contribute only 1.25 % in the total glacier area. Generally the glaciers of this basin are not very long. The total length of Cirque and Mountain glacier is 43.22 and 31.74 km respectively followed by Niche and Ice apron type of glacier. The longest glacier (1.97 km) is of Niche type. The 172 glaciers of this basin contribute only about 1.01 km3 of the ice reserves. Due to the fact that there is only one Valley glacier in this basin, the ice reserves are very low. Out of 1.01 km3 of ice reserves, about 53 % is contributed by Mountain and 33 % by Cirque glaciers (Figure 7.4.8.5). The Niche, Ice apron, Valley and Ice cap contribute altogether about 14% to total ice reserves. The distribution of glaciers according to various ordinal directions is presented in Table 7.4.8.2. The maximum number of glaciers is oriented towards NE and NW (21 % each) followed by N (20 %). The glaciers on SE and SW aspects are 10 each in number. The minimum number of glaciers (7) is on S aspect. The pattern of number of glaciers on various aspects is also reflected in the area covered under glaciers i.e. maximum area of 8.2, 7.55 and 7.0 sq. km on N, NW and NE respectively. These aspects have the maximum number of Cirque and Mountain glaciers. The total length of the glaciers follows the same pattern i.e. maximum length of 22.06, 18.94 and 18.84 km on NE, N and NW respectively. The minimum length of 4.2 km is on the southern aspect.

150

Figure 7.4.8.3: The glacier distribution in the Shingo River basin.

151

(a) Small size Mountain glaciers

(b) Mountain glaciers with scattered glacial lakes

Figure 7.4.8.4: Typical small size Mountain glaciers and lakes distributed in Shingo River basin.

Niche 7% Mountain 52% Ice Cap 1%

Valley 2% Cirque 33% Ice Apron 5%

Figure 7.4.8.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Shingo River basin.

Table 7.4.8.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Shingo River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Number Total 34 36 26 10 7 10 13 36 172 Area (km2) Length (m) Ice Reserves (km3) Total % 0.245 24.28 0.191 18.93 0.117 11.6 0.093 9.22 0.061 6.05 0.047 4.66 0.045 4.46 0.21 20.81 1.009

% Smallest Largest Total % Min. Max. Total 19.77 0.06 1.37 8.22 22.27 174 1348 18940 20.93 0.04 0.77 7.00 18.97 158 1972 22059 15.12 0.03 0.54 4.80 13.00 241 1397 15153 5.81 0.05 0.86 3.07 8.32 234 1451 6886 4.07 0.09 0.72 2.10 5.69 336 1148 4204 5.81 0.09 0.42 2.07 5.61 296 866 4873 7.56 0.05 0.29 2.10 5.69 162 1058 8696 20.93 0.04 0.98 7.55 20.46 166 1683 18846 36.91 99657

152

The maximum ice reserve (0.245 km3) is on N followed by NW (0.21 km3) and NE (0.19 km3). Due to small size of fewer glaciers on SW, S and W the ice reserves are low as well. The distribution of various types of glaciers with respect to aspect is presented in Table 7.4.8.3 and Figure 7.4.8.6. Out of 172 glaciers, 36 each are oriented towards NE and NW followed by 34 towards N. The minimum number of glaciers i.e. 7 is present on southern aspect. Maximum Mountain glaciers are oriented towards N (12) followed by 9 each on NE, E and NW.

Table 7.4.8.3: Distribution of glacier types on different aspects in Shingo River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Mountain Valley 12 0 9 0 9 0 5 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 9 1 49 1 Ice cap 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 5 Glacier Types Ice apron Cirque 2 16 10 13 3 10 0 3 2 2 2 7 1 8 7 18 27 77 Niche 2 4 3 1 0 0 3 0 13 Total 34 36 26 10 7 10 13 36 172

The Ice cap glaciers are predominantly oriented towards northern aspects. The Cirque glaciers are distributed on various aspects but predominantly on NW, N and NE aspects followed by E, W and SW aspects. Niche type glaciers in this basin are dominated on northeastern aspect.

153

(a) Ice cap glaciers

NW 20%

(b) Ice apron glaciers

E 11% S 7% SW 7% W 4% NW 26%

N 40%

SE 20%

E 20%

NE 38%

N 7%

(c) Mountain glacier

SE 10%

S 6%

SW 2%

W 2%

NW 18%

E 18%

NE 19%

N 25%

(d) Cirque glaciers

(e) Niche glaciers

NW 23% W 10% SW 9% S 3% SE 4%

N 21% NE 17% E 13%

E 23%

SE 8%

W 23%

NE 31%

N 15%

Figure 7.4.8.6: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Shingo River basin.

7.4.9. Astor River basin The Astor River basin is located in the northern areas with latitude and longitude range of 34-45' to 35-38' and 74-24' to 75-14' respectively (Figure 7.4.9.1). The major portion of the basin consists of mountainous terrain with an elevation range of 1,200 masl to more than 7,500 masl close to the Nanga Parbat range in the west. The basin occupies an area of about 4,214 Km2 and possesses glaciated area of about 607 Km2 (Table 7.4.9.1).

154

Figure 7.4.9.1: Location map of the Astor River basin.

155

The distribution of different types of the glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.9.2. Figure 7.4.9.3 shows the glaciated area distribution in the Astor River basin. Table 7.4.8.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Astor River basin
Type Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Niche Valley Total Number Area (km2) Length (m) % Min. Max. 2.4 175 2800 2.8 165 0.5 215 1230 790 5745 Total 22865 34530 6280 Ice Reserves (km3) Total % 0.560 1.168 0.430 0.897 0.050 0.104

Total % Smallest Largest Total 33 5.6 0.03 2.68 14.34 64 10.9 15 19 18 588 2.5 3.2 3.1 0.04 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.65 1.12 17.21 0.79 2.91

Mountain 439 74.7

8.34 328.75 54.2 175

359430 15.970 33.319 8925 0.001 0.002 117025 30.920 64.509 47.931 54905 5

0.20 2.03 0.3 165 885 56.80 241.79 39.8 410 16665 607.03

Most of the glaciers (97%) are classified as Mountain glaciers including the sub-types. These sub-types are based on their characteristics like the position, thickness of the ice, topographical locations etc. Rest of the glaciers (3%) is classified as Valley glaciers covering an area of about 242 km2. Though the number of Valley glaciers is low but the total area coverage, maximum and minimum area, length and ice reserves are of higher magnitude compared to rest of the glaciers. Some of the glimpses of the Valley glaciers like Bazhin (Astor_gr 566), and Sachen (Astor_gr 575) which have lengths greater than 12 km each and the distribution of glaciated cover in the basin, are shown in Figure 7.4.9.4. These valley glaciers are mostly fed by snow avalanches and adjacent ice masses. A 3D view of the basin is presented in Figure 7.4.9.5.
Mountain 74% Niche 3%
Valley 40%

Cirque 2%

Ice apron 3%

Ice cap 3% Ice apron Cirque Valley 3% 11% 6%

(a) Number percentage

Mountain 55%
(b) Area percentage

Figure 7.4.9.2: Distribution of different types of glaciers in Astor River basin.

The inventory of the glaciers (Annex_gr_7.9) shows total of six glaciers having lengths greater than 10 km whereas six have lengths ranging from 0 to 5 km. The extensive coverage of Valley glaciers is because of the fact that sometime the Mountain glaciers are

156

Figure 7.4.9.3: The glacier distribution in the Astor River basin.

157

joining the Valley glaciers and so whole ice mass is classified as valley glacier. The glaciers classified as Ice cap are minimum in number (15) and since these cover only the top of the mountains, the area coverage is also low (0.48%). All the glaciers in this category have less than 1 km2 area. The contribution of Niche and Ice cap glaciers is very low and both types collectively contribute about 0.05 km3 of ice reserves to the total. The contribution to the total ice reserves is highest of Valley glaciers (Figure 7.4.9.6).

(a) Bahzin glacier (Astor_gr 566)

(b) Sachen glacier (Astor_gr 575)

(c) Glaciers in FCC Pan(R)7(G)2(B) (d) Glaciers draining into River network of the basin Figure 7.4.9.4: Glimpses of typical Valley glaciers and distribution of glaciated cover in Astor River basin

158

Figure 7.4.9.5: 3-Dimentional view of the glaciated cover in Astor River basin.

The number of Ice apron type of glaciers is though higher than Valley glaciers but the area coverage is quite low (2.84%). Since these glaciers have very low thickness and they do not extend over large areas, their total ice reserves are only 0.43 km3.
Cirque 1% Ice apron 1% Mountain 33% Valley 65%
Figure 7.4.9.6: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Astor River basin.

Table 7.4.9.2 includes the details of the various characteristics of the glaciers in different ordinal directions. Aspect-wise, most of the glaciers (26%) are oriented towards north followed by NW (18.9 %) and NE (17.2%). On the SW and W 9.9 and 8.5 percent of glaciers are found respectively. The S, SE and E aspects have the minimum number of glaciers (34, 37 and 41 respectively).

159

Table 7.4.9.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Astor River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Number Total 156 101 41 37 34 58 50 111 588 Area (km2) Length (m) % Min Max 13.5 165 3175 19.5 175 16665 11.2 175 10765 21.3 250 12930 4.6 185 2510 8.5 185 5745 4.7 195 1785 16.7 215 6355 Total 108040 98340 48365 85080 23208 53812 35190 97020 549055 % Smallest Largest Total 26.5 0.04 4.21 81.95 17.2 0.04 56.8 118.29 6.9 0.03 24.17 68.04 6.3 0.08 33.72 129.33 5.8 0.04 7.33 27.86 9.9 0.09 8.34 51.43 8.5 0.03 3.03 28.85 18.9 0.04 15.7 101.28 607.03 Ice reserve (km3) Total % 3.36 7.01 12.313 25.69 6.787 14.16 13.775 28.74 1.534 3.2 2.809 5.86 1.213 2.53 6.14 12.81 47.931

The SE aspect possesses the highest accumulative area of glaciers (129.33 km2) due to higher number of Valley glaciers. The lowest accumulative glaciated area is on the southern aspect (27.86 km2). Similarly the ice reserves of glaciers facing SE are maximum (13.77 km3) followed by NE facing glaciers (12.31 km3). The minimum ice reserves of 1.213 km3 and 1.534 km3 are found on the W and S respectively. Generally the glaciers are concentrated in the northern, northwestern and northeastern aspects which is due to the fact of the orientation of the basin towards the north (Table 7.4.9.3). The glaciers facing S and SE are fewer in number probably because of the higher temperatures on these aspects. Major glaciers are found along the boundary of the basin. In the center of the basin the glaciers are small and scattered. The orientation of the various types of glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.9.7. More than 44 percent of the Valley glaciers are oriented towards southeast. The other Valley glaciers are oriented towards northeast (16.7%), east, southwest, and northwest (11.1% each). Very few of these glaciers are oriented towards south. Table 7.4.9.3: Distribution of glacier types on different aspects in Astor River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Mountain Valley 122 82 3 26 2 22 8 24 1 41 2 38 84 2 439 18 Ice cap 4 1 1 3 3 1 2 15 Glacier Types Ice apron 19 6 7 6 2 5 5 14 64 Cirque 9 3 3 0 3 1 5 9 33 Niche 6 3 2 1 6 1 19 Total 156 101 41 37 34 58 50 111 588

160

(a) Mountain glacier

(b) Valley Glacier

NE 19% N 28%

E 6%

SE 5%

S 5% SW 9% W 9% NW

SW 11% S 6%

NW 11%

NE 17% E 11%

19%

SE 44%

(c) Ice cap glaciers

(d) Ice apron glaciers

W 7% SW 20%

NW 13%

S 20%

NE 26% E 7% SE 7%

E 11% NE 9%

SE 9%

S 3%

SW 8%

W 8% NW 22%

N 30%

(e) Cirque glaciers

(f) Niche glaciers

E NE 9% 9% N 28%

S 9%

SW 3% W 15% NW 28%

NE 16%

E 11%

S 5%

SW 32%

N 32%

W 5%

Figure 7.4.9.7: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Astor River basin.

7.4.10. Jhelum River basin The Jhelum River basin is located in the northern areas with the latitude and longitude range of 34 04' to 35 08' and 73 17' to 75 16' respectively (Figure 7.4.10.1). This river basin is bounded in the west by southwestern part of Indus River basin, in the north by Indus and Astor River basins and in the east by Shingo River basins. The basin stretches over an elevation range of 1,200 masl to more than 4,700 masl. The basin occupies an area of 9,198.4 sq. km out of which about 148 sq. km is the glacier area (Table 7.4.10.1). The distribution of different types of glaciers is presented in Figure 7.4.10.2 and 7.4.10.3.

161

Figure 7.4.10.1: Location map of Jhelum River basin.

162

Out of 384 glaciers of this basin most of them (98%) are classified as Mountain type glaciers. Among the Mountain glaciers maximum number (176) is of Cirque glaciers followed by Ice apron (79). Ice cap and Niche type glaciers are fewer in number. There are only 8 Valley glaciers in the basin. These glaciers are large in size since the largest glacier (Shonthar, Jhe_gr 286) and smallest glacier (Jhe-gr 94) of this class have area of 8.53 sq. km and 0.96 sq. km (Annex_gr_7.10).

Table 7.4.10.1: Details of various types of glaciers of Jhelum River basin

Type Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total Number Area (km2) % Length (m) Min. Max. 2345 929 537 4198 Total 92361 29415 3948 65241 29383 38085 258433 Ice Reserves (km3) Total % 1.003 0.197 0.029 3.012 0.258 2.444 6.943 14.45 2.84 0.42 43.38 3.72 35.20

Total % Smallest Largest Total 176 45.8 79 20.6 11 2.9 63 16.4 47 12.2 8 384 2.1 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.96 1.20 0.37 0.37 6.14 0.90 8.53 36.15 10.03 1.48 59.05 9.58 31.89 148.18

24.0 115 6.8 105 1.0 203 39.8 158

6.5 150 2434 21.5 158 11129

The eight Valley glaciers all together contribute more than 21 percent of the total glacier area. Various band combinations are used to highlight the features of the glaciers and the snow and ice. Figure 7.4.10.4 shows the two large size Valley glaciers namely Shonthar and Sarawali in various FCCs.

Cirque 46%

Ice apron 21%

Niche 6%

Valley 22%

Valley 2% Niche 12% Mountain 16%

Ice cap 3%

Mountain Ice cap 40% 1%

Cirque 24% Ice apron 7%

(a) Number percentage

(b) Area percentage

Figure 7.4.10.2: Distribution of different types of glaciers in Jhelum River basin.

163

Figure 7.4.10.3: Glacier distribution in the Jhelum River basin.

164

(a) FCC R(Pan)G(4)B(2)

(b) FCC R(4)G(3)B(2)

(c) FCC R(Pan)G(7)B(6b) Figure 7.4.10.4: Large size Valley glaciers (Jhe_gr 274 and Jhe_gr 286) in Jhelum River basin.

165

Few of the Cirque glaciers are also of large size and due to their higher number as well they contribute 24% to the glacier area. Out of total of 176 Cirque glaciers, two of them have an area of more than 1 sq. km and 15 more than 0.5 sq. km. The largest Cirque glacier (Jhe_gr 159) has an area of about 1.2 sq. km while the smallest (Jhe_gr 34) has 0.02 sq. km. Some of the Mountain glaciers of this valley are of large size too. They all together contribute more than 39 % of the glacier area. The largest Mountain glacier (Jhe_gr 306) has an area of more than 6 sq. km. There are 2 glaciers having an area of more than 3 sq. km, five more than two sq. km and 13 more than one sq. km. The smallest Mountain glacier (Jhe_gr 174) has an area of 0.06 sq. km. The Niche and Ice apron type of glaciers contribute about 6% each followed by Ice cap glaciers (1%). The total length of Cirque, Mountain and Ice apron glaciers is more than 92, 65 and 29 km respectively. The total length of Valley glaciers is only about 38 km. The Ice caps are small glaciers and have a total length of about 4 km. The total ice reserves of the basin are 6.94 km3. The Mountain, Valley and Cirque glaciers are the major source of this ice reserves for being having 43, 35 and 14 percent share in a total reserve respectively (Figure 7.4.10.5). The Ice aprons have only 3 percent ice reserves of the basin. The Ice cap glaciers are small and contribute only 0.42 percent to the ice reserves of the basin.

Niche 3.7% Mountain 43.3% Ice cap 0.5%

Valley 35.2% Cirque 14.4%

Ice apron 2.8%

Figure 7.4.10.5: Ice reserves of different types of glaciers in Jhelum River basin.

The distribution of the glaciers in various ordinal directions is presented in Table 7.4.10.2. Maximum glaciers (23%) are present on the northern aspect followed by western aspects (about 18%). The E has 12.5 %, SW and NE about 11% each. The minimum number of glaciers is on SE and S aspects being 7.8 and 8.3 percent respectively. The maximum glacier area is on W and N aspect (19.6 and 19% respectively). This is probably due to the fact that on the western aspect the Cirque and Mountain glaciers are highest in number (Table 7.4.10.3 and Figure 7.4.10.6). As mentioned earlier that in this basin some of these types of glaciers are of large size therefore, they contribute to the higher glaciated cover. The higher coverage on western (29 km2) and northern (28 km2) aspect is contributed to the higher number of these glaciers; and a large size Valley glaciers. The number of Cirque, Ice apron and Mountain glaciers are also high. 166

The glaciers on SE aspects are few in number and therefore, the contribution in the glacier area is low as well. The total length of the glaciers generally follows the pattern of Table 7.4.10.2: Distribution of glaciers under different aspects in Jhelum River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Number Total 88 41 48 30 32 42 69 34 384 Area (km2) % 18.9 6.6 8.0 14.7 9.8 8.1 19.6 14.3 Length (m) Min. Max. 105 3385 188 2434 192 1343 134 11129 112 4198 204 2170 144 2208 115 3867 Total 48091 26422 26179 34547 27266 27789 42773 25366 258433 Ice Reserves (km3) Total % 1.117 16.09 0.292 4.21 0.357 5.14 1.581 22.77 0.622 8.96 0.43 6.19 1.367 19.69 1.177 16.95 6.943

% Smallest Largest Total 22.9 0.02 3.1 28.02 10.7 0.03 1.09 9.81 12.5 0.04 1.81 11.84 7.8 0.02 8.53 21.74 8.3 0.03 3.24 14.5 10.9 0.04 2.16 12.04 18.0 0.02 6.14 29.03 8.8 0.03 5.61 21.2 148.18

area distribution. However the total ice reserves besides the SE and W (23 and 20% respectively), on NW aspect are also higher (17%). The minimum ice reserves (4 %) are on the NE owing to the fact that on this aspect the glacier area is lowest due to small size glaciers.

Table 7.4.10.3: Distribution of glacier types on different aspects in Jhelum River basin
Aspect N NE E SE S SW W NW Total Mountain 15 2 9 2 9 5 18 3 63 Valley 1 2 0 2 1 0 0 2 8 Ice cap 3 0 4 0 1 1 1 1 11 Glacier Types Ice apron 23 11 4 5 4 9 14 9 79 Cirque 39 21 28 15 12 17 29 15 176 Niche 7 5 3 6 5 10 7 4 47 Total 88 41 48 30 32 42 69 34 384

167

(a) Mountain glacier

(b) Valley glaciers

S 13%

W 29% SW 8% S 14% SE 3% E 14%

NW 5% N 24% NE 3%

SE 25%

NW 25% N 13%

NE 24%

(c) Ice cap glaciers

(d) Ice apron glaciers

NW 11% N 30%

E 37%

N 27%

W 18%

NW 9%

W 9%

SW 9%

S 9%

SW 11%

S 5%

SE 6%

E 5%

NE 14%

(e) Cirque glaciers

(f) Niche glaciers

NW 9% N 15%

W 16% SW 10%

NW 9%

N 21% NE 12%

W 15%

NE 11% E 6%

S 7%

SE 9%

E 16%

SW 20%

S 11%

SE 13%

Figure 7.4.10.6: Distribution of different types of glaciers with respect to aspect in Jhelum River basin.

7.4.11. Summary In summary the total geographic area of the selected ten basins under investigation namely Swat, Chitral, Gilgit, Hunza, Shigar, Shyok, Indus, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum is 128,730.8 sq. km (Table 7.4.11.1). Indus River Basin is the largest basin in the HKH region of Pakistan and covers about 25 % of the area. Another 55% area is shared by Hunza, Chitral, Swat and Gilgit river basins. Shingo and Astor River basins are the smallest basins. Over the vast track of these ten basins, 5,218 glaciers are identified (Figure 7.4.11.1). These glaciers are mainly distributed in the northern part of HKH region covering higher

168

Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges. These glaciers are also present at the higher elevations of Himalayas. Maximum number of glaciers (1098 and 1050) is in the Indus and Hunza river basins respectively. Among these two basins, the glaciers are larger in size in Hunza River basin compared to Indus River basin. The southern basins like Swat, Shigar, Shyok and Jhelum have relatively less number of glaciers (Figure 7.4.11.2). Astor and Gilgit River basins contribute equal number (11% each) of glaciers. All the ten basins contribute to a total glacier area of about 15,040.8 sq. km which is 11.68% of the total area. The Shingo and Jhelum river basins contribute less than one percent to the glacier area. On contrary only 194 (4%) glaciers in Shigar River basin contribute about 15% to the glacier area and 1098 (22%) glaciers in Indus River basin contribute only about 5% of glacier area.

Table 7.4.11.1: Summary of glacier inventory in ten basins

Basins Swat Chitral Gilgit Hunza Shigar Shyok Indus Shingo Astor Jhelum Total Basin Area (km2) 14656.23 15322.43 14082.46 16389.48 7381.70 10235.40 32571.20 4679.50 4214.00 9198.40 128730.80 No. of Glaciers 233 542 585 1050 194 372 1098 172 588 384 5218 Glacier area (km2) 223.55 1903.67 968.10 4677.34 2240.08 3547.84 688.00 36.91 607.03 148.18 15040.70 Total Length (km) 329.84 1416.06 1185.45 2914.81 829.07 1093.48 1042.37 99.65 549.05 258.43 9718.21 Ice Reserves (km3) 12.221 258.817 83.345 808.794 581.268 891.801 46.381 1.009 47.931 6.943 2738.510

The total length of glaciers in ten basins is more than 9,718 km (Table 7.4.11.1). The glacier length in Hunza River basin is highest (about 2,915 km) followed by Chitral and Gilgit (1,416 and 1185 respectively). Shyok and Indus basins have about the same total length of glaciers. In Shingo River basin the glaciers are small in size as well as length. Figure 7.4.11.3 shows the distribution of ice reserves in ten basins. To a total of 2,738.5 km3 of ice reserves of 10 basins, the maximum is contributed by Shyok River basin (32%) followed by Hunza (30%) and Shigar river basins (21%). The contribution of southern basins especially Swat, Jhelum and Shingo is extremely low for being 0.74% altogether (Table 7.4.11.1).

169

Figure 7.4.11.1: Glacier distribution in ten River basins.

170

Jhelum Swat 4% Chitral Astor 7% 10% 11% Gilgit Shingo 11% 3% Indus 22% Shyok Shigar 7% 4% Hunza 21%

Indus 5% Shyok 24%

Astor 4%

Swat 2% Chitral 13% Gilgit 7%

Shigar 15%
Area percentage

Hunza 30%

Number percentage

Figure 7.4.11.2: Distribution of glaciers of ten river basins.

Indus 2% Shyok 32%

Astor 2%

Chitral 10%

Gilgit 3%

Shigar 21%

Hunza 30%

Figure 7.4.11.3: Percentage ice reserves of ten river basins.

Table 7.4.11.2 shows the distribution of various types of glaciers in ten river basins. Among various types of glaciers the maximum number of glaciers is of Mountain type (1918) followed by Cirque and Niche type. The Ice cap type glaciers are minimum in number. Among these ten basins, generally the mountain and sub types of mountain glaciers are higher in number compared to Valley glaciers. In the southern basins like Swat, Jhelum and Shingo the number of Valley glaciers are especially low whereas in the northern basins like Chitral, Hunza and Shigar the number of Valley glaciers is relatively high. Compared to the number of Valley glaciers, the area contribution of these glaciers is higher (Table 7.4.11.3). The Mountain glaciers contribute 18% to the glaciated area while the subtypes of Mountain glaciers collectively contribute only 7%. Ice cap glaciers are smallest and therefore, contribute the minimum area. In Swat, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum River basins the area coverage of Valley glaciers is less than Mountain glaciers while in rest of the basins the Valley glaciers have more area than Mountain glaciers. In Gilgit and Indus river basins the Mountain glaciers also contribute 41 and 31 percent respectively.

171

More than 82% of ice reserves of the basins are contributed by Shyok (32%), Hunza (29%) and Shigar (21%) river basins (Table 7.4.11.5). Another 9% is contributed by Chitral River basin. The contribution of Shingo and Jhelum River basins is very low. To the total ice reserves generally the Valley glaciers are the major contributors followed by Mountain glaciers. Compared to rest of the basins, in Chitral, Hunza, Shigar, Shyok and Indus river basins the contribution of Valley glaciers in total ice reserves is high. In Shingo River basin there is only one Valley glacier which contributes 0.022 km3 ice reserves. Table 7.4.11.5 shows that out of total 5218 glaciers; maximum glaciers are oriented towards N and NE. The E, S and NW aspects have the equal percentage of glacier number. Each basin behaves differently as far as the orientation of the glaciers in various ordinal directions is concerned. The glaciers in Indus, Jhelum and Shyok River basins are generally oriented towards northern and eastern aspects. In Shyok River basin besides the northern aspects the southern aspects have also higher number of glaciers. The Shigar River basin has glaciers in all direction but predominantly on north and north eastern aspects. In this basin north western aspects also have higher numbers.

172

Table 7.4.11.2: Summary of number of various types of glaciers in ten basins.

Type Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total Basins Swat Chitral Gilgit Hunza Shigar Shyok Indus Shingo Astor Jhelum Total 45 123 68 149 34 61 471 77 33 176 1237 16 5 99 45 23 233 2 12 130 150 125 542 55 6 276 140 40 585 31 27 407 235 201 1050 4 3 58 49 46 194 13 32 143 71 52 372 103 33 254 205 32 1098 27 5 49 13 1 172 64 15 439 19 18 588 79 11 63 47 8 384 394 149 1918 974 546 5218

Table 7.4.11.3: Summary of area of various types of glaciers in ten basins.

Type Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Basins Swat Chitral Gilgit Hunza Shigar Shyok Indus Shingo Astor Jhelum 14.78 49.48 27.71 82.03 25.69 54.69 105.91 13.98 14.34 36.15 5.86 1.07 0.93 3.87 15.99 1.26 9.48 7.29 520.83 153.50 0.92 0.56 102.36 29.01 9.14 26.11 23.34 9.63 2.71 0.46 17.21 2.91 10.03 1.48 Total 424.76 95.61 54.64

Mountain 105.32 Niche Valley Total 25.53

224.84 399.42 77.02 69.56

471.06 216.67 72.69 41.75

16.58 328.75 2.56 2.03

59.05 2444.88 9.58 483.23

70.99 1547.53 454.16 3904.21 2081.54 2914.15 290.70 223.55 1903.67 968.10 4677.34 2240.08 3547.84 688.00

0.62 241.79

31.89 11537.58

36.91 607.03 148.18 15040.7

173

Table 7.4.11.4: Summary of ice reserves of various types of glaciers in ten basins. Type Cirque Ice apron Ice cap Mountain Niche Valley Total Swat Chitral Gilgit 0.455 1.728 1.022 0.176 0.030 0.480 0.024 5.45 1.118 0.124 0.031 15.368 23.673 2.819 2.944 Basins Hunza Shigar Shyok Indus Shingo Astor Jhelum 3.251 1.146 2.57 0.331 0.560 1.003 2.62 0.282 0.022 0.35 0.049 0.430 0.197 0.53 0.199 31.469 6.497 767.096 808.794 0.012 6.257 1.121 572.71 581.27 1.18 38.16 3.56 845.98 891.80 0.28 10.53 0.90 31.52 46.38 0.008 0.532 0.067 0.022 1.009 0.050 15.970 0.001 30.920 47.931 0.029 3.012 0.258 6.943 Total 14.686 2.546 1.937 150.421 19.285 2738.51

4.998 238.748 55.195 12.221 258.817 83.345

2.444 2549.633

Table 7.4.11.5: Summary of various types of glaciers under different aspects in selected ten basins.
Type Swat Chitral Gilgit Hunza Shigar Shyok Indus Shingo N NE E SE S SW W NW
Total

Astor Jhelum 156 101 41 37 34 58 50 111

588

Total

32 31 13 28 27 35 29 38
233

111 84 28 66 42 59 44 108
542

74 127 77 52 62 63 48 82
585

159 173 152 118 176 117 56 99

1050

26 38 27 32 17 17 16 21
194

48 70 57 48 57 30 9 53
372

231 218 142 83 98 89 118 119

1098

34 36 26 10 7 10 13 36
172

88 959 41 919 48 611 30 504 32 552 42 69 34

384 520 452 701 5218

174

Chapter 8 Inventory of Glacial Lakes

8.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF GLACIAL LAKE INVENTORY The inventory of glacial lakes of ten river basins in HKH region of Pakistan namely Swat, Chitral, Gilgit, Hunza Shigar, Shyok, Indus, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum is based on Landsat 7 ETM+ images of 2001 supplemented by the topographic maps of Survey of Pakistan, and NIMA map of U.S.Government.

8.2 GLACIAL LAKESTHEIR NUMBERING, TYPE AND CHARACTERISTICS A glacial lake is defined as water mass existing in a sufficient amount and extending with a free surface in, under, beside, and/or in front of a glacier and originating from glacier activities and/or retreating processes of a glacier. The numbering of the lakes started from the mouth of the major stream and proceeded clockwise round the basin. For the inventory of glacial lakes, it is obvious to note that the lakes associated with perennial snow and ice, originate from glaciers. In some cases the isolated lakes found in the mountains and valleys far away from the glaciers may not have a glacial origin. Due to the faster rate of ice and snow melting, possibly caused by global warming noticed during the last half of the twentieth century, accumulation of water in these lakes has been increasing rapidly. The isolated lakes above 3,500 masl are considered to be the remnants of the glacial lakes left due to the retreat of the glaciers. Some of the glimpses of glacial lakes are shown in Figure 8.2.1. The lakes are classified into Erosion, Valley trough, Cirque, Blocked, Moraine Dammed (Lateral Moraine and End Moraine Dammed lakes), and Supraglacial lakes.

Erosion lakes Glacial Erosion lakes are the water bodies formed in a depression after the glacier has retreated. They may be Cirque type and trough Valley type lakes and are stable lakes. These Erosion lakes might be isolated and far away from the present glaciated area.

175

Supraglacial lakes The Supraglacial lakes develop within the ice mass away from the moraine with dimensions of 50 to 100 meters. These lakes may develop in any position of the glacier but the extension of the lake is less than half the diameter of the Valley glacier. Shifting, merging, and draining of the lakes are the characteristics of the Supraglacial lakes. The merging of lakes results in expansion of the lake area and storage of a huge volume of water with a high level of potential energy. The tendency of a glacial lake towards merging and expanding indicates the danger level of the GLOF.

(a) Kachura Lake, Skardu

(b) Sheosar Lake in Deosai plains

(c) Lulusar Lake in Kaghan

(d) Saiful Maluk in winter snow

(e) Satpara Lake and its island

Figure 8.2.1: Some glimpses of glacial lakes in Northern Pakistan. Source: (www.geocities.com)

176

Moraine Dammed lakes In the retreating process of a glacier, glacier ice tends to melt in the lowest part of the glacier surrounded by Lateral Moraine and End Moraines. As a result, many supraglacial ponds are formed on the glacier tongue. These ponds sometimes enlarge to become a large lake by interconnecting with each other and have a tendency to deepen further. A Moraine Dammed lake is thus born. The lake is filled with melt water and rainwater from the drainage area behind the lake and starts flowing from the outlet of the lake even in the winter season when there is minimum flow.

There are two kinds of moraine: an ice-cored moraine and an ice-free moraine. Before the ice body of the glacier completely melts away, glacier ice exists in the moraine and beneath the lake bottom. The ice bodies cored in the moraine and beneath the lake are sometimes called dead ice or fossil ice. As glacier ice continues to melt, the lake becomes deeper and wider. Finally, when ice contained in the moraines and beneath the lake completely melts away, the container of lake water consists of only the bedrock and the moraines.

Blocking lakes Blocking lakes are formed through glacier and other factors, including the main glacier blocking the branch valley, the glacier branch blocking the main valley, and the lakes through snow avalanche, collapse and debris flow blockade.

Ice-dammed lakes An Ice-dammed lake is produced on the side(s) of a glacier, when an advancing glacier happens to intercept a tributary/tributaries pouring into a main glacier valley. As such, an Ice core-dammed lake is usually small in size and does not come into contact with glacier ice. This type of lake is less susceptible to GLOF than a Moraine Dammed lake. A glacial lake is formed and maintained only up to a certain stage of glacier fluctuation. If one follows the lifespan of an individual glacier, it is found that the Moraine Dammed glacial lakes build up and disappear with a lapse of time. The Moraine Dammed lakes disappear once they are fully destroyed or when debris fills the lakes completely or the mother glacier advances again to lower altitudes beyond the moraine-dam position. Such glacial lakes are essentially ephemeral and are not sTable from the point of view of the life of glaciers. Generally, Moraine Dammed lakes pose a threat in the basin.

177

8.3 GLACIAL LAKES OF RIVER BASINS OF HKH REGION OF PAKISTAN 8.3.1 Glacial Lakes of Swat River basin In Swat River basin a total of 255 glacial lakes have been identified which cover an area of more than 15.86 sq. km (Table 8.3.1.1). Generally the glacial lakes are distributed in the northern and north-central parts of the basin (Figure 8.3.1.1). Most of the glacial lakes in the basin are of Erosion (56%), Valley (21%) and End Moraine (14%). There are only three Blocked lakes in the basin covering an area of about 0.26 sq. km. The detailed attribute data of each lake is included in the Annex_gl_8.1. Due to higher number the Erosion lakes (56%), they contribute highest (38%) in the total lake area followed by End Moraine and Valley lakes. Rest of the 13% lake area is collectively contributed by other types of lakes. Among the Valley lakes the largest lake (Swat_gl 134) has an area of 0.41 sq. km (Figure 8.3.1.2). There are 13 Valley lakes which have area ranging from 0.1 to 0.41 sq. km. Among these 13 lakes two (Swat_gl 230 and Swat_gl 52) are associated with large Cirque and Mountain glaciers (Swat_gr 173 and Swat_gr 33).

Table 8. 3.1.1: Summary of glacial lakes in Swat River basin

Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine End dammed Lateral Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Total % 3 1.18 12 4.71 37 14.51 4 1.57 144 56.47 1 0.39 54 21.18 255 Area 259809 1396963 4316734 102937 5995846 9083 3780086 15861458 Area (m2) % Largest 1.64 131536 8.81 623355 27.22 809688 0.65 48266 37.80 528984 0.06 9083 23.83 413607 Smallest 27733 17206 10340 4538 1836 9083 4696

One Supra glacial lake Swat_gl 50 is associated with Swat_gr 31. Among 144 Erosion lakes 12 are associated with glaciers. The largest lake (Swat_gl 89) has an area of 0.53 sq. km while the smallest (Swat_gl 14) has 0.002 sq. km. Some of the erosion and valley type lakes are shown in figure 8.3.1.2. A total of 13 End Moraine lakes are associated with glaciers at variable distances. There are only four Lateral Moraine lakes and the largest of these (Swat_gl 125) is associated with Swat _gr 54 at a distance of 730 meters. Four Cirque lakes and two Blocked lakes have area more than 0.1 sq. km.

178

Figure: 8.3.1.1: Glacial Lakes of Swat River basin.

179

Figure 8.3.1.2: Erosion lakes (Swat_gl 120 and 121) associated with Swat _gr 41 on the left and a Valley lake (Swat_gl 122) on the right.

Table 8.3.1.2: Details of largest lake of each category in Swat River basin
Lake Associated Drainage Orientation Glacier Condition Type Number Area (m) Blocked Swat_gl 196 131536 SW Cs Cirque Swat_gl 53 623355 NW Ds Swat_gl 32 809688 Swat_gr 28 N Ds Moraine End dammed Lateral Swat_gl 125 48266 Swat_gr 54 N Cs Erosion Swat_gl 89 528984 Swat_gr 34 NE Ds Supraglacial Swat_gl 50 9083 Swat_gr 31 NW Cs Valley Swat_gl 134 413607 N Ds Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes

Table 8.3.1.2 presents the details of the largest lake of each category. The largest Blocked, Lateral Moraine and Supraglacial lakes are closed lakes. Among the various kinds of lakes the largest lake is End Morane Dammed lake with an area of about 0.8 sq. km.

180

8.3.2 Glacial Lakes of Chitral River basin The Chitral River basin has a total of 187 glacial lakes covering an area of more than 9.36 sq. km (Table 8.3.2.1). Generally the glacial lakes are scattered over the basin along the drainage system (Figure 8.3.2.1). Most of the glacial lakes of the basin have been characterized as Erosion lakes (37%) followed by Valley lakes (28%). Another 11 percent are Supraglacial and 10 percent are End Moraine lakes. Like Swat River basin the Blocked lakes are lowest in number and are only 4 contributing 0.12 sq. km of the area. The attribute data of lakes of this basin is included in Annex_gl_8.2. The Valley lakes contribute maximum lake area of about 6.6 sq. km which is about 70% of the total lake area. The Valley lakes are larger in size since 2 lakes of this type are more than one sq. km in size and another eight lakes range in size from 0.1 to 0.6 sq. km. The largest Valley lake Bash Kargol Chhat (Chitr_gl 160) is more than 1.9 km ling and has an area of about 1.87 sq. km. The smallest of this category (Chitr_gl 120) has a length of only 73 meters and area of 0.003 sq. km. Table 8.3.2.1 : Summary of Glacial Lakes in Chitral River basin
Number Total % Blocked 4 2.14 Cirque 8 4.28 Moraine End 19 10.16 dammed Lateral 14 7.49 Erosion 70 37.43 Supraglacial 20 10.70 Valley 52 27.81 Total 187 Lake Types Area 120412 217200 659800 154416 1370019 243589 6600433 9365869 Area (m2) % Largest 1.29 42701 2.32 59256 7.04 161827 1.65 22587 14.63 197158 2.60 29549 70.47 1861278 Smallest 13174 8867 4032 3755 3176 3578 3301

The Erosion lakes contribute about 15% to the total lake area. Among this category the smallest (Chitr_gl 126) and the largest (Sur Khing Chhat--Chitr_gl 109) lakes have the lake area of 0.003 and 0.2 sq. km respectively. Among the other types of lakes, End Moraine lakes contribute the highest. Even though the Supraglacial lakes are 11% in number they contribute only 2.6 of the lake area.

The details of largest lake of each category are included in Table 8.3.2.2. Among thses lakes, Valley lake (Chitr_gl 160) covers about 1.86 sq. km of the area and is about 2 km long. Locally this lake is named as Bash Kargol Chatt. The next largest lake is of Erosion type having an area of about 2 sq. km and the length of 0.25 km followed by End Moraine lake with an area of 0.16 sq. km and length of about 0.65 km. Typical Valley lakes of this basin in FCC are presented in Figure 8.3.2.1.

181

Figure: 8.3.2.1: Glacial Lakes of Chitral River basin.

182

Table 8.3.2.2: Details of largest lake of each category in Chitral River basin.
Lake Associated Orientation Glacier Type Number Area (m) Blocked Chitr_gl 93 42701 NE Cirque Chitr_gl 38 59256 SE Moraine End Chitr_gl 132 161827 Chitr_gr 311 W dammed Lateral Chitr_gl 21 22587 NW Erosion Chitr_gl 109 197158 NW Supraglacial Chitr_gl 179 29549 Chitr_gr 532 W Valley Chitr_gl 160 1861278 NE Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes Drainage Condition Ds Cs Ds Cs Ds Cs Ds

Table 8.3.3.1: Summary of Glacial Lakes in Gilgit River basin

Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine End dammed Lateral Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Total % 2 0.33 53 8.63 100 16.29 49 7.98 283 46.09 2 0.33 125 20.36 614 Area 149819 5055905 7922893 1411364 8039296 80087 16510899 39170263 Area (m2) % Largest 0.38 134340 12.91 1149976 20.23 728772 3.60 90215 20.52 215019 0.20 50153 42.15 2723958 Smallest 15479 4098 3743 4835 2547 29934 2160

183

(a) Scattered Erosion and valley lakes

(b) Supraglacial lakes over Valley glacier

(c) A Valley lake (Chitr_gl 130) Figure 8.3.2.2: Few Glimpses of glacial lakes in Chitral River basin.

184

8.3.3 Glacial Lakes of Gilgit River basin In Gilgit River basin a total of 614 glacial lakes have been identified which cover more than 39 sq. km of the area (Table 8.3.3.1). Generally the glacial lakes are distributed in the southern parts of the basin (Figure 8.3.3.1). In the northern part of the basin there are few large lakes. Out of the total glacial lakes maximum (283) are Erosion lakes followed by 125 Valley lakes and 100 End Moraine lakes. There are two each Blocked and Supraglacial lakes. The maximum area is contributed by Valley lakes followed by Erosion and End Moraine lakes. Due to small size and less number, the area contribution of Supraglacial and Blocked lakes is very low. The two Blocked lakes (Gil_gl 603 and Gil_gl 583) have an area of 0.13 and 0.015 sq. km and length of 0.55 and 0.17 km respectively. Out of 53 Cirque lakes only two lakes have an area of about one sq. km. Mostly the Cirque lakes are small in size and are predominantly oriented towards northern aspects (Annex_gl_8.3). Thirteen End Moraine lakes are associated with glaciers either located at a distance or in contact with glacier. There are only five lakes of this category which are drained lakes while all others are classified as closed lakes. Only six Erosion lakes have associated glacier while 277 lakes are isolated. Except few these, rests are closed lakes. Valley lakes are generally large in size and 12 of them are associated with glaciers. Two of the Valley lakes have area more than two sq. km and another two lakes are greater than 1 sq. km in size. The two of important and well know lakes are Zhoe Sar (Figure 8.3.3.2.) and Atro Sar.

185

Figure: 8.3.3.1: Glacial lakes of Gilgit River basin.

186

Figure 8.3.3.2`: Zoe Sar (Gil_gl 608)

The details of the largest lake of each category are included in Table 8.3.3.2. The largest Valley lake (Gil_gl 608) covers an area of more than 2.7 sq. km and is more than 3 km long. The largest Cirque lake of this basin is quite large in size and covers an area of 1.15 sq. km and is about 2 km long. The largest End Moraine lake (Gil_gl 399) is associated with Gil_gr 28 and covers an area of about 0.73 sq. km. The largest lakke of other types of lakes are relatively smaller in size and length especially the Supraglacial lake.

Table 8.3.3.2: Details of largest lake of each category in Gilgit River basin.
Lake Type Number Blocked Gil_gl 603 Cirque Gil_gl 535 Gil_gl 399 Moraine End dammed Lateral Gil_gl 375 Erosion Gil_gl 122 Supraglacial Gil_gl 610 Valley Gil_gl 608 Associated Orientation Glacier Area (m) 134340 N 1149976 N 728772 Gil_gr 28 NW 90215 NW 215019 NW 50153 NE 2723958 Gil_gr 497 NE Drainage Condition Cs Cs Cs Cs Cs Ds Ds

Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes

187

8.3.4 Glacial Lakes of Hunza River basin The Hunza River basin has a relatively low number of glacial lakes as there are only 110 are identified which cover only 3.22 sq. km (Table 8.3.4.1). These lakes are distributed all over the basin (Figure 8.3.4.1). In this basin Cirque lakes are absent. In this basin there are large size glaciers therefore; Supraglacial lakes are highest in number followed by Valley and Erosion lakes. There are four each of Blocked and End Moraine lakes while Lateral Moraine lakes are only 3 in number. In the total lake area of the basin highest (41.5%) is contributed byValley lakes followed by Supraglacial (34.5%) and Erosion (11.4%) lakes. The detailed attribute data of all the lakes is presented in Annex_gl_8.4. Among four Blocked lakes the largest and smallest lakes are 0.032 and 0.003 sq. km and all of them are closed lakes. Two are oriented towards S, one SE and one towards NW. Table 8.3.4 .1: Summary of Glacial Lakes in Hunza River basin.
Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine End dammed Lateral Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Total % 4 3.6 4 3.6 3 2.7 20 18.2 55 50.0 24 21.8 110 Area 64271 253059 88210 366183 1109241 1335153 3216117 Area (m2) % Largest 2.0 32579 7.9 120054 2.7 54836 11.4 86466 34.5 78327 41.5 292711 Smallest 3772 7677 14222 4493 2905 9534

Out of four End Moraine lakes, three are associated with the glaciers and among them two are drained lakes. The smallest lake of this category (Hunza_gl 22) has an area of about 0.008 sq. km. All the three Lateral Moraine lakes are closed lakes and are associated with glaciers. These are oriented towards NW. Out of 20 Erosion lakes eight are associated with glaciers and the largest and smallest lake of this category are 0.086 and 0.004 sq. km in size. Except one lake all these are less than 0.5 km in length. In this basin Supraglacial lakes are relatively large in size and are oriented in all the directions. Since these are associated with glaciers, so all are closed lakes (Figure 8.3.4.2). Except few of the Valley lakes generally these are drained lakes. The largest lake of this category is about 0.3 sq. km and smallest 0.009 sq. km in size. Six lakes of this category are more than 0.5 km long.

188

Figure: 8.3.4.1: Glacial Lakes of Hunza River basin.

189

(a) Small supraglacial lakes over ablation zone of Batura glacier in FCC Pan(R),7(G),6b(B).

(b) Supraglacial lakes over Virjerab glacier in FCC 7(R),4(G),2(B).

Figure 8.3.4.2: Glimpses of supraglacial lakes in Hunza River basin.

The largest Blocked lake (Hunza_gl 52) is associated with Hunza_gr 744 and is .3 km long and 0.033 sq. km in size (Table 8.3.4.2). It is oriented towards NW and is a closed lake. The Pasu glacier (Hunza_gr 119) is associated with the largest End Moraine lake (Hunza_gl 6). The glacier is at a distance of 175 meters from this drained lake. The largest Lateral Moraine lake is associated with a large Mountain glacier (Hunza_gr 756) which is about 5.9 sq. km in size. This 0.3 km long lake has an area of 0.055 sq. km. The largest erosion lake is not associated with any glacier and has an area of 0.086 sq. km. It is oriented towards S and classified as a closed lake. Largest Supraglacial lake (Hunza_gl 67) is associated with a well known Hispar valley Glacier. This Supraglacial lake is 0.078 sq. km in size, 0.35 km long and is oriented towards W. The largest valley lake (Hunza_gl 47) is an isolated lake oriented towards NW having an area of 0.29 sq. km and more than half a kilometer long.

8.3.5: Glacial Lakes of Shigar River basin In this basin there are only 54 glacial lakes covering an area of about 1 sq. km (Table 8.3.5.1). Most of these glacial lakes are distributed in the northern part and along the drainage network (Figure 8.3.5.1). Among the four types of glacial lakes identified in the basin, Supraglacial and Blocked lakes are the major types. As the basin has large glaciated area within high Karakoram Mountains so the glacial lakes are mostly of Supraglacial type. There are numerous small lakes found over large glaciers like Chogo Lungma, Biafo and Baltoro. The significant Supraglacial lakes identified are 30 in number covering an area of about 0.5 sq. km. The largest lake of this category (Shig_gl 18) is associated with glacier Shig_gr 105 and has an area of 0.065 sq. km. The smallest one is associated with the glacier Shig_gr 150 and has area of only 0.005 sq. km.

190

Table 8.3.5.1: Summary of Glacial Lakes in Shigar River basin

Lake Types Blocked Lateral Moraine Supraglacial Valley Total Number Total % 21 38.89 1 1.85 30 55.56 2 3.70 54 Total 395214 2830 451185 242667 1091896 Area (m2) % Largest 36.20 108958 0.26 2830 41.32 64899 22.22 235908 Smallest 2782 2830 5357 6759

The Blocked lakes (21) are the second highest in number covering an area of about 0.4 sq. km in the basin. Some of the lakes of this category are shown in Figure 8.3.5.2. The details of these lakes are given in the Annex_gl_8.5. Among the Blocked lakes the largest one is Shig_gl 22 covering an area of about 0.11 sq. km and the length of 481 meters (Table 8.3.5.2). The smallest lake Shig_gl 7 has an area of about 0.003 sq. km and is 65 meters long. The only one Lateral Moraine lake (Shig_gl 2) covers an area of about 0.003 sq. km and has a length of 222 meters. Though there are only two Valley lakes in this basin but they contribute more than 22% of the lake area. The largest one is Shig_gl 54 having an area of 0.24 sq. km and the smallest one (Shig_gl 1) is only 0.007 sq. km in size.

Table 8.3.4 .2: Details of largest lake of each category in Hunza River basin.
Lake Associated Drainage Orientation Glacier Condition Type Number Area (m) Blocked Hunza_gl 52 32579 Hunza_gr 744 NW Cs Cirque Hunza_gl 6 120054 Hunza_gr 119 NE Ds Moraine End dammed Lateral Hunza_gl 54 54836 Hunza_gr 756 NW Cs Erosion Hunza_gl 94 86466 S Cs Supraglacial Hunza_gl 67 78327 Hunza_gr 830 W Cs Valley Hunza_gl 47 292711 NW Ds Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes

191

Figure 8.3.5.1: Glacial lakes of Shigar River basin.

192

(a) Blocked Lakes (Shig_gl 10 on left and Shig_gl 9 on right)

(b) A blocked lake Shig_gl 4

(c) Small Supraglacial lakes scattered over Baltoro glacier Figure 8.3.5.2: Typical Blocked and Supraglacial lakes of Shigar River basin.

193

Table 8.3.5.2 : Details of largest lake of each category in Shigar River basin
Lake Types Number Area (m2) Blocked Shig_gl 22 108958 Lateral Moraine Shig_gl 2 2830 Supraglacial Shig_gl 18 64899 Valley Shig_gl 54 235908 Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes Associated Glacier Shig_gr 105 Orientation SW SE SE SW Drainage Condition Cs Cs Cs Ds

8.3.6: Glacial Lakes of Shyok River basin The Shyok basin has only 66 glacial lakes covering the lake area of about 2.7 sq. km (Table 8.3.6.1). In this basin (part of it lying in the territory of Pakistan) most of the glaciers are concentrated in the northeastern part while the glacial lakes are scattered over the southwestern part (Figure 8.3.6.1). Most of the lakes (39.4%) are of Erosion type covering an area of about 0.5 sq. km. Though the End Moraine and Valley lakes are only 12 and 8 in number respectively but they contribute about 40 and 30% of the lake area respectively. The detailed data for each lake is included in the Annex_gl_8.4.

Table 8.3.6.1: Summary of glacial lakes in Shyok River basin.

Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine End dammed Lateral Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Total % 4 6.06 2 3.03 12 18.18 3 4.55 26 39.39 11 16.67 8 12.12 66 Total 82237 55623 1062108 64810 494656 134127 787774 2681335 Area (m2) % Largest 3.07 42940 2.07 39471 39.61 210368 2.42 29623 18.45 75395 5.00 28327 29.38 266498 Smallest 12564 16153 24882 14515 3294 5959 5504

There are only two Cirque lakes contributing 2% of the total lake area. The largest lake (Shyk_gl 12) of this category has an area of about 0.04 sq. km and a length of 240 meters (Table 8.3.6.2). This lake is oriented tow ards northeast and is a closed lake. The smallest lake of this category Shyk_gl 47 which is also a closed lake has an area of about 0.02 sq. km. The four Blocked lakes are contributing about 3% to the lake area. These all four lakes are closed lakes associated with different glaciers. The largest lake (Shyk_gl 32) has an area of more than 0.04 sq. km and length of 130 meters. The associated glacier with this lake is Shyk_gr 69.

194

Figure 8.3.6.1: Glacial lakes of Shyok River basin.

195

Table 8.3.6.2 : Details of largest lake of each category in Shyok River basin
Type Lake Number Area (m ) 42940 39471 210368 29623 75395 28327 266498
2

Associated Glacier

Orientation

Drainage Condition

Blocked Shyk_gl 32 Cirque Shyk_gl 12 Shyk_gl 65 Moraine End dammed Lateral Shyk_gl 59 Erosion Shyk_gl 41 Supraglacial Shyk_gl 58 Valley Shyk_gl 66 Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes

Shyk_gr 69 Shyk_gr 361 Shyk_gr 339 Shyk_gr 202 Shyk_gr 339 Shyk_gr 363

SE NE N NE SW N N

Cs Cs Ds Cs Cs Cs Ds

Out of the 26 Erosion lakes the largest one (Shyk_gl 41) is associated with glacier (Shyk_gr 202). It is a closed lake having an area of 0.075 sq. km and length of 521 meters. The Erosion lakes altogether contribute 18.4% of the lake area. The smallest lake of this category (Shyk_gl 13) is a small lake covering an area of 0.003 sq. km and has length of 80 meters. The End Moraine lakes are 12 in number and contribute about 40% to the lake area. The largest lake of this category (Shyk_gl 65) has an area of 0.21 sq. km and a length of 800 meters (Figure 8.3.6.2). It is oriented towards north and is associated with the glacier Shyk_gr 361. The smallest lake of this category (Shyk_gl 52) is also oriented towards north and is associated with the glacier Shyk_gr 313. It has an area of about 0.025 sq. km and length of 187 meters. The Supraglacial lakes are 11 in number but generally are of small size contributing only 5% to the total lake area of the basin. All these lakes are associated with some glaciers and are mostly closed lakes. The largest Supraglacial lake (Shyk_gl 58) has an area of about 0.03 sq. km and is associated with the glacier Shyk_gr 339. The smallest one with an area of about 0.006 sq. km is associated with the glacier Shyk_gr 258. The 8 Valley lakes in the basin contribute more than 29% of the lake area. Most of these lakes are at varying distances from their associated glaciers. Half of these eight lakes are closed type lakes. The largest Valley lake (Shyk_gl 66) is associated with glacier Shyk_gr 363 and is oriented towards north. It has an area of about 0.27 sq. km and a length of 670 meters. The smallest Valley lake (Shyk_gl 4) has an area of about 0.006 sq. km and mean length of 81 meters.

196

(a) A Valley lake (Shyk_gl 10) in FCC 5(R)4(G)2(B)

(b) A Valley (Shyk_gl 64) and a Moraine Dammed (Shyk_gl 65) Lake in panchromatic image Figure 8.3.6.2 : Few major glacial lakes of Shyok River Basin

8.3.7 Glacial Lakes of Indus River basin The Indus River basin has a total of 574 glacial lakes covering an area of more than 26 sq. km (Table 8.3.7.1). Generally the glacial lakes are distributed in the north western and southeastern parts of the basin (Figure 8.3.7.1). In the eastern part of the basin there are few large lakes as well. Most of the glacial lakes in the basin are of Erosion (40%), End Moraine (17%), Supraglacial (13%) and Lateral Moraine (11%) type. The Valley and Cirque lakes contribute about 10 and 9% in the total number respectively. There are only three Blocked lakes in the basin covering an area of about 0.12 sq. km. The largest lake of this category (Ind_gl 44) has an area of about 0.1 sq. km and is located on the southern aspect in the basin. The detailed attribute data of each lake is included in the Annex_gl_8.7.

197

The Cirque lakes cover an area of 20% of the total lake area. The largest Cirque Lake (Ind_gl 40) has an area of more than 0.4 sq. km and a length of 0.9 km. It is oriented towards southeast and is associated with glacier Ind_gr 162 (Table 8.3.7.2). The Erosion lakes are highest in number and are therefore, contribute maximum to the area i.e., about 28%. Most of these lakes are large in size. The largest and the smallest lakes in this category are Ind_gl 254 and Ind_gl 324 respectively. Table 8.3.7.1: Summary of Glacial Lakes in Indus River basin
Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine End dammed Lateral Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Total % 3 0.52 53 9.23 98 17.07 62 10.80 228 39.72 73 12.72 57 9.93 574 Area 120978 5142216 5365470 1575085 7264484 1265916 5329811 26063960 Area (m2) % Largest 0.46 103228 19.73 411236 20.59 367020 6.04 109425 27.87 180466 4.86 75446 20.45 1348826 Smallest 7021 8524 2455 3068 3715 2630 6185

The Moraine Dammed lakes are altogether 28% out of which the major share is of the End Moraine lakes. Both the End as well as Lateral Moraine lakes have more than 26% of the total lake area in the basin. The largest End Moraine lake is Karosar (Ind_gl 567) have an area of about 0.37 sq. km. The largest Lateral Moraine Lake (Ind_gl 367) has an area of 0.11 sq. km. The smallest lakes of both the categories are of almost of the same size i.e. about 0.003 sq. km. The 73 Supraglacial lakes contribute about 5% of the total lake area of the basin. Generally these lakes are of small size. The largest (Ind_gl 468) and the smallest (Ind_gl 100) lakes of this category have an area of about 0.075 and 0.003 sq. km respectively. The Ind_gl 468 has a length of 456 meters and is associated with Ind_gr 899.

198

Figure: 8.3.7.1: Glacial Lakes of Indus River basin.

199

Table 8.3.7.2 : Details of largest lake of each category in Indus River basin
Lake Type Number Area (m2) Blocked Ind_gl 44 103228 Cirque Ind_gl 40 411236 End Ind_gl 567 367020 Moraine dammed Lateral Ind_gl 367 109425 Erosion Ind_gl 254 180466 Supraglacial Ind_gl 468 75446 Valley Ind_gl 368 1348826 Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes Associated Glacier Ind_gr 162 Ind_gr 899 Orientation S SE SW W NW NE N Drainage Condition Cs Ds Ds Cs Cs Cs Ds

There are only 10% lakes characterized as Valley lakes but they contribute more than 20% of the total lake area of the basin. There are several important glacial lakes of this category like Satpara, Shamais, Haiteharai, Upper Kachura and Lower Kachura. The Satpara (Ind_gl 368) is the largest lake of this category covering an area of more than 1.35 sq. km (Figure 8.3.7.2).

Figure 8.3.7.2: Satpara Lake (Ind_gl 368)

The length of this lake is more than 1.7 km and it is a drained lake. The smallest lake (Ind_gl 214) of this category has an area of only 0.006 sq. km.

200

8.3.8 Glacial Lakes of Shingo River basin In Shingo River basin there are total of 238 glacial lakes covering an area of about 11.6 sq. km (Table 8.3.8.1). These lakes are mainly scattered in the northeastern part of the basin (Figure 8.3.8.1). In this basin only 3 each Lateral Moraine and Supraglacial lakes are present. Mostly (59.2%) the lakes are categorized as Erosion lakes followed by Valley lakes (17.2%). The Cirque and End Moraine lakes are about 10% each while there is only one Blocked lake. The details of these glacial lakes are included in Annex_gl_8.8.

Table 8.3.8.1 : Summary of Glacial Lakes in Shingo River basin

Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine End dammed Lateral Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Total % 1 0.42 25 10.50 24 10.08 3 1.26 141 59.24 3 1.26 41 17.22 238 Total 27606 1568342 874913 106241 5653622 39041 3319960 11589725 Area (m2) % Largest 0.24 27606 13.53 259860 7.55 126852 0.92 84125 48.78 272231 0.34 15603 28.65 1359533 Smallest 27606 3886 4533 9877 3380 10395 5185

Erosion lakes are highest in number and contribute about 49% to the lake area of the basin. The higher number of these glacial lakes may indicate a past retreat of the glaciers in the basin. The largest Erosion lake (Shin_gl 142) has a size of more than 0.27 sq. km and a length of more than 0.9 km. The smallest lake of this category (Shin_gl 24) has an area of only about 0.003 sq. km and length of 82 meters. The 41 Valley lakes contribute the second highest percentage (29%) to the lake area. The largest lake Sheosar (Shin_gl 96) has an area of about 1.36 sq. km and length more than 1.3 km (Figure 8.3.8.2). The smallest Valley Lake (Shin_gl 9) has an area of only about 0.005 sq. km and length of 85 meters. It is oriented towards northeast and has drainage. The area covered by 25 Cirque lakes is about 1.57 sq. km which is about 13.5% of the total lake area. The largest lake of this category is Shin_gl 75 which has an area of 0.26 sq. km and length of about 1 km (Table 8.3.8.2). The smallest Cirque lake (Shin_gl 166) is about 0.004 sq. km in size with a length of only 73 meters.

201

Figure 8.3.8.1: Glacial lakes of Shingo River basin.

202

(a) Scattered glacial lakes

(b) Sheosar Lake (Shin_gl 96)

Figure 8.3.8.2: Glacial lakes of Shingo River basin in FCC Pan(R)7(G)6b(B)

The End Moraine Lakes contribute 8% of the area and the largest of this category is Shin_gl 115 having an area of about 0.13 sq. km is more than 0.4 km long. The smallest one is Shin_gl 41 with an area of 0.005 sq. km and a length of 108 meters. There are only three Supraglacial lakes in the basin, which contribute about 0.4% to the lake area. The largest (Shin_gl 107) this category has an area of about 0.015 sq. km. Table 8.3.8.2 : Details of largest lake of each category in Shingo River basin
Types Lake Number Associated Orientation Glacier Length (m) Drainage Condition

Cirque Shin_gl 75 963 End Shin_gl 115 437 Moraine Dammed Lateral Shin_gl 232 108 Valley Shin_gl 96 1304 Blocked Shin_gl 237 266 Supraglacial Shin_gl 107 204 Erosion Shin_gl 142 936 Cs =Closed Lake and Ds = Drained Lake

N SW NE S SE NE SW

Ds Ds Cs Ds Cs Cs Cs

203

8.3.9 Glacial Lakes of Astor River Basin

The Astor river basin has a total of 126 glacial lakes having surface area of 5.53 km2 (Table 8.3.9.1). These lakes are mainly distributed in the southern as well as southeastern part of the basin (Figure 8.3.9.1). Most of these glacial lakes are Erosion type (33%) followed by Valley (31%) and Cirque (23%). The 42 Erosion lakes identified in the basin cover 13.7% lake area in the Basin. They have the cumulative surface area of 0.75 sq. km. The largest and the smallest lake in this category have an area of 0.06 and 0.002 sq. km respectively. The Erosion lakes are generally stable and are therefore less susceptible to GLOF. The database of each glacial lake of this basin is presented in Annex_gl 8.9. There are altogether 39 Valley Lakes, which contributes around 34% lake area in the Astor Basin. The largest and smallest Valley Lakes have the area of 0.34 and 0.003 sq. km respectively. The lake area contributed by this type of lakes is the second highest in the basin The Cirque lakes are 29 in number, which is third highest in number in the Astor Basin. The total lake surface area covered by this type of lakes is around 2 sq. km, which is the highest (37.6%) surface cover in the Astor Basin. The largest lake in the basin is Cirque Lake (Astor_gl 92), which has 0.54 sq. km surface area. Though the Blocked lakes are only 8 in number but they contribute around 6 percent in number as well as total lake area in the basin. These lakes are formed due to blockage by landslide debris and/or moraine debris in the valley. Generally these types of lakes are susceptible to breaching of dam as the lake water increases. The largest and smallest lake of this class has an area of 0.16 and 0.003 sq. km respectively. Some of the glimpses of various types of glacial lake in the basin are shown in figure 8.3.9.2. Table 8.3.9.1: Summary of Glacial Lakes in Astor basin
Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine End dammed Lateral Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number No. (%) 8 6.3 29 23.0 4 3.2 3 2.4 42 33.3 1 0.8 39 30.9 126 Area 324421 2079795 382284 77710 755163 21088 1887542 5528003 Area (m2) (%) Largest 5.9 155047 37.6 541924 6.9 160565 1.4 53465 13.7 59900 0.4 21088 34.1 342952 Smallest 3182.43 3574.57 45631.63 10621.57 2277.09 21087.21 2890.21

204

Figure 8.3.9.1: Glacial lakes of Astor River basin.

205

A total of 7 lakes are classified as Moraine Dammed lakes out of which 4 are End Moraine and three are Lateral Moraine. The End Moraine lakes are relatively large in size. The largest End Moraine dammed lake Astor_gl 108 covers area of 0.16 sq. km and is associated with the glacier Astor_gr 445 (Table 8.3.9.2). There is only one Supraglacial lake (Astor_gl_125), which is formed within the glacier moraine of glacier number Ast_gr 579. The lake has an area of 0.02 sq. km. The details of the largest glacial lake of each category in the basin are included in the Table 8.3.9.2.

(a) Valley and Erosion lakes

(b) A typical Cirque lake

(c) Scattered Erosion lakes Figure 8.3.9.2: Typical glacial lakes in Astor River Basin

(d) A closed End Moraine

206

Table 8.3.9.2: Details of largest lake of each category in Astor River Basin
Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine dammed Erosion Supraglacial Valley End Lateral Number Astor_gl 122 Astor_gl 92 Astor_gl 108 Astor_gl 105 Astor_gl 91 Astor_gl 125 Area (m2) 155047 541924 160565 53465 59900 21088 Astor_gr 579 Astor_gr 445 Astor_gr 420 Associated Glacier Astor_gr 579 Orientation NE NE NW E E NE W Drainage Condition Cs Ds Cs Cs Ds Cs Ds

Astor_gl 90 342952 Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes

8.3.10 Glacial Lakes of Jhelum River basin

The Jhelum River basin has a total of 196 glacial lakes covering an area of about 11.8 sq. km. Most of these lakes are concentrated in the northern and eastern parts of the basin (Figure 8.3.10.1). More than 55% of the lakes are Erosion type (Table 8.3.10.1). The Cirque lakes are 43 in number followed by 24 End Moraine and 10 Valley lakes. The detailed database of each lake is presented in the Annex_gl_8.10.

Table 8.3.10.1 : Summary of Glacial Lakes in Jhelum River basin

Lake Types Blocked Cirque Moraine End dammed Lateral Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Total % 1 0.51 43 21.94 24 12.24 7 3.57 110 56.12 1 0.51 10 5.10 196 Total 37565 4055975 1615167 96115 3508061 10598 2462348 11785829 Area (m2) % Largest 0.32 37565 34.41 1036592 13.70 713186 0.82 27055 29.77 791251 0.09 10598 20.89 874930 Smallest 37565 7866 4731 7933 2576 10598 6412

There are total 110 Erosion lakes covering an area of 3.5 sq. km in the basin. The largest Erosion lake (Jhe_gl 170) has an area of about 0.8 sq. km and has a length of more than 1 km. It is oriented towards northeast and is a drained lake (Table 8.3.10.2). The smallest lake of this category (Jhe_gl 182) has an area of about 0.003 sq. km and is oriented towards northeast.

207

There are only 10 Valley lakes but are of large size since they contribute about 21% of the total lake area of the basin. The largest Valley lake, the Lolusar lake (Jhe_gl 14) is a drained lake with an area of about 0.9 sq. km (Figure 8.3.10.2). This lake is oriented towards northeast. The Saiful Maluk lake (Jhe_gl 73) is another important Valley lake of this basin, which has an area of 0.44 sq. km and length of 0.8 km. This lake drains into River Kunhar - a major tributary of Jhelum River. The smallest Valley lake Jhe_gl 10 is a drained lake with an area of more than 0.006 sq. km and is oriented towards east. There are 43 Cirque lakes covering an area of more than 4 sq. km. The largest Cirque lake (Jhe_gl 89) covers an area of more than 1 sq. km. The smallest Cirque lake has an area of about 0.011 sq. km. There is only 1 Blocked lake (Jhe_gl 80) covering an area of 0.38 sq. km and is oriented towards southeast. Similarly there is only one Supraglacial lake (Jhe_gl 179) having an area of 0.011 sq. km and is oriented towards north. The largest End Moraine lake (Jhe_gl 131) occupies an area of more than 0.71 sq. km and is oriented towards northwest. The smallest lake (Jhe_gl 60) of this category has an area of about 0.005. Lateral Moraine lakes are smaller in size and the largest lake of this category (Jhe_gl 91) has an area of only 0.027 sq. km.

208

Figure 8.3.10.1: Glacial lakes of Jhelum River Basin.

209

(a) Lake Saiful Maluk (Jhe_gl 73)

(b) Lake Lulusar (Jhe_gl 14) in FCC 542

(c) A Valley lake (Jhe_gl 101) in FCC 542

(d) An Erosion lake (Jhe_gl 170) in FCC 543

Figure 8.3.10.2: Few important glacial lakes of Jhelum River basin.

Table 8.3.10.2 : Details of largest lake of each category in Jhelum River basin
Lake Associated Glacier Types Number Area (m2) Blocked Jhe_gl 80 37565 Cirque Jhe_gl 89 1036592 Jhe_gl 131 713186 Moraine End dammed Lateral Jhe_gl 91 27055 Erosion Jhe_gl 170 791251 Supraglacial Jhe_gl 179 10598 Valley Jhe_gl 14 874930 Cs =Closed Lakes and Ds = Drained Lakes Orientation SE W NW NE N N NE Drainage Condition Cs Ds Cs Cs Ds Cs Ds

210

8.3.11 Summary In summary, a total of 2,420 glacial lakes have been identified in ten river basins of HKH region of Pakistan (Table 8.3.11.1). The maximum glacial lakes are identified in Gilgit River basin (614), followed by Indus (574), Swat (255) and Shingo (238) River basins. The lowest number of glacial lakes is in Shigar (54) and Shyok (66) River basins. Among various types of lakes the highest number is of Erosion type (1,064) due to the fact that in all the basins except Hunza and Shigar river basins. In Hunza River basin they are low in number and in Shigar they do not exist. These are followed by Valley lakes (412) and End Moraine Dammed (322) lakes. Blocked lakes are lowest in number (51) out of which 21 are present in Shigar River basin while in Shingo and Jhelum river basins these are one each. The Cirque lakes are more common in Gilgit, Indus, Jhelum, Astor and Shingo River basins. Similarly the End Moraine lakes are also common in these basins alongwith Swat River basin while Lateral Moraine lakes are highest in number in Indus and Gilgit River basins. The Supraglacial lakes are common in the basins where there are large size glaciers like Indus, Hunza, and Shigar. Very few Valley lakes are present in the northern basins like Shigar (2) and Shyok (8) River basins. Figure 8.3.11.1 shows the distribution of glacial lakes in ten river basins. Generally the lakes are distributed all over the ten basins but mostly concentrated in different pockets. The maximum concentration is observed in the northern part of Indus River basin and adjoining southern part of Gilgit River basin. One cluster can also be observed in the northeastern part of Swat River basin. In the northern part of Jhelum River basin and eastern part of Shingo River basin bordering the Indus River basin clusters of lakes are found. In the center of Astor River basin the glacial lakes are quite prominent. A total of 2,420 glacial lakes in HKH region of Pakistan contribute 126.35 sq. km of lake area. The maximum lake area is recorded for Gilgit River basin (about 39.2 sq. km) followed by Indus River basin (26 sq. km). Just like the lowest number, the lowest lake area was observed in Shigar and Shyok River basins (Table 8.3.11.2). The southern basins especially Shingo and Jhelum contribute the equal lake area (about 12 sq. km each). Among the various types of lakes, Valley lakes are the largest and altogether contribute about 33% of the total lake area followed by Erosion (26.5%) and End Moraine Dammed (18%) lakes. Generally Blocked, Supraglacial and Later Moraine lakes are small in size and contribute very low lake area.

211

Table 8.3.11.1: Summary of number of glacial lake types in selected ten Basins.
Types Blocked Cirque Moraine dammed Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total End Lateral Swat 3 12 37 4 144 1 54 255 Chitral 4 8 19 14 70 20 52 187 Gilgit 2 53 100 49 283 2 125 614 Hunza Shigar 4 4 3 20 55 24 110 21 1 30 2 54 Shyok 4 2 12 3 26 11 8 66 Indus Shingo 3 53 98 62 228 73 57 574 1 25 24 3 141 3 41 238 Astor 8 29 4 3 42 1 39 126 Jhelum 1 43 24 7 110 1 10 196 Total 51 225 322 149 1064 197 412 2420

212

Figure 8.3.11.1: Distribution of glacial lakes in the River basins of Pakistan

213

Table 8.3.11.2: Summary of area (km2) of different glacial lake types in ten Basins.
Lake types River Basin Swat Chitral Gilgit Hunza Shigar Shyok Indus Shingo Astor Jhelum Total Blocked 0.260 0.120 0.150 0.064 0.395 0.082 0.121 0.028 0.324 0.038 1.582 Cirque 1.397 0.217 5.056 0.056 5.142 1.568 2.080 4.056 19.572 End Moraine 4.317 0.660 7.923 0.253 1.062 5.365 0.875 0.382 1.615 22.452 Lateral Moraine 0.103 0.154 1.411 0.088 0.003 0.065 1.575 0.106 0.078 0.096 3.679 Erosion 5.996 1.370 8.039 0.366 0.495 7.264 5.654 0.755 3.508 33.447 Supraglacial 0.009 0.244 0.080 1.109 0.451 0.134 1.266 0.039 0.0210 0.011 3.364 Valley 3.780 6.600 16.511 1.335 0.243 0.788 5.330 3.320 1.888 2.462 42.257 Total 15.862 9.365 39.17 3.215 1.092 2.682 26.063 11.59 5.528 11.786 126.353

214

Chapter 9 Glacial Lake Outburst Floods and Damages in the Country

9.1 INTRODUCTION Periodic or occasional release of large amounts of stored water in a catastrophic outburst flood is widely referred to as a jokulhlaup (Iceland), a debacle (French), an aluvin (South America), or a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (Himalaya). A jokulhlaup is an outburst which may be associated with volcanic activity, a debacle is an outburst but from a pro-glacial lake, an aluvin is a catastrophic flood of liquid mud, irrespective of its cause, generally transporting large boulders, and a GLOF is a catastrophic discharge of water under pressure from a glacier. GLOF events are severe geo-morphological hazards and their floodwaters can wreak havoc on all human structures located on their path. Much of the damage created during GLOF events is associated with the large amounts of debris that accompany the floodwaters. Damage to settlements and farmland can take place at very great distances from the outburst source, for example, in Pakistan the damage occurred 1,300 km from the outburst source (WECS 1987 b). 9.2 CAUSES OF LAKE CREATION Global Warming There is growing concern that human activities may change the climate of the globe. Past and continuing emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases will cause the temperature of the earths surface to increase -- this is popularly termed global warming or the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect gives an extra temperature rise. Glacier Retreat An important factor in the formation of glacial lakes is the rising global temperature (greenhouse effect), which causes glacial retreat in many mountain regions. During the so-called Little Ice Age (AD 15501850), many glaciers were longer than today. Moraines formed in front of the glaciers at that time block the lakes nowadays. Glaciation and inter-glaciation are natural processes that have occurred several times during the last 10,000 years. As a general rule, it can be said that glaciers in the Himalayas have retreated about one Km since the Little Ice Age, a situation that provides a large space for retaining melt water, leading to the formation of moraine-dammed lakes (LIGG/WECS/NEA. 1988 and Mool et al., 2001). Rthlisberger and Geyh (1985) conclude in their study on glacier variations in the Himalaya and Karakorum that a rapid retreat of nearly all glaciers with small oscillation was found in the period from 1860/19001980.

215

Causes of Glacial Lake Water Level Rise The rise in water level in glacial lakes dammed by moraines creates a situation that endangers the lake to reach a breaching point. The causes of water level rise in glacial lakes are given below. Rapid change in climatic conditions that increase solar radiation causing rapid melting of glacier ice and snow with or without the retreat of the glacier Intensive precipitation events Decrease in sufficient seepage across the moraine to balance the inflow because of sedimentation of silt from the glacier runoff, enhanced by the dust flow into the lake Blocking of ice conduits by sedimentation or by enhanced plastic ice flow in the case of a glacial advance Thick layer of glacial ice (dead ice) weighed down by sediment below the lake bottom, which stops subsurface infiltration or seepage from the lake bottom. Shrinking of the glacier tongue higher up, causing melt water that previously left the glacier somewhere outside the moraine, where it may have continued underground through talus, not to follow the path of the glacier Blocking of an outlet by an advancing tributary glacier Landslide at the inner part of the moraine wall, or from slopes above the lake level Melting of ice from an ice-core moraine wall Melting of ice due to subterranean thermal activities (volcanogenic, tectonic) Inter-basin sub-surface flow of water from one lake to another due to height difference and availability of flow path 9.3 BURSTING MECHANISMS Different triggering mechanisms of GLOF events depend on the nature of the damming materials, the position of the lake, the volume of the water, the nature and position of the associated mother glacier, physical and topographical conditions, and other physical conditions of the surroundings.

216

Mechanism of Ice Core-dammed Lake Failure Ice-core dammed (glacier-dammed) lakes drain mainly in two ways. through or underneath the ice over the ice

Initiation of opening within or under the ice dam (glacier) occurs in six ways. Flotation of the ice dam (a lake can only be drained sub-glacially if it can lift the damming ice barrier sufficiently for the water to find its way underneath) Pressure deformation (plastic yielding of the ice dam due to a hydrostatic pressure difference between the lake water and the adjacent less dense ice of the dam; outward progression of cracks or crevasses under shear stress due to a combination of glacier flow and high hydrostatic pressure) Melting of a tunnel through or under the ice Drainage associated with tectonic activity Water overflowing the ice dam generally along the lower margin Sub-glacial melting by volcanic heat

The bursting mechanism for ice core-dammed lakes can be highly complex and involve most or some of the above-stated hypothesis. Marcus (1960) considered ice core-dammed bursting as a set of interdependent processes rather than one hypothesis. A landslide adjacent to the lake and subsequent partial abrasion on the ice can cause the draining of ice core-moraine-dammed lakes by overtopping as the water flows over, the glacier retreats, and the lake fills rapidly. Mechanism of moraine-dammed lake failure Moraine-dammed lakes are generally drained by rapid incision of the sediment barrier by outpouring waters. Once the incision begins, the hustling water flowing through the outlet can accelerate erosion and enlargement of the outlet, setting off a catastrophic positive feedback process resulting in the rapid release of huge amounts of sediment-laden water. Peak discharge from breached moraine-dammed lakes just downstream from the moraine can be estimated from an empirical relationship developed by Costa (1985) as shown in Figure 9.1. The onset of rapid incision of the barrier can be triggered by waves generated by glacier calving or ice avalanching, or by an increase in water level associated with glacial advance. Dam failure can occur for the following reasons: melting ice core within the moraine dam, rock and/or ice avalanche into a dammed lake, settlement and/or piping within the moraine dam, sub-glacial drainage, and engineering works.

217

Figure 9.1: Peak discharge from breached moraine-dammed lakes can be estimated from an empirical relationship developed by Costa (1985).

Melting Ice-core The impervious ice core within a moraine dam melts, lowering the effective height of the dam, thus allowing the lake water to drain over the residual ice core. The discharge increases as the ice core melts, and as greater amounts of water filter through the moraine, carrying fine materials. The resulting regressive erosion of the moraine dam ultimately leads to its failure. Overtopping by Displacement Waves Lake water is displaced by the sudden influx of rock and/or ice avalanche debris. The resultant waves overtop the freeboard of the dam causing regressive and eventual failure.

218

Settlement and/or Piping Earthquake shocks can cause settlement of the moraine. This reduces the dam freeboard to a point that the lake water drains over the moraine and causes regressive erosion and eventual failure. Sub-glacial Drainage A receding glacier with a terminus grounded within a pro-glacial lake can have its volume reduced without its ice front receding up-valley. When the volume of melt water within the lake increases to a point that the formerly grounded glacier floats, an instantaneous sub-glacial drainage occurs. Such drainage can destroy any moraine dam, allowing the lake to discharge until the glacier loses its buoyancy and grounds again. Engineering Works Artificial measures taken to lower the water levels or to change dam structures may trigger catastrophic discharge events. For example, in Peru in 1953, during the artificial lowering of the water level, an earth slide caused 12m high displacement waves, which poured into a trench, excavated as part of the engineering works and almost led to the total failure of the moraine dam. 9.4 SURGE PROPAGATION As GLOFs pose severe threats to human beings, man-made structures, agricultural fields, and natural vegetation it is important to make accurate estimates of the likely magnitude of future floods. Several methods have been devised to predict peak discharges, which are the most erosive and destructive phases of floods. The surge propagation hydrograph depends upon the type of GLOF event, i.e., from moraine-dammed lake or from icedammed lake (Figure 9.2). The duration of a surge wave from an ice-dammed lake may last for days to even weeks, while from a moraine-dammed lake the duration is shorter, minutes to hours. The peak discharge from the moraine-dammed lake is usually higher than from ice-dammed lakes. The following methods have been proposed for estimation of peak discharges. 1) Clague and Mathews formula

Clague and Mathews (1973) were the first to show the relationship between the volume of water released from ice-dammed lakes and peak flood discharges. Qmax = 75(V0*106)0.67 where Qmax = peak flood discharge (m3 s-1) V0 = total volume of water drained out from lake (m3)

219

Figure 9.2: Difference in release hydrograph between moraine and ice-dammed lakes (WECS 1987a).

The above relationship was later modified by Costa (1988) as the peak discharge yielded from the equation was higher than that measured for Flood Lake in British Columbia that occurred in August 1979: Qmax = 113(V0*106)0.64 Later Desloges et al. (1989) proposed: Qmax=17V0*19(V06)0.64 This method of discharge prediction is not based on any physical mechanism, but seems to give reasonable results. 2) Mean versus maximum discharge method

If the volume of water released by a flood and the flood duration are known, the mean and peak discharges can be calculated. Generally the flood duration will not be known in

220

advance. Hence, this method cannot be used to determine the magnitude of future floods. Observations of several outburst floods in North America, Iceland, and Scandinavia have shown that peak discharges are between two to six times higher than the mean discharge for the whole event. 3) Slope area method

This method is based on measured physical parameters such as dimensions and slope of channel during peak flood conditions from direct observations or geo-morphological evidence. Qmax = vA The peak velocity is calculated by the GaucklerManning formula (Williams 1988) v = r 0.67 S 0.50/n where v = peak velocity S = bed slope for a 100m channel reach n = Mannings roughness coefficient r = hydraulic radius of the channel r = A/p where A = cross-sectional area of the channel p = perimeter of the channel under water For sediment floored channels, bed roughness is mainly a function of bed material, particle size, and bed form or shape and can be estimated from: n = 0.038D 0.167 where D = average intermediate axis of the largest particles on the channel floor.

221

Desloges et al. (1989) compared the results from all the three methods for a jokulhlaup from the ice-dammed Ape Lake, British Columbia. All the methods gave comparable results.

The Clague and Mathews method gave a calculated peak discharge of 1,680 380 m3s-1 The mean versus maximum discharge method gave 1,0803,240 m3 s1. The slope area method gave 1,534 and 1,155 m3 s1 at a distance of 1 and 12 km from the outlet respectively.

These general relationships are useful for determining the order of magnitude of initial release that may propagate down the system. However, to predict the magnitude of future floods, the first method should be applied, because the volume of lake water can be estimated in advance. Attenuation of a peak discharge of 15,00020,000m s1 has been reported for the Poiqu River in Tibet (Sun Koshi in Nepal) within a distance of 50 km (XuDaoming 1985). Surges can be serious hazards in populated areas, engulfing occupied land, generating sudden floods, or disrupting local communications below and across glaciers. They tend to recur in cycles peculiar to each glacier involved and out of phase with general patterns of glacier advance and retreat. In regions with many surging glaciers, of which the Karakoram Himalaya is one, surges complicate the normally rather sensitive relations between glaciers and climate. There is a consensus that, whatever the controlling factors and exact mechanisms, the key to surging lies in conditions that promote large, episodic instability at the glacier bed. Proposed trigger mechanisms include fluctuations in thermal or hydrological conditions or in deformable subglacial sediment, acting alone or in combination (Clarke et al. 1984, Kamb 1987 and Raymond, 1987). Nevertheless, the geography of surges is highly uneven. There are large numbers in just a few regions, while none have been recognized in most glaciated areas. This suggests there are special but varying combinations of environmental conditions that promote or suppress surging. It is in relation to these questions that the Karakoram glaciers and the kinds of evidence available for them are of broadest scientific interest. Many Karakoram glaciers, and all of those known to surge, are predominantly or wholly avalanche fed (von Klebelsberg 1925B6). The highest precipitation occurs in the perennial ice climate zone between 5,000 and 7,000 m (Hewitt 1993). Avalanches carry this more abundant snow directly to the glaciers. Much of it accumulates at or below the regional snow and firn limits. Avalanche-derived ice tends to be heavily freighted with debris. This relatively dirty ice contributes to higher melting rates in the upper and middle ablation zones, while thick supraglacial debris suppresses melting in the lower ablation zones. Enormous ramps of debris develop and build outward beside and beneath the ablation zones of these avalanche-fed glaciers (Goudie et al 1984 and Hewitt, 1993). Surging may be influenced by an unusual buildup of deformable sediment beneath these zones and/or by unstable transitions from frozen to unfrozen bed conditions.

222

Karakoram surges occur in a highly active tectonic zone with globally extreme rates of uplift and denudation (Searle, 1991). The glaciers drape the highest parts of the range, where a series of steeply inclined lithospheric thrust faults occur. However, structures and rock types are complex and poorly known where blanketed by snow and ice. Most surging glaciers cross two or more major formations. No specific or distinctive relationship of surging to lithology, indicated in some other regions, has yet been found. Hot springs are widespread across the region and it has been suggested that they, or the geothermal heat flow implied, could be a factor in surges. Studies in the Yukon Territory of Canada and Svalbard found that surge-type glaciers tend to be longer, wider, and of lower gradient than normal glaciers. We lack the data for a comparable analysis for the Karakoram. Meanwhile, no surges are recorded for more than 30 glaciers that are longer. Among the longest, widest, and lowest gradient glaciers, Siachen (75 km long), Biafo (68 km), Batura (60 km), Chogo Lungma (47 km), and Chiantar (35 km) have exhibited normal advance and retreat over the past one or two centuries (Mercer, 1975). As with Panmah-Chiring, main glaciers not known to surge are much longer, of gentler slope, and wider than their surging tributaries. The orientation of the watershed and ice stream seems to be unimportant or incidental to surging in Alaska-Yukon (Clarke, 1991). However, two thirds of Karakoram surging ice streams originate mainly or wholly on slopes with a northerly aspect and most flow in a northerly direction. The one fifth with southerly orientation includes the more extreme, high-elevation watersheds with steep-walled, avalanche-fed glaciers. A detailed review has been made by Hewitt (1969) about the surges of major glaciers in Karakoram Range in Pakistan (Annex_9.1)

9.5 SEDIMENT PROCESSES DURING A GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD During a GLOF, the flow velocity and discharge are exceptionally high and it becomes practically impossible to carry out any measurement. Field observations after a GLOF event have shown a much higher sediment concentration of rivers than before the GLOF event (Electrowatt Engineering Service Ltd 1982 and WECS 1995a). WECS (1995) calculated the volume of scoured sediment as 22.5*104 m3 after the Chhubung GLOF in 1991. A high concentration of 350,000 mg1 during a GLOF in the Indus River at Darband in 1962 is reported by Hewitt (1985). Figure 9.3 gives a hypothetical GLOF illustration showing discharge and variation in sediment concentration (WECS 1987a). The total sediment load is generally accepted as the wash load, which moves through a river system and finally deposits in the deltas. During a GLOF event, stones the size of small houses can be easily moved (WECS 1987b). The relationship between flow velocity and particle diameter can also be used to calculate the size of boulders that can be moved during such events.

223

Figure 9.3: Hypothetical illustration of GLOF showing discharge and variation in sediment concentration (WECS 1987a)

9.6 SOCIOECONOMIC EFFECTS OF GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOODS GLOFs create conditions for two very different types of flooding: upstream flooding as a result of impoundment and downstream flooding as a result of dam failure. The threat to life from upstream flooding is minimal because the water level behind the dam rises relatively slowly, although property damage can be substantial as the basin of the natural impoundment fills. It is usually possible to estimate accurately the extent and rate of upstream flooding from landslide dams. Such estimates require knowledge of the height of the dam crest, rates of stream flow into the dam lake, rates of seepage through or beneath the dam, and information on the topography upstream from the dam. Downstream flash floods, resulting from the failure of landslide dams, are usually much larger than those originating directly from snowmelt or rainfall and are a significant threat to life and property. The losses are extensive in terms of damage to roads, bridges, trekking trails, villages, agricultural land, natural vegetation, as well as the loss of human lives and infrastructure. The sociological impacts can be direct when human lives are lost or indirect when the agricultural lands are converted to debris filled lands and the village has to be shifted. The records of past GLOF events in the Himalayas show that once every three to ten years, a GLOF has occurred with varying degrees of socioeconomic impact. Therefore, the

224

most appropriate mitigation methods must be applied after conducting a proper hazard assessment study based on an evaluation of possible economic loss. During recent decades there has been a rapid retreat of glaciers all over the world, new lakes are being formed, and the size of the existing lakes attached to the glaciers is increasing. Another emerging hypothesis of more GLOF events is the change in the pattern of rainfall (Awan, 2002). 9.7 BRIEF REVIEW OF GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD EVENTS AND DAMAGES CAUSED IN PAKISTAN The history of GLOF and its hazards are as old as the glacial history of northern Pakistan. During the late Pleistocene and Little Ice Age, the damages caused by GLOF were largescale and extensive compared to the recent ones. In the past 50 years, the general glacier recession in the area is considered to be linked to the general climatic change experienced here, as in many mountain areas in the world. The climatic changes indicate the possibility in glacial advance which may be a precursor of an era of renewed dam burst floods. The flood risks associated with monsoonal storm conditions are common in summer, in the lowland areas of Pakistan. However, the larger part of summer high flows in the lndus system are due to snow and ice melting. At certain periods in the past, for example, the 1920s and 30s glacier dams and dam burst floods, in the Indus system, were a major and recurrent risk. The same risks still exist and, further, they are anticipated in the future. An understanding of the mountainous headwater of the Indus and especially of the snow and ice conditions is lacking and/or inadequate in Pakistan. This is the main gap in the knowledge essential for hydrological forecasting of the Indus system. In a broader context, this is the most conspicuous gap in our knowledge of the range of the global snow and ice environments. An environment such as the Upper Indus basin presents a range of potentially dangerous conditions for man and his installations. Thirty-five destructive outburst floods are recorded in the Karakoram region in the past two hundred years (Figure 9.4). Thirty glaciers are known to have advanced across major headwater streams of the Indus and Yarkhun. Some ice dams may have been the result of glacier surges. A surge is commonly accompanied by increased water and sediment discharge and is extremely hazardous to settlements, or installations in the path. At least 11 surges of exceptional scale have been recorded so far in the Upper Indus basin (Khan 1994). Some of the surge and flood events reported by different sources are given in Table 9.1.

225

Figure 9.4: Location of destructive outburst floods recorded in the Karakoram region in the past 200 years (Khan 1994).

9.8 SOME EXAMPLES OF GLOF EVENTS There are many flood events recorded in Pakistan. Most of the available information is on the floods caused by climatic disturbances like cloud burst in the catchments particularly in monsoon season. Generally the detailed information on the specific GLOF events is limited. The monetary losses and death toll of the floods in Pakistan has been reported by various sources and some times there is no agreement among these figures (Table 9.1 and 9.2 and 9.3). The death toll of 1950 GLOF event recorded was 2,900 (www.southasianfloods.org/regional/pakistan), 2,190 (www.southasianfloods.org/document) and 2910 (www.icimod.org.np/publications/newsletter/New38).

Some of the main events recorded are as follows: In 1884 an ice dam burst in the Shimshal valley, a northern tributary of the Hunza, and led to a three-metre rise in the river level causing considerable devastation at Ganesh and Baltit. This was followed by a similar event in 1893 and then again in 1905. The latter sent a 9 m flood wave down the Hunza, causing landslips. In the following year the Shimshal caused an even bigger flood than that of 1905, raising the Hunza by over 15 m above its normal summer flood level at Chalt. Other events occurred in 1927 and 1928. In 1959, a sudden burst took place in a lake dammed by one of the big glaciers in the Shimshal valley. The flood caused by the

226

Table 9.1: Inventory of Glacier Surges in the Karakoram Himalaya

Date
1860s

Glacier (valley)
(?) Karambar (Gilgit-Ishkoman)

Surge
Probable surge. Damaging floods on Gilgit R. Probable surge pushing aside Chiring and Nobande Sobande, overriding flanks and draining lakes. ice dam burst. Terminus advanced 1,600 m in three months "Immense ice-slip on glacier and gigantic blocks of ice..." prevented crossing to Skinmang and access to 'New' Mustagh Pass Approx. 2.5 km advance. Advanced to join Bur-Burpu Bualtar. (Hispar-Nagyr) Overriding lateral maraines and pushing main glacier aside. 370 m sudden advance. 1,200 m advance in all. 9.7 km in 2.5 months. "...2 miles in present summer ( 1895)...then stopped..." Surge dammed river 1905 glacier lake outburst and largest flood disaster on Gilgit River "2,600 m in spring"

Sources
Hayward (1871) Kreutzmann (1994)

1860-61

"Maedan" Panmah tributary (Braldu)

Schlagentweit (1866) Godwin-Austen (1864)

1861 1868-69

attrib. Karambar Aktash

Shaw (1871)

1886-87

Chiring, Panmah tributary (Braldu)

Younghusband (1892) Shipton (1938)

late 19th century

Garumbar, Hispar tributary

Mason (1931

late 1800s (?) Sumaiyar

Conway (1894)

1890-92

Pumarikish tributary (Hispar)

Conway (1894

1892-93

Minapin (Hunza)

Mason (1930; 1935

1893-95

Hassanabad (Hunza)

Hayden (1907) Workman (1911) Neve (1907)

1895-1905 Karabar (Ishkoman)

Todd (1930) Kreutzmann (1994)

1901-02

Yengutz Har

Mason (1931)

227

(Hispar)

"...2 miles...in 8 days" Sudden, rapid advance. "...several miles..." Longstaff (1910)

1902-03

Aktash (Upper Shyok) Chogo Lungma tributary (ShigarBasha) Bualtar (=Hopar) (Hispar-Nagyr)

1902-03

Workman and Workman (1908)

1929-30

550 m and further 150 m during summer. "...100 paces (in.) three weeks of March..." "...enormous push forward...200-300 million meters cubed of ice..." Reconstructed from location of surge lobe in Nobande Sobande in 1937. 2.5 km in 7 months

Mason (1931)

1930

Karambar (Gilgit-Ishkoman)

Mason (1931)

1930

Sultan Chhussky (Upper Shyok)

Visser and Visser-Hooft (1935-1938)

1931

Drenmang/Panmah tributary (Braldu)

Shipton (1938 unpublished)

1935-36

Aktash (Upper Shyok) Kutiah (Stak Valley)

Lyall-Grant and Mason (1940) Desio (1954 (Desio et al, 1961)

1953

12 km in 2 months March to early May

1955

Karambar (Gilgit-Ishkoman)

Surge blocked valley but Karambar R. maintained tunnel under the ice. Rapid advance

Hewitt (unpubl. notes)

1958

(?) Aktash (Upper Shyok) Balt Bare (Hunza)

Mercer (1975)

1974-77

2 km rapid advance in 1976-77, preceded by huge debris flow in 1974 Rapid advance of lobe into Nobande Sobande. Two surges, one following rock avalanche (1986-87, and second in 198990, 2 km advance. 1.5 km surge

Wang et al (1984)

1977-78

Drenmang/Panmah tributary (Braldu)

Hewitt (unpubl. from satellite imagery)

1986-90

Bualtar (=Hopar) (Hispar-Nagyr)

Gardner and Hewitt (1990) Hewitt (unpubl. field notes)

1988-89

Pumarikish/Hispar

Wake and

228

tributary (Hispar) 1989-93 Lokpar/Alling tributary (Shyok-Hushe)

pushing main glacier aside. Surge of Lokpar tributary followed by steepening and 1.5 km+ advance of main terminus. Dam burst flood from ice margin lakes (1990). Report of sudden, massive thickening and other surge-like behavior. Surge began in April and glacier advancing 7-10 m per day in June. Thickening and surge-like behavior of upper glacier. Surge advanced 2.5 km, pushing aside ice of main glacier. 2 km rapid advance to reach main glacier

Searle(1993)

Hewitt (unpubl. field notes)

1992

(?) Sumaiyar Bar/ Barpu tributary. (Hunza-Hispar)

Hewitt (unpubl. notes)

1993

Karambar (Gilgit-Ishkoman)

Hewitt (unpubl. field notes

1993

(?) Masherbrum Gl. (Hushe)

Hewitt (unpubl notes)

1994-96

Chiring/Panmah tributary (Braldu)

Hewitt (unpubl. field notes)

1990s

Liligo tributary of Baltoro (Braldu) Moni tributary & Sarpo Laggo (Shaksgaur)

Hewitt (unpubl. from satellite imagery)

1990s

2 km rapid advance across and down main glacier.

Hewitt (unpubl. from satellite imagery)

Sorce: Hewitt, K. 1998. Recent Glacier Surges in the Karakoram Himalaya, South Central Asia. www.agu.org/eos_elec/97016e.html.

229

 burst had a depth of around 30 m at the junction of Shimshal and Hunza, (about 40 km from the assumed position of the lake) and destroyed the village of Passu near the Hunza river (Goudie et al. 1984).

Table 9.2: Historical flood damages in Pakistan

Year Value of Property Damaged (Rs. in Million) Unadjusted Adjusted Lives Lost Villages Affected

1950 199.80 11,282.00 2,190 1957 155.50 7,356.00 160 1959 152.50 6,958.00 83 1973 5,137.00 118,684.00 474 1976 5,880.00 80,504.00 425 1978 4,478.00 51,489.00 393 1988 6,879.00 25,630.00 508 1992 34,751.00 69,580.00 1,008 1995 6,125.00 8,698.00 591 Total 63,757.8 380,181.00 5,832 Source: (www.southasianfloods.org/document)

10,000 11,609 4,498 9,719 18,390 9,199 1,000 13,208 6,852 84,475

GLOF events of 1929 and 1932 from Chung Khumdan in the Shyok basin in Upper Indus, it was estimated that volume released was about 13.5 million cubic meters and peak discharge of 22,650 cubic meters per second, in August 1929, which is considered as the largest discharges measured for the entire Upper Indus and at Attock 1,300 Km downstream with discharge greater than 15,000 cubic meters per second. Between 1973 and 1974 the Batura glacier melt water stream suddenly shifted its course a few hundred metres, the consequence of which was the removal of a section of the Karakoram Highway embankment and the destruction of a major bridge. In 1977 the Balt Bare glacier above the village of Shiskat released a surge of melt water which on its decent collected boulders, stones, grit, and soil. The resulting mud flash took away several houses from the village before spreading across the valley floor to block off the river. The 20m high dam created a lake that stretched back almost to Pasu and in the process drowned several kilometers of newly constructed road. When the dam finally yielded to the water pressure (bombing by the Pakistan Air Force being ineffective), one important bridge and a long stretch of roadway was buried on accumulated lakebed silt but by this time a completely new road section and bridge was under construction (Francis et al. 1984). In Darkot and Barandos (September 1978), the flooding of a lake outburst caused by low frequency events, were responsible for the removal of fields and for the deposition of up to 4 m of stone debris. At Darkot, 80 houses and a school were washed away (Hughes 1984). 230

Table 9.3: Estimated damages during major flood events in Pakistan

Direct Monitory Losses (US $ in million) adjusted to 1995 price level

Year

Lives Lost

Villages Affected

Area Flooded (square miles)

1950 227 2,910 10.000 1955 176 679 6.945 1956 148 160 11.609 1957 140 83 4.498 1958 49 96 2.459 1959 100 88 3.902 1973 2,388 474 9.719 1976 1,621 425 18.390 1978 1,036 393 9.199 1980 63 75 862 1981 139 82 2.071 1982 8 41 289 1983 63 39 643 1984 35 42 251 1985 7 30 171 1988 399 508 100 1992 1,400 1,008 13.208 1994 392 N.A. N.A. 1995 175 N.A N.A 1996 8,924 N.A N.A Source: Mountain Flash Floods: A General Overview (www.icimod.org.np/publications/newsletter/New38)

700 8,000 29,065 6,251 5,863 4,072 16,200 32,000 11,952 744 1,637 101 735 427 89 2,400 15,140 N.A. N.A N.A

On August 6th, 1999 a debris-flow occurred from a right bank between Khalti Lake and Gupis. There is reported to be a small glacier (Charti Glacier) at the head of this valley and also 2 glacial lakes below the glacier terminus. The debris-flow crossed the Gupis to Shandur Road and blocked the Ghizer River, creating a lake about 1.5 km in length, now known as Khankhui Lake. The duration of blockage is not known, but the flow over the debris lobe is still constricted to a 5- meter channel, with rapids downstream over a distance of 150 m. This event also occurred without accompanying rainfall. A GLOF and debri-flow occurred on July 27th 2000 at Kande from a tributary of the Hushe River (tributary of the Shyok). Villagers referred to a supraglacial lake on the glacier before the flood occurred. A previous flood had occurred from the same source on 25 July 1997, but was much less severe than the one in 2000. Kande village was virtually destroyed in the flood, including 124 houses and a primary school. The event happened in the middle of the day, during a period of exceptionally hot weather and without rain. Villagers heard a roar in the hills about 10 minutes before the arrival of the flood and fled to higher ground and so 231

there were no fatalities. The initial flood/debris wave did most of the damage, but sporadic bursts of water occurred for a further 8 days. On June 10th 2000 a lake formed again in the Shimshal valley, as described above. Water began to flow over the top of the icedam on 28 May and breached on 10 June. The level in the Hunza was reported as increasing by 10 feet at Passu, but only 2 feet at Hunza. No serious damage resulted, as the breach occurred early in the year when the lake size was small (Awan, 2002). Chung Khumdan Dam Burst Glacier survey in the upper Shyok River basin in the late 1920s led to the discovery and monitoring of a large ice dam across the upper Shyok River. The advance of the Chung Khumdan glacier - a tributary of the Shyok, had formed this ice dam. The 1929 outburst flood of Chung Khumdan glacier was monitored from near the glacier for over 1,500 km downstream. The filling of the reservoir and the timing and magnitude of the resulting outburst floods in 1929 is shown in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4: Details of Chung Khumdan Dam and Glacier (1929)

Dam Glacier

Length of lake: 16 km Average width: 1.6 km Slope of valley floor: 1 in 130 Depth of dam: 120 m Volume: 1.5 X 109 m3 Width of ice barrier: 2.4km Rate of rise of lake in August: 0.3-0.45m/day

Orientation: E Max. length: 20 km Width at lower ablation zone: 2.5 km Terminus altitude: 4715masl Highest point on basin: 5250m

Gunn (1930) estimated the reservoir to have contained almost 13.5 x 108m3. Some 3x105m3 of ice were also carried by the flood and stranded on large blocks in the valley below the dam. At the peak of the steeply rising and falling flood, water discharges in excess of 22,650 m3 S-1 (800,000 cfs) were indicated, which is the largest discharge ever measured for the entire upper lndus at Attock. The only information available for 1926, 1929 and 1932 Khumdan outbursts is that breaching began through subglacial tunnels, but then carried away the entire thickness of ice above (Khan 1994). A significant number of floods, resulting from landslide or debris flow dambreaks, have also been occurred over the last three decades, but examples from earlier dates are restricted to events of extreme magnitude. Table 9.5 provides a summary list of such events, drawn from a variety of sources.

In 1972/3 a mudflow blocked the Hunza River at Batura, following 10.3 mm rainfall in 2 days date given as 1972 (Miller 1984). Shifeng, Y. and Wang, W. (1980) in the introduction to the glaciological study of the Batura glacier refer to 1973 flood, which 232

damaged the highway and bridge over the Batura channel. The team of Chinese glaciologists was sent to Batura Glacier, in response to this event and to consider reconstruction, and work was done during 1974 and 1975. The report gives no further english description of the event.

Table 9.5: Floods generated by landslide and debris flow dam breaks
Year Date Location River/Basin Source

1841 1858 1937 1974 1974 1977/78 1970s 1999

June August July 11 April

Lichar Ghar Phungurh

Indus Hunza Hunza

Drew, Hewitt Belcher, Goudie et al Said Cai Xiangxing et al Cai Xiangxing et al Raschid (1995) Whiteman (1985) Awan Awan

Baltbar near Batura

Hunza Hunza Yasin/Gilgit Gilgit Ghizer/Gilgit

14 August Baltbar Darkot Yashpur, Henzel July? Juj Bargo

On April 11th 1974 a mudflow, with a front 20 to 30 m high, occurred from Baltbar Nallah, a left bank tributary 18 km south of Batura. A fan was formed 300 to 400 m wide, over 150 m long and 80 to 100 m high, blocking the Hunza River and submerging the Friendship Bridge constructed in 1970 and creating a lake 12 km long (Zhang, X. and Shifeng, W., 1980). Mr Ali Madad, owner and manager of the Kisar Inn, Altit, was an eye-witness to the debri flood. He recalls that he and his uncle had reached the Nallah near Gulmit when they stopped their jeep and his uncle went forward to inspect the bridge, there having been some previous rains. Suddenly, he heard a roaring sound and saw a smoke-like mist upstream. A wave-front of stones and mud rushed down the valley, overwhelmed the bridge and killed his uncle instantly, along with some villagers working in nearby fields. He fled and narrowly escaped. In 1988, a concerted effort was made by Snow and Ice Hydrology Project (SIHP) to study lakes created by natural dams in the upper Hunza basin, concentrating on the main Hunza Valley between Gulmit, Batura and Shimshal Valley (Figures 9.5 and 9.6). In the Gulmit to Batura section of the Hunza Valley there is geomorphological evidence for a complex history of lakes in the form of extensive lacustrine deposits. Johnson (1988) discussed in depth the geomorphological and sedimentological analysis of the Hunza Valley lake sediments and also the hazards created by the development of smaller ice-marginal lakes. Similarly, Kelly (1988) outlines the historical development and disappearance of Virjerab Lake (Figure 9.5). Under certain conditions an advance of Khurdopin and Yurkshin Garden Glaciers can temporarily block the main Shimshal Valley, impounding runoff from Virjerab Glacier and resulting in the formation of a large lake. The total lake volume was estimated to have been 2.0x108 m3. The instantaneous maximum discharge was 233

calculated to be 2600 m3 s-1, or approximately twelve times greater than the average July discharge of the Indus River at Beham Qila.

Shimshal River

Virjerab Lake Basin

Yazghil glacier Virjerab glacier Khurdopin glacier Figure 9.5: Virjerab ice-dammed lake site in Shimshal valley of Hunza River Basin.

A Batura Gorge
Batura glacier

B
Pasu glacier Ghulkin glacier Gulmit D

Shimshal River

C Hunza River

E F
Figure 9.6: Ice and mass movement dammed lake sites in Hunza River basin; A, B, C, D sites of dammed lakes studied by Johnson (1988), E) 1974 Mudflow dam and F) 1858 Rockfall dam.

In 1974 a debris flow from a left-bank gully followed heavy rainfall and blocked the Hunza River, which then had a flow of 250 m3/sec. The mudflow had a front 5 m high;

234

the stage rose rapidly and submerged the bridge over the Hunza. One hour later, the river cut through the fan deposits. Raschid (1995) quotes a resident of Darkot on the Upper Yasin River as saying In 1977 a flood of rocks and mud all but obliterated the village and destroyed every inch of farmland. Whiteman (1985) refers to this event as occurring in 1978. A gigantic mud flow on 12th July, 2000, comprising heavy boulders and wooden logs, etc. washed away an arch bridge at Shatial. The intensity of the flow was so high that it broke the 100 ft high bridge like match sticks(Figure 9.7a). After overcoming the worst site restrictions a new bridge of 170 ft was constructed by army engineers in Shatial (Farrukh, 2002).

(a) Mud flow washed away the bridge

(b) Launching of a new bridge Figure 9.7: Effect of a gigantic mud flow in Shatial.

A debris-flow from a small steep left-bank nallah at Juj Bargo produced a debris lobe across the river against the rock-face on the right bank on 31 Jul/August. A lake was formed upstream and destroyed the small village of Juj Bargo and still (in 2001) extends about 1 km in length upstream from the remaining barrier. The site is a short distance upstream from Gakuch and the Ishkoman confluence (Awan 2002).

235

9.9 LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD HAZARDS The significance of these floods lies especially in the exceptional risk to human communities or installations, and also in their role in erosion and sedimentation. Over much of their course in the mountains, the recorded floods reach heights well above peak discharges from summer melting. The dynamic character greatly magnifies their erosion competence and capacity. These two matters are of singular importance in the context of erosion of the Karakoram valleys, and sediment transport into downstream reservoirs. Huge numbers of landslides have been reported on terraces and valley sides after the passage of dam burst floods. If one extrapolates the existing sediment rating curve for Darband or Attock before the Tarbela Dam was built, the 1929 flood curve would have carried the equivalent of one average years sediment yield. These erosion events could increase the rate of sedimentation in artificial dams on these rivers, and reduce their economic lifetime.

236

Chapter 10 Potentially Dangerous Glacial Lakes

On the basis of actively retreating glaciers and other criteria, the potentially dangerous glacial lakes can be identified using the spatial and attribute database complemented by multi-temporal, remotesensing data sets. Medium to large scale aerial photographs are also useful for detailed geomorphic studies and for evaluation of the active glaciers and potentially dangerous lakes. In general, based on geo-morphological characteristics, glacial lakes can be grouped into three types: glacial Erosion lakes, glacial Cirque lakes, and Moraine Dammed lakes. The former two types of glacial lakes occupy the lowlands or emptying cirques eroded by ancient glaciers. These glacial lakes are more or less located away from present-day glaciers and the downstream banks are usually made of bedrock or covered with a thinner layer of loose sediment. Both of these glacial lakes do not generally pose an outburst danger. On the other hand, the Moraine Dammed glacial lakes have the potential for bursting. A standard index to define a lake that is a source of potential danger because of possible bursting does not exist. Moraine Dammed glacial lakes, which are still in contact or very near to the glaciers, are usually dangerous. The present study defines all the lakes formed by the activity of glaciers including in the past as glacial lakes. Moraine Dammed glacial lakes are usually dangerous. These glacial lakes were partly formed between present-day glaciers and Little Ice Age moraine. The depositions of Little Ice Age moraines are usually about 300 years old, form high and narrow arch-shaped ridges usually with a height of 20150 m, and often contain dead glacier ice layers beneath them. These End Moraines are loose and unstable in nature. The advance and retreat of the glacier affect the hydrology between the present-day glacier and the lake dammed by the moraines. Sudden natural phenomena with a direct effect on a lake, like ice avalanches or rock and Lateral Moraine material collapsing on a lake, cause moraine breaches with subsequent lake outburst events. Such phenomena have been well known in the past in several cases of Moraine Dammed lakes, although the mechanisms at play are not fully understood. 10.1 CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFICATION The criteria for identifying the potentially dangerous glacial lakes are based on field observations, processes and records of past events, geo-morphological and geo-technical characteristics of the lake and surroundings, and other physical conditions. Rise in Lake Water Level In general, the lakes, which have a volume of more than 0.01 km3 are found to have past events. A lake, which has a larger volume than this, is deeper, with the deeper part near the dam (lower part of lake) rather than near the glacier tongue, and has rapid increase in lake water volume is an indication that a lake is potentially dangerous.

237

Activity of Supraglacial lakes As time passes, groups of closely spaced Supraglacial lakes of smaller size at glacier tongues merge and form bigger lakes. Using temporal satellite images, one can identify the successive merging of Supraglacial lakes and the formation of a bigger lake. These activities of Supraglacial lakes are indications that the lakes are becoming potentially dangerous. Position of Lakes The potentially dangerous lakes are generally at the lower part of the ablation area of the glacier near to the End Moraine, and the mother glacier should be sufficiently large to create a potentially dangerous lake environment. Regular monitoring needs to be carried out for such lakes with the help of multi-temporal satellite images, aerial photographs, and field observations. In general, the potentially dangerous status of Moraine Dammed lakes can be defined by the conditions of the damming material and the nature of the mother glacier. The valley lakes with an area bigger than 0.1 km2 and a distance less than 0.5 km from the mother glacier of considerable size are considered to be potentially dangerous. Cirque lakes even smaller than 0.1 km2 associated (in contact or distance less than 0.5 km) with steep hanging glaciers are considered to be potentially dangerous. Even the smaller size steep hanging glacier may pose a danger to the lake. Dam Conditions The natural conditions of the moraine damming the lake determine the lake stability. The lake stability will be less if the moraine dam has a combination of the following characteristics: narrower in the crest area no drainage outflow or outlet not well defined steeper slope of the moraine walls ice cored very tall (from toe to crest) mass movement or potential mass movement in the inner slope and/or outer slope breached and closed in the past and refilled again with water seepage flow at moraine walls

A Moraine Dammed lake, which has breached and closed subsequently in the past and has refilled again with water, can breach again. Nagma Pokhari Lake in the Tamor basin of Nepal burst out in 1980. The study of recent aerial photographs and satellite images shows a very quick regaining of lake water volume. Zhangzangbo Lake in the Poiqu basin in Tibet (China) burst out in 1964 and again in 1981. Recent satellite images show that the lake has refilled with water and, therefore, could pose danger. Ayaco Lake in the Pumqu basin in Tibet (China) burst out in 1968, 1969 and 1970 and at present it is refilled again with water and poses danger. Similarly in Pakistan in 1884 an ice dam burst in the Shimshal valley, a northern tributary of the Hunza River and led to a three-metre rise in

238

the river level causing considerable devastation at Ganesh and Baltit. This was followed by a similar event in 1893 and then again in 1905. The latter sent a 9 m flood wave down the Hunza, causing landslips. In the following year the Shimshal caused an even bigger flood than that of 1905, raising the Hunza River by over 15 m above its normal summer flood level at Chalt. A lake formed again in the Shimshal valley and water began to flow over the top of the ice dam on 28 May and breached on 10 June. Regular monitoring of such lakes is necessary using multi-temporal satellite images. Conditions of Associated Mother Glacier Generally, the bigger Valley glaciers with tongues reaching an elevation of below 5,000 masl have well-developed glacial lakes. Even the actively retreating and steep hanging glaciers on the banks of lakes may be a potential cause of danger. The following general characteristics of associated mother glaciers can create danger to Moraine Dammed lakes: hanging glacier in contact with the lake, bigger glacier area, fast retreating, debris cover at glacier tongue area, steep gradient at glacier tongue area, presence of crevasses and ponds at glacier tongue area, toppling/collapses of glacier masses at the glacier tongue, and ice blocks draining to lake.

Physical Conditions of the Surrounding Area Besides moraines, mother glaciers, and lake conditions, and other physical conditions of the surrounding area as given below may also cause the lake to be potentially dangerous: potential rockfall/slide (mass movements) site around the lake which can fall into the lake suddenly, snow avalanches of large size around the lake which can fall into the lake suddenly, neo-tectonic and earthquake activities around or near the lake area, climatic conditions of successive years being a relatively wet and cold year followed by a hot and wet or hot and dry year, very recent moraines damming the lake at the tributary glaciers that used to be just a part of a former complex of Valley Glacier, middle moraines as a result of the fast retreat of a complex mother Valley Glacier, and sudden advance of a glacier towards the lower tributary or the mother glacier having a well-developed lake at its tongue

239

10.2 MAJOR GLACIAL LAKES ASSOCIATED WITH THE GLACIERS AND POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS GLACIAL LAKES OF TEN RIVER BASINS IN HKH REGION OF PAKISTAN For identification of potentially dangerous glacial lakes, the glacial lakes associated with glaciers such as Supraglacial, Valley, Cirque and /or dammed by Lateral Moraine or End Moraine with an area larger than 0.02 km2 have been considered and they have been defined as major glacial lakes. The details of the major lakes of all the five basins are included in the subsequent sections. 10.2.1 Swat River basin In Swat River basin out of 255 glacial lakes, 163 lakes have been characterized as major lakes. These major lakes contribute about 94% of the lake area of the basin. The detail of each major lake is given in the Table 10.2.1.1. Out of these, maximum are Erosion lake (80) followed by Valley (37) and End Moraine dammed (31) lakes (Table10.2.1.2). There are only three Blocked and two Lateral Moraine Dammed lakes. Out of the total area of major lakes, the highest contribution is of Erosion type lakes. End Moraine and Valley lakes contribute about the same area. Since the Blocked and Lateral Moraine lakes are few in number, their contribution in the lake area is also low. The number of various types of lakes follows the pattern of their area. The Valley lakes are quite high in number and the largest lake of this category (Swat_gl
134) has an area of 0.41 sq. km. There are 15 lakes of this type having an area of more than 0.1 sq. km. The largest Erosion lake (Swat_gl 89) has an area of 0.53 sq. km is associated with

a Valley glacier (Swat_gr 34) at a distance of 57 m. The 12 lakes of this type are larger than 0.1 sq. km. The largest End Moraine lake (Swat_gl 32) has an area of 0.81 sq. km and is located at a distance of 595 meters from a glacier Swat_gr 28. Only four Cirque lakes and two Block lakes have an area of more than 0.1 sq. km. Table 10.2.1.1: Major Lakes of Swat River basin.
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Lake number Swat_gl 202 Swat_gl 27 Swat_gl 196 Swat_gl 69 Swat_gl 174 Swat_gl 60 Swat_gl 70 Swat_gl 71 Swat_gl 4 Swat_gl 81 Swat_gl 72 Swat_gl 76 Swat_gl 53 Swat_gl 47 Swat_gl 24 Swat_gl 232 Type Blocked Blocked Blocked Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Area (m2) 27733 100540 131536 29458 38384 50058 63628 69278 87910 102935 126031 168793 623355 20213 20575 21711 Associated glacier No. Swat_gr 114 Distance to glacier (m) 57

240

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

Swat_gl 229 Swat_gl 130 Swat_gl 25 Swat_gl 98 Swat_gl 102 Swat_gl 208 Swat_gl 155 Swat_gl 86 Swat_gl 18 Swat_gl 49 Swat_gl 203 Swat_gl 96 Swat_gl 221 Swat_gl 23 Swat_gl 255 Swat_gl 172 Swat_gl 213 Swat_gl 107 Swat_gl 90 Swat_gl 187 Swat_gl 183 Swat_gl 211 Swat_gl 142 Swat_gl 28 Swat_gl 234 Swat_gl 189 Swat_gl 129 Swat_gl 32 Swat_gl 194 Swat_gl 238 Swat_gl 215 Swat_gl 57 Swat_gl 214 Swat_gl 67 Swat_gl 10 Swat_gl 103 Swat_gl 95 Swat_gl 66 Swat_gl 210 Swat_gl 150 Swat_gl 239 Swat_gl 170 Swat_gl 151 Swat_gl 252 Swat_gl 145 Swat_gl 175 Swat_gl 1 Swat_gl 247 Swat_gl 241 Swat_gl 94 Swat_gl 9

End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

23614 24306 39370 39595 46102 50060 50805 54429 54730 61093 68917 69282 73956 92125 92482 106274 137532 141750 146887 158596 160213 209326 221979 223806 260274 274358 480899 809688 20064 20414 21106 21347 21452 22106 22677 23739 24026 24049 24220 24603 24825 25257 26320 26542 26685 26712 26807 26897 27939 28357 28715

Swat_gr 55

671

Swat_gr 145

Swat_gr 31 Swat_gr 119

470

Swat_gr 6

442

Swat_gr 35

403

Swat_gr 151 Swat_gr 21 Swat_gr 178 Swat_gr 54 Swat_gr 28

550

354 1755 595

Swat_gr 209

1429

241

68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Swat_gl 63 Swat_gl 113 Swat_gl 82 Swat_gl 222 Swat_gl 58 Swat_gl 171 Swat_gl 127 Swat_gl 104 Swat_gl 112 Swat_gl 75 Swat_gl 123 Swat_gl 243 Swat_gl 184 Swat_gl 55 Swat_gl 191 Swat_gl 29 Swat_gl 160 Swat_gl 153 Swat_gl 16 Swat_gl 246 Swat_gl 207 Swat_gl 159 Swat_gl 149 Swat_gl 7 Swat_gl 109 Swat_gl 192 Swat_gl 132 Swat_gl 146 Swat_gl 68 Swat_gl 77 Swat_gl 158 Swat_gl 152 Swat_gl 20 Swat_gl 135 Swat_gl 143 Swat_gl 84 Swat_gl 209 Swat_gl 205 Swat_gl 156 Swat_gl 111 Swat_gl 141 Swat_gl 126 Swat_gl 17 Swat_gl 12 Swat_gl 93 Swat_gl 147 Swat_gl 38 Swat_gl 2 Swat_gl 106 Swat_gl 157 Swat_gl 44

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

28754 29030 29257 29409 30090 30594 30620 31376 32019 32132 33937 34011 34197 34839 34982 36726 38419 39476 39753 39779 40568 41469 42520 43321 44868 45450 45671 46973 49657 49827 50149 52474 53047 53103 55458 56386 57385 57929 60549 72108 73370 75081 81803 89970 92806 101575 116173 127224 140910 141402 146252

Swat_gr 54

761

Swat_gr 84

578

Swat_gr 54

222

242

119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163

Swat_gl 21 Swat_gl 120 Swat_gl 37 Swat_gl 240 Swat_gl 121 Swat_gl 89 Swat_gl 237 Swat_gl 125 Swat_gl 30 Swat_gl 61 Swat_gl 128 Swat_gl 139 Swat_gl 231 Swat_gl 116 Swat_gl 140 Swat_gl 163 Swat_gl 83 Swat_gl 242 Swat_gl 138 Swat_gl 110 Swat_gl 220 Swat_gl 224 Swat_gl 117 Swat_gl 225 Swat_gl 79 Swat_gl 236 Swat_gl 169 Swat_gl 188 Swat_gl 217 Swat_gl 193 Swat_gl 165 Swat_gl 233 Swat_gl 52 Swat_gl 230 Swat_gl 133 Swat_gl 33 Swat_gl 48 Swat_gl 118 Swat_gl 218 Swat_gl 31 Swat_gl 122 Swat_gl 173 Swat_gl 195 Swat_gl 204 Swat_gl 134

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

147399 202881 285237 312778 444671 528984 44092 48266 20685 22219 23441 26397 26987 27727 28099 32817 33143 34080 35287 39641 42109 43306 47665 53055 55458 59404 59578 79325 79555 82273 95435 99992 101777 103539 106857 110685 128893 141824 157742 163688 186830 208206 232256 365369 413607

Swat_gr 41

Swat_gr 41 Swat_gr 34 Swat_gr 54

380 57 730

Swat_gr 54 Swat_gr 177

1443 514

Swat_gr 170

3048

Swat_gr 33 Swat_gr 173

833 1728

243

Table 10.2.1.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Swat River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Valley Total Number Area (km2) 3 10 31 2 80 37 163 0.260 1.360 4.235 0.092 5.362 3.569 14.878 Area (m2) Largest Smallest 131536 27733 623355 29458 809688 20213 48266 44092 528984 20064 413607 20685

In Swat River basin only two End Moraine lakes have been classified as potentially dangerous lakes (Figure 10.2.1.1). These two lakes are located in the extreme north western part adjacent to the Chitral River basin. The Swat_gl 28 has an area of 0.224 sq. km and is associated with Swat_gr 21 (Table 10.2.1.3). It is dangerous because the associated glacier is a large Valley glacier having an area of about 4.694 sq. km. The second dangerous lake (Swat_gl 189) is located near massive glaciated area which is quite clear in Figure 10.2.1.2.

Table 10.2.1.3: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Swat River basin.

S. No. 1 2 Lake type End Moraine End Moraine Lake Number Total Area (m2) Associated Distance Glacier to glacier Remarks In contact with large glacier source Near massive glaciers source

Swat_gl 28 223806 Swat_gr 21 Swat_gl 189 274358

244

Figure 10.2.1.1: Distribution of potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Jhelum River basin.

245

(a) Swat_gl 189

(b) Swat_gl 28

Figure 10.2.1.2: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Swat River basin.

10.2.2 Chitral River basin In Chitral River basin out of 187 glacial lakes, 70 lakes have been characterized as major lakes. These major lakes contribute about 68% of the accumulative lake area of the basin. The detail of each major lake is given in the Table 10.2.2.1. Out of these, maximum are Valley lakes (30) followed by Erosion (17) and End Moraine dammed (12) lakes (Table10.2.2.2). There is only one Supraglacial, two Lateral Moraine and three Blocked lakes in the basin. Out of total area of major lakes, the highest contribution (78%) is of Valley lakes followed by (10%) Erosion lakes. Supraglacial, Lateral Moraine, blocked and Cirque lakes are few in the basin and therefore contribute minimum to the accumulative area of major lakes of the basin. The largest and smallest Valley lakes (Chitr_gl 160 and Chitr_gl 184) have area of more than 1.86 and 0.02 sq. km respectively. There are two such lakes which have area more than 1 sq. km while the area of another eight ranges from 0.6 to 0.11 sq. km. Five lakes of this type are associated with glaciers. One Supraglacial lake is small in size for being only 0.03 sq. km. Both the Lateral Moraine dammed lakes are small in size. Except the largest Erosion lake (Chitr_gl 109) all lakes of this type are less than 0.1 sq. km. Among the End Moraine dammed lakes, except one (Chitr_gl 133) all are in contact with glaciers. Generally the Blocked and Cirque lakes are relatively small in size. Table 10.2.2.1: Major Lakes of Chitral River basin.
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Lake number Chitr_gl 147 Chitr_gl 144 Chitr_gl 93 Chitr_gl 187 Chitr_gl 183 Chitr_gl 181 Chitr_gl 186 Chitr_gl 38 Chitr_gl 11 Chitr_gl 141 Type Blocked Blocked Blocked Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque End Moraine End Moraine Area (m2) 22315 42222 42701 20779 22829 28131 50273 59256 23757 26632 Associated glacier Distance to No. glacier (m) 374 Chitr_gr 398 Chitr_gr 358

Chitr_gr 7 Chitr_gr 331

246

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61

Chitr_gl 42 Chitr_gl 133 Chitr_gl 24 Chitr_gl 91 Chitr_gl 30 Chitr_gl 145 Chitr_gl 155 Chitr_gl 61 Chitr_gl 170 Chitr_gl 132 Chitr_gl 13 Chitr_gl 10 Chitr_gl 102 Chitr_gl 185 Chitr_gl 3 Chitr_gl 103 Chitr_gl 107 Chitr_gl 63 Chitr_gl 97 Chitr_gl 31 Chitr_gl 65 Chitr_gl 62 Chitr_gl 105 Chitr_gl 112 Chitr_gl 101 Chitr_gl 104 Chitr_gl 109 Chitr_gl 67 Chitr_gl 21 Chitr_gl 179 Chitr_gl 184 Chitr_gl 169 Chitr_gl 119 Chitr_gl 123 Chitr_gl 114 Chitr_gl 95 Chitr_gl 134 Chitr_gl 43 Chitr_gl 135 Chitr_gl 161 Chitr_gl 121 Chitr_gl 136 Chitr_gl 100 Chitr_gl 168 Chitr_gl 99 Chitr_gl 7 Chitr_gl 131 Chitr_gl 124 Chitr_gl 118 Chitr_gl 174 Chitr_gl 173

End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Supraglacial Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

28819 30528 30556 32149 37185 45915 50821 51640 62826 161827 22060 22523 26359 29730 31715 33111 33894 35538 36350 38835 43493 48471 52362 58018 61406 85374 197158 20424 22587 29549 20797 22921 22960 23692 24032 25502 26923 32552 33915 34138 34374 40252 42407 47224 47585 54309 60017 64146 94151 98964 113404

Chitr_gr 50 Chitr_gr 22 Chitr_gr 216 Chitr_gr 35 Chitr_gr 365 Chitr_gr 415 Chitr_gr 108 Chitr_gr 514 Chitr_gr 311 Chitr_gr 5

831

Chitr_gr 532

Chitr_gr 52 Chitr_gr 325 Chitr_gr 457

553 638 264

Chitr_gr 510

1757

247

62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

Chitr_gl 89 Chitr_gl 96 Chitr_gl 146 Chitr_gl 148 Chitr_gl 94 Chitr_gl 150 Chitr_gl 162 Chitr_gl 130 Chitr_gl 160

Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

127712 207466 228294 290994 303726 591274 599406 1184751 1861278

Chitr_gr 216

Table 10.2.2.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Chitral River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Supraglacial Valley Number 3 5 12 2 17 1 30 70 Area (km2) 0.107 0.181 0.583 0.043 0.856 0.043 0.030 6.359 Area (m2) Largest Smallest 42701 22315 59256 20779 161827 23757 22587 20424 197158 22060 1861278 20797 2344807 130132

In this basin only one potentially dangerous lake has been identified which is located in the southwestern part of the basin which is bordering with Afghanistan Figure10.2.2.1. This lake is End Moraine type (Chitr_gl 61) having an area of 0.052 sq. km and is in contact with a Mountain type large size glacier (Chitr_gr 108) having an area of 1.75 sq. km (Figure 10.2.2.2).

248

Figure 10.2.2.1: Distribution of potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Chitral River basin.

249

Figure 10.2.2.2: Potentially dangerous glacial lake (Chitr_gl 61) of Chitral River basin.

10.2.3 Gilgit River basin In Gilgit River basin out of 614 glacial lakes, 380 lakes have been characterized as major lakes which are about 62% of the total lakes. These major lakes contribute about 93% of the lake area of the basin. The detail of each major lake is given in the Table 10.2.3.1. Out of these, maximum are Erosion lakes (140) followed by Valley (93) and End Moraine dammed (74) lakes (Table10.2.3.2). There is only one Blocked and two Supraglacial lakes. Out of the total area of major lakes, the highest contribution is of Valley type lakes followed by End Moraine and Erosion lakes (21 and 18% respectively). The Supraglacial and Blocked lakes are very small and contribute altogether less than 0.22 sq. km. The Erosion lakes are quite high in number and the largest lake of this category (Gil_gl 122) has an area of 0.21 sq. km. There are 11 lakes of this type having an area ranging from 0.1 to 0.22 sq. km. The smallest lake of this category (Gil_189) has an area of only 0.02 sq. km. The major Valley lakes range in size from 0.02 (Gil_gl 369) to 2.72 sq. km (Gil_gl 608). There are four valley lakes in this basin which have area more than one sq. km. Out of total of 93 major Valley lakes 12 are associated with glaciers at variable distance. Except two End Moraine dammed lakes all have area less than 0.33 sq. km. The smallest lake of this type (Gil_gl 408) has an area of 0.02 sq. km.

250

Table 10.2.3.1: Major Lakes of Gilgit River basin

S. No. Lake number Type Area (m2) Associated glacier No. Distance to glacier (m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

Gil_gl 603 Gil_gl 44 Gil_gl 53 Gil_gl 141 Gil_gl 150 Gil_gl 126 Gil_gl 114 Gil_gl 215 Gil_gl 119 Gil_gl 571 Gil_gl 71 Gil_gl 5 Gil_gl 596 Gil_gl 94 Gil_gl 120 Gil_gl 68 Gil_gl 39 Gil_gl 297 Gil_gl 162 Gil_gl 100 Gil_gl 8 Gil_gl 147 Gil_gl 311 Gil_gl 4 Gil_gl 159 Gil_gl 277 Gil_gl 58 Gil_gl 63 Gil_gl 34 Gil_gl 3 Gil_gl 74 Gil_gl 270 Gil_gl 16 Gil_gl 190 Gil_gl 18 Gil_gl 95 Gil_gl 306 Gil_gl 86 Gil_gl 15 Gil_gl 110 Gil_gl 40 Gil_gl 203 Gil_gl 298

Blocked Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque

134340 21069 23061 23295 24263 24286 25240 25302 26290 26371 26533 27645 35201 35897 37558 39236 40137 42511 43573 43819 49628 52466 52709 53374 55583 55866 58442 69121 70846 79145 91326 102655 115515 116489 117409 118752 120579 124139 133902 166166 178679 300438 902330

251

44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

Gil_gl 535 Gil_gl 408 Gil_gl 37 Gil_gl 420 Gil_gl 221 Gil_gl 474 Gil_gl 106 Gil_gl 252 Gil_gl 396 Gil_gl 466 Gil_gl 422 Gil_gl 407 Gil_gl 164 Gil_gl 257 Gil_gl 426 Gil_gl 312 Gil_gl 472 Gil_gl 401 Gil_gl 33 Gil_gl 504 Gil_gl 217 Gil_gl 419 Gil_gl 35 Gil_gl 175 Gil_gl 309 Gil_gl 356 Gil_gl 232 Gil_gl 378 Gil_gl 579 Gil_gl 421 Gil_gl 342 Gil_gl 47 Gil_gl 117 Gil_gl 430 Gil_gl 411 Gil_gl 412 Gil_gl 340 Gil_gl 433 Gil_gl 255 Gil_gl 165 Gil_gl 168 Gil_gl 291 Gil_gl 102 Gil_gl 410 Gil_gl 423 Gil_gl 452 Gil_gl 529

Cirque End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine

1149976 20209 21032 22562 22619 23377 25129 26138 26741 26941 28128 28244 28637 30346 30584 30726 30838 32061 32518 33401 34161 34247 35646 37431 37788 40425 45696 46017 46216 47480 48376 49756 50347 50540 52890 53041 53567 58678 60334 61361 63623 66153 69365 71140 73533 79521 79931

Gil_gr 17

167

Gil_gr 239

236

252

91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137

Gil_gl 367 Gil_gl 510 Gil_gl 372 Gil_gl 234 Gil_gl 327 Gil_gl 293 Gil_gl 550 Gil_gl 563 Gil_gl 248 Gil_gl 303 Gil_gl 409 Gil_gl 414 Gil_gl 241 Gil_gl 201 Gil_gl 320 Gil_gl 590 Gil_gl 505 Gil_gl 336 Gil_gl 395 Gil_gl 244 Gil_gl 251 Gil_gl 561 Gil_gl 260 Gil_gl 469 Gil_gl 266 Gil_gl 324 Gil_gl 449 Gil_gl 399 Gil_gl 189 Gil_gl 96 Gil_gl 573 Gil_gl 328 Gil_gl 600 Gil_gl 133 Gil_gl 240 Gil_gl 88 Gil_gl 480 Gil_gl 195 Gil_gl 506 Gil_gl 554 Gil_gl 576 Gil_gl 27 Gil_gl 69 Gil_gl 226 Gil_gl 25 Gil_gl 415 Gil_gl 129

End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

80877 81917 84521 84932 85892 89727 96354 102381 121991 122085 123048 133026 134823 148120 188203 192428 212185 213504 221194 224107 229912 234904 247115 265212 279028 327673 584500 728772 20046 20124 20130 20150 20299 20319 20354 20503 20542 20590 20867 21007 21241 21303 21391 21796 22154 22310 22843

Gil_gr 84

162

Gil_gr 191 Gil_gr 15 Gil_gr 20

464 367 526

Gil_gr 8 Gil_gr 366 Gil_gr 79 Gil_gr 22

334

820 225

Gil_gr 18 Gil_gr 21 Gil_gr 28

375 442 173

253

138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184

Gil_gl 85 Gil_gl 574 Gil_gl 494 Gil_gl 465 Gil_gl 228 Gil_gl 132 Gil_gl 568 Gil_gl 172 Gil_gl 26 Gil_gl 496 Gil_gl 89 Gil_gl 318 Gil_gl 489 Gil_gl 178 Gil_gl 7 Gil_gl 200 Gil_gl 464 Gil_gl 355 Gil_gl 598 Gil_gl 38 Gil_gl 24 Gil_gl 353 Gil_gl 206 Gil_gl 84 Gil_gl 460 Gil_gl 144 Gil_gl 455 Gil_gl 490 Gil_gl 377 Gil_gl 572 Gil_gl 20 Gil_gl 445 Gil_gl 553 Gil_gl 148 Gil_gl 30 Gil_gl 52 Gil_gl 236 Gil_gl 160 Gil_gl 493 Gil_gl 265 Gil_gl 607 Gil_gl 337 Gil_gl 599 Gil_gl 462 Gil_gl 1 Gil_gl 440 Gil_gl 111

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

23053 23070 23715 23851 24122 24395 24674 24708 24784 24808 24975 25228 25384 25442 25495 26197 26342 26835 26922 27224 27708 27758 28066 28791 28819 29007 29224 29324 29406 29724 29730 29853 29905 30087 30986 31062 31927 31938 32147 32452 32947 33186 33332 33612 34518 35393 35413

Gil_gr 346

371

254

185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231

Gil_gl 437 Gil_gl 307 Gil_gl 181 Gil_gl 434 Gil_gl 213 Gil_gl 134 Gil_gl 167 Gil_gl 55 Gil_gl 235 Gil_gl 161 Gil_gl 366 Gil_gl 325 Gil_gl 385 Gil_gl 393 Gil_gl 275 Gil_gl 2 Gil_gl 373 Gil_gl 588 Gil_gl 75 Gil_gl 143 Gil_gl 439 Gil_gl 65 Gil_gl 559 Gil_gl 492 Gil_gl 405 Gil_gl 566 Gil_gl 188 Gil_gl 555 Gil_gl 182 Gil_gl 131 Gil_gl 64 Gil_gl 259 Gil_gl 338 Gil_gl 478 Gil_gl 78 Gil_gl 475 Gil_gl 323 Gil_gl 29 Gil_gl 354 Gil_gl 332 Gil_gl 376 Gil_gl 458 Gil_gl 321 Gil_gl 402 Gil_gl 594 Gil_gl 183 Gil_gl 157

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

35562 35690 36121 36362 36366 36783 36848 37031 37075 37820 38147 38500 38883 39139 39235 40286 40896 41166 41239 41282 41692 41929 42396 42919 42959 45150 45533 45806 45824 46371 46386 46799 46993 47104 47815 48285 48421 49713 50669 52338 52412 52611 55105 56184 56280 56617 56852

Gil_gr 51

250

255

232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278

Gil_gl 92 Gil_gl 498 Gil_gl 70 Gil_gl 502 Gil_gl 22 Gil_gl 227 Gil_gl 595 Gil_gl 484 Gil_gl 36 Gil_gl 115 Gil_gl 497 Gil_gl 503 Gil_gl 32 Gil_gl 564 Gil_gl 187 Gil_gl 77 Gil_gl 442 Gil_gl 575 Gil_gl 416 Gil_gl 121 Gil_gl 171 Gil_gl 6 Gil_gl 380 Gil_gl 495 Gil_gl 72 Gil_gl 124 Gil_gl 122 Gil_gl 390 Gil_gl 285 Gil_gl 193 Gil_gl 261 Gil_gl 145 Gil_gl 482 Gil_gl 242 Gil_gl 486 Gil_gl 431 Gil_gl 205 Gil_gl 283 Gil_gl 180 Gil_gl 398 Gil_gl 438 Gil_gl 507 Gil_gl 382 Gil_gl 194 Gil_gl 501 Gil_gl 179 Gil_gl 512

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine

57120 57632 60021 62771 66292 67687 70571 72014 73159 75404 78344 80882 81614 86515 88655 89409 106282 107284 108999 111954 120346 126518 148058 150769 157537 166394 215019 20701 21631 21909 23125 24877 25586 27385 27765 29184 29193 34012 34207 34408 35941 37332 39949 42616 45214 48178 52322

Gil_gr 75

410

256

279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325

Gil_gl 558 Gil_gl 379 Gil_gl 569 Gil_gl 447 Gil_gl 214 Gil_gl 450 Gil_gl 375 Gil_gl 609 Gil_gl 610 Gil_gl 369 Gil_gl 249 Gil_gl 515 Gil_gl 500 Gil_gl 351 Gil_gl 103 Gil_gl 522 Gil_gl 524 Gil_gl 352 Gil_gl 580 Gil_gl 137 Gil_gl 388 Gil_gl 28 Gil_gl 350 Gil_gl 334 Gil_gl 250 Gil_gl 169 Gil_gl 296 Gil_gl 381 Gil_gl 220 Gil_gl 54 Gil_gl 528 Gil_gl 525 Gil_gl 238 Gil_gl 331 Gil_gl 537 Gil_gl 101 Gil_gl 136 Gil_gl 247 Gil_gl 612 Gil_gl 152 Gil_gl 613 Gil_gl 295 Gil_gl 302 Gil_gl 523 Gil_gl 246 Gil_gl 532 Gil_gl 76

Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Supraglacial Supraglacial Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

53642 53993 58162 66383 73690 78572 90215 29934 50153 20106 21025 21119 21239 22594 23143 25643 25998 26178 26664 27481 27648 29008 29950 30374 31080 32459 32761 33019 33291 33399 33531 33923 35384 35754 35922 36135 36887 38175 38296 40502 42647 42773 43090 44012 44423 48481 49412

Gil_gr 496

Gil_gr 247

203

Gil_gr 137

210

Gil_gr 561

308

257

326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372

Gil_gl 170 Gil_gl 223 Gil_gl 531 Gil_gl 210 Gil_gl 81 Gil_gl 290 Gil_gl 314 Gil_gl 279 Gil_gl 487 Gil_gl 584 Gil_gl 548 Gil_gl 208 Gil_gl 552 Gil_gl 485 Gil_gl 239 Gil_gl 536 Gil_gl 256 Gil_gl 166 Gil_gl 519 Gil_gl 112 Gil_gl 41 Gil_gl 520 Gil_gl 518 Gil_gl 534 Gil_gl 479 Gil_gl 48 Gil_gl 587 Gil_gl 517 Gil_gl 305 Gil_gl 62 Gil_gl 174 Gil_gl 315 Gil_gl 453 Gil_gl 105 Gil_gl 499 Gil_gl 514 Gil_gl 113 Gil_gl 585 Gil_gl 516 Gil_gl 586 Gil_gl 589 Gil_gl 83 Gil_gl 216 Gil_gl 51 Gil_gl 197 Gil_gl 289 Gil_gl 233

Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

55662 56597 56950 57560 57766 62299 64939 66799 71660 75929 77573 79665 81269 83363 86686 88044 90801 92445 92987 96574 96820 97059 99843 101265 101805 102138 102779 105330 108339 110284 114853 116924 125466 136296 143188 148367 192517 198932 199170 200279 204484 210564 214289 215892 221969 240851 247896

Gil_gr 212

288

Gil_gr 306

480

Gil_gr 72

1720

Gil_gr 299

585

412 Gil_gr 11 Gil_gr 7 Gil_gr 13 460 262 779

258

373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380

Gil_gl 611 Gil_gl 483 Gil_gl 138 Gil_gl 258 Gil_gl 530 Gil_gl 606 Gil_gl 527 Gil_gl 608

Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

285810 333350 442418 921194 1003993 1317341 2218957 2723958

Gil_gr 58

159 534

822 Gil_gr 497 420

Table 10.2.3.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Gilgit River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number (%) Area (m2) Largest Smallest 134340 1149976 21069 728772 20209 90215 20701 215019 20046 50153 29934 2723958 20106

1 0.26 43 11.32 74 19.47 27 7.11 140 36.84 2 0.53 93 24.47 380 100.00

There are eight potentially dangerous glacial lakes have been identified in this basin (Figure 10.2.3.1). Four of these dangerous lakes are located in the southern part of the basin which boarders with the Indus River basin. One each of these lakes is located in the central eastern and western part of the basin close to the basin boundary to Hunza and Chitral River basins respectively. The remaining two dangerous lakes are located in the central part of the basin.

259

Figure 10.2.3.1: Distribution of potentially dangerous lakes of Gilgit River basin.

Among these eight dangerous lakes six are End Moraine and two are Valley type lakes (Table 10.2.3.3). All the End Moraine lakes are either close to large glaciers or are in contact with the hanging glaciers. The dangerous glacial lake (Gil_gl 399 and Gil_gl 505) of this category are associated with large size Mountain (Gil_gr 28) and Cirque (Gil_gr 79) glaciers respectively (Figure 10.2.3.2).

260

Both the Valley dangerous lakes (Gil_gl 611 and Gil_gl 589) are close to several hanging glaciers at a distance of 159 and 412 meters respectively. Table 10.2.3.3: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Gilgit River basin.
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Lake type End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Valley Valley Lake Number Gil_gl 550 Gil_gl 590 Gil_gl 505 Gil_gl 336 Gil_gl 469 Gil_gl 399 Gil_gl 589 Gil_gl 611 Area (m2) Associated Distance Glacier to glacier 464 820 225 375 412 159 Remarks Followed by large glacier source In contact with large hanging glacier Massive hanging glacier source Near to hanging glacier source Near massive mountain glaciers In contact with hanging glacier source Near several hanging glaciers Near several hanging glaciers

96354 Gil_gr 191 192428 Gil_gr 366 212185 Gil_gr 79 213504 Gil_gr 22 265212 -

728772 Gil_gr 28 204484 285810 -

(a) Gil_gl 505

(b) Gil_gl 399

Figure 10.2.3.2: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Gilgit River basin.

261

10.2.4 Hunza River basin In Hunza River basin out of 110 glacial lakes, 47 lakes have been characterized as major lakes. The detail of each major lake is given in the Table 10.2.4.1. Out of these, maximum are Supraglacial lakes (20) because in the basin there are large size glaciers. This type is followed by Valley lakes (17). Cirque type lakes are not present in this basin (Table 10.2.4.2). The other types of lakes are few in number and therefore contribute very little to the accumulative area of the major lakes of the basin. In this basin maximum lake area (49%) is contributed by Valley lakes followed by Supraglacial lakes (28%). Rest of the 23% lake area is collectively contributed by Moraine dammed, Erosion and Blocked lakes. Contribution of relatively low number of Valley lakes to the higher lake area is an indicator of relatively large size Valley lakes with area ranging from 0.022 (Hunza_gl 8) to 0.292 (Hunza_gl 47).The largest End Moraine dammed (Hunza_gl 6) has an area 0.12 sq. km and is at a distance of 175 meters from a large size Valley glacier (Passu Glacier, Hunza_gr 119). Due to high altitude and low temperatures in the basin, the number is not very high as well as the lake area is low. Table 10.2.4.1: Major Lakes of Hunza River basin.
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Lake number Hunza_gl 52 Hunza_gl 75 Hunza_gl 65 Hunza_gl 6 Hunza_gl 110 Hunza_gl 104 Hunza_gl 96 Hunza_gl 77 Hunza_gl 94 Hunza_gl 54 Hunza_gl 69 Hunza_gl 17 Hunza_gl 64 Hunza_gl 56 Hunza_gl 29 Hunza_gl 60 Hunza_gl 48 Hunza_gl 66 Hunza_gl 72 Hunza_gl 57 Hunza_gl 85 Hunza_gl 62 Hunza_gl 51 Hunza_gl 55 Hunza_gl 58 Hunza_gl 73 Hunza_gl 63 Hunza_gl 61 Hunza_gl 76 Type Blocked End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Area (m2) 32579 39880 85448 120054 20277 25126 25675 72408 86466 54836 20121 20776 21620 23609 23750 24841 26179 26250 30625 32426 32721 32777 37901 38874 41813 45226 46385 48260 57528 Associated glacier No. Hunza_gr 744 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 119 Hunza_gr 1010 Hunza_gr 987 Distance to glacier (m)

888 175

Hunza_gr 756 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 120 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 179 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 744 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 937 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 744 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830 Hunza_gr 830

1129

262

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

Hunza_gl 67 Hunza_gl 8 Hunza_gl 45 Hunza_gl 21 Hunza_gl 39 Hunza_gl 1 Hunza_gl 35 Hunza_gl 20 Hunza_gl 92 Hunza_gl 44 Hunza_gl 41 Hunza_gl 36 Hunza_gl 33 Hunza_gl 46 Hunza_gl 37 Hunza_gl 38 Hunza_gl 5 Hunza_gl 47

Supraglacial Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

78327 22511 23484 24316 26111 27638 28302 33793 48752 49482 54693 58737 65966 80514 93021 142537 164349 292711

Hunza_gr 830

546

Table 10.2.4.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Hunza River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Area (km2) 1 3 1 5 20 17 47 0.245 0.055 0.230 0.710 1.237 2.477 0.033 Area (m2) Largest Smallest 32579 120054 39880 54836 86466 20277 78327 20121 292711 22511

In addition, the high relief and unstable deposits along the valley sides have made the slopes prone to mass movements. The upper Hunza basin provides an ideal and easily accessible location for the study of ice-dammed and mass movement-dammed lakes. The termini of a number of glaciers lie close to the floor of the Hunza Valley and have in the late Pleistocene, and probably also in the Neo-glacial, advanced across it. Consequently, there have been a number of interruptions of the drainage of the Hunza River by ice or debris dams. There is only one dangerous lake has been identified in Hunza River basin (Figure 10.2.4.1). This lake is the largest major End Moraine dammed lake (Hunza_gl 6) with an area of 0.12 sq. km. This lake is located at a distance of 175 meters from a large size Valley glacier named Passu having an area of 62.9 sq. km, length of 26 km and ice reserves of 10.89 km3.

263

Figure 10.2.4.1: Potentially dangerous glacial lake in Hunza River basin.

264

Figure 10.2.4.2: Potentially dangerous glacial lake (Hunza_gl 6).

10.2.5 Shigar River basin In the Shigar River basin, out of 54 glacial lakes, only 11 lakes are characterized as major glacial lakes (Table 10.2.5.1). Since most of the northern part of the basin is covered by large glaciers and ice masses in the high Karakoram Range so the lakes developed are less in number and smaller in size. Most of these lakes are of Supraglacial and Blocked type. There are five each major Blocked and Supraglacial lakes among the 11 major lakes. The largest Blocked lake (Shig_gl 22) has an area of 0.11 sq. km and the smallest Shig_gl 15 has 0.028 sq. km (Table 10.13). The Supraglacial lakes are relatively small in size as the largest lake of this category (Shig_gl 18) has only area of about 0.065 sq. km. The one Valley lake (Shig_gl 54) has an area of about 0.24 sq. km

Table 10.2.5.1: Major Lakes of Shigar River basin.

S.No. Lake number Type Area (m2) Associated glacier No. Distance to glacier (m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Shig_gl 4 Shig_gl 13 Shig_gl 14 Shig_gl 15 Shig_gl 18 Shig_gl 22 Shig_gl 24 Shig_gl 34 Shig_gl 35 Shig_gl 41 Shig_gl 54

Blocked Blocked Blocked Blocked Supraglacial Blocked Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Valley

35970 41964 36460 27935 64899 108958 26090 34183 21045 39727 235908

Shig_gr 113 Shig_gr 113 Shig_gr 105 Shig_gr 129 Shig_gr 139 Shig_gr 140 Shig_gr 146

265

Table 10.2.5.2: Summary of Major Lakes in Shigar River basin

S. No. Type Number Area (km2) Area (m2) Largest Smallest

1 2 3

Blocked Supraglacial Valley Total

5 5 1 11

0.251 0.186 0.236 0.673

108958 64899 235908

27935 21045 -

No potentially dangerous lake has been identified in this basin.

10.2.6 Shyok River Basin In Shyok River basin out of 66 glacial lakes 31 are characterized as major glacial lakes (Table 10.2.6.1). The maximum major lakes (12) are of End Moraine type (Table 10.2.6.2). The largest lake of this category Shyk_gl 65 has an area of 0.21 sq. km. The other lake types include Valley, Erosion (7 each), Lateral Moraine (2) and Cirque, Blocked and Supraglacial lakes one each. The largest Valley lake Shyk_gl 66 has an area of about 0.27 sq. km. All the End and Lateral Moraine lakes have associated glaciers. Table 10.2.6.1: Major Lakes of Shyok River basin
S.No. Lake number Type Area (m )
2

Associated glacier No.

Distance to glacier (m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Shyk_gl 32 Shyk_gl 12 Shyk_gl 52 Shyk_gl 48 Shyk_gl 61 Shyk_gl 63 Shyk_gl 50 Shyk_gl 46 Shyk_gl 60 Shyk_gl 37 Shyk_gl 62 Shyk_gl 45 Shyk_gl 38 Shyk_gl 65 Shyk_gl 56 Shyk_gl 57 Shyk_gl 11 Shyk_gl 2 Shyk_gl 55 Shyk_gl 17 Shyk_gl 41 Shyk_gl 39 Shyk_gl 59 Shyk_gl 58

Blocked Cirque End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Supraglacial 266

42940 39471 24882 31026 33878 51718 65219 75689 79945 89130 94266 127165 178822 210368 24694 26525 33774 34380 40421 47581 75395 20672 29623 28327

Shyk_gr 69 Shyk_gr 313 Shyk_gr 297 Shyk_gr 347 Shyk_gr 360 Shyk_gr 303 Shyk_gr 294 Shyk_gr 345 Shyk_gr 118 Shyk_gr 355 Shyk_gr 293 Shyk_gr 173 Shyk_gr 361 Shyk_gr 326 Shyk_gr 326 Shyk_gr 11 Shyk_gr 326 Shyk_gr 202 Shyk_gr 202 Shyk_gr 339 Shyk_gr 339

25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Shyk_gl 8 Shyk_gl 49 Shyk_gl 19 Shyk_gl 10 Shyk_gl 64 Shyk_gl 51 Shyk_gl 66

Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

33694 34317 74035 95731 107112 170883 266498

Shyk_gr 2 Shyk_gr 303 Shyk_gr 11 Shyk_gr 360 Shyk_gr 305 Shyk_gr 363 798 432 435

Out of these 31 major lakes six are characterized as potentially dangerous lakes (Table 10.2.6.3). These lakes are mainly located in the southern half of the basin (Figure 10.2.6.1). Most of these lakes are associated with large glaciers. Majority of dangerous lakes (4) belongs to End Moraine type. Most of these are in contact with their source glaciers (Figure 10.2.6.2). The two dangerous lakes one Valley (Shyk_gl 64) and the other End Moraine dammed (Shyk_gl 65) lake are located close to each other. A mountain separates them and they drain into the main Shyok River near a small town Bara (Figure 10.2.6.3). The two Valley lakes identified as potentially dangerous are Shyk_gl 51 and Shyk_gl 64. They are both at distances less than 500 meters from their source glaciers. The lake Shyk_gl 64 is followed by another lake of End Moraine type developed in contact with a large glacier Shyk_gr 360 at a distance of 432 meters.

Table 10.2.6.3: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Shyok River basin.

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lake type Lake Number Area (m2) Associated Distance Glacier to glacier Remarks In contact with hanging glacier In contact with large glacier In contact with large glacier Large glacier source Preceded by a lake and large glacier Large glacier source

End Moraine Shyk_gl 60 End Moraine Shyk_gl 62 End Moraine Shyk_gl 45 End Moraine Shyk_gl 65 Valley Valley Shyk_gl 64 Shyk_gl 51

79945 Shyk_gr 345 94266 Shyk_gr 355 127165 Shyk_gr 293 210368 Shyk_gr 361 107112 Shyk_gr 360 170883 Shyk_gr 305 432 435

Table 10.2.6.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Shyok River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Supraglacial Valley Number 1 1 12 2 7 1 7 31 Area (km2) 0.043 0.039 1.062 0.050 0.283 0.028 0.782 Area (m2) Largest Smallest 42940 39471 210368 24882 29623 20672 75395 24694 28327 266498 33694

267

Figure 10.2.6.1: Distribution of potentially dangerous lakes in Shyok River basin.

268

Shyk_gl 65

Shyk_gl 64

Figure 10.2.6.2: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes of Shyok River basin.

269

(a) Shyk_gl 65 (left on 3D)

(b) Shyk_gl 64 (right on 3D) Photo taken in July, 2004 Figure 10.2.6.3: A 3D View of toposheet indicating two potentially dangerous lakes.

10.2.7 Indus River basin In the Indus River basin out of 574 glacial lakes a total of 328 lakes of different categories have been classified as major lakes. Generally the largest lake of all these categories has an area of more than 0.1 sq. km except Supraglacial lakes. The Valley lakes are large in size since the largest lake of this category (Ind_gl 368) has an area of about 1.35 sq. km (Table 10.2.7.1). Table 10.2.7.1: Major Lakes of Indus River basin
S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 Lake number Ind_gl 44 Ind_gl 240 Ind_gl 418 Ind_gl 190 Ind_gl 538 Type Blocked Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Area (m2) Associated glacier No. Distance to glacier (m)

103228 22069 22735 22814 23987

270

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

Ind_gl 536 Ind_gl 534 Ind_gl 250 Ind_gl 404 Ind_gl 246 Ind_gl 442 Ind_gl 96 Ind_gl 470 Ind_gl 449 Ind_gl 433 Ind_gl 469 Ind_gl 26 Ind_gl 495 Ind_gl 425 Ind_gl 27 Ind_gl 315 Ind_gl 482 Ind_gl 526 Ind_gl 24 Ind_gl 187 Ind_gl 182 Ind_gl 213 Ind_gl 51 Ind_gl 201 Ind_gl 91 Ind_gl 216 Ind_gl 191 Ind_gl 465 Ind_gl 251 Ind_gl 511 Ind_gl 107 Ind_gl 497 Ind_gl 459 Ind_gl 548 Ind_gl 484 Ind_gl 258 Ind_gl 125 Ind_gl 502 Ind_gl 500 Ind_gl 440 Ind_gl 519 Ind_gl 64 Ind_gl 210 Ind_gl 162 Ind_gl 228 Ind_gl 148 Ind_gl 40

Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque

26029 31961 35263 35855 36008 36240 38841 40517 40790 40914 46815 48338 48489 49062 56022 56541 64288 65955 67823 71339 72853 74497 77880 86325 89290 93742 94110 98708 99576 99671 100153 116800 117037 117717 123371 133754 144937 149108 161686 161813 168166 172759 235664 269774 299200 318811 411236

Ind_gr 902

Ind_gr 134

243

Ind_gr 180

530

Ind_gr 924

Ind_gr 213

Ind_gr 928

Ind_gr 313

Ind_gr 162

637

271

53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99

Ind_gl 104 Ind_gl 462 Ind_gl 137 Ind_gl 307 Ind_gl 278 Ind_gl 34 Ind_gl 335 Ind_gl 93 Ind_gl 562 Ind_gl 294 Ind_gl 360 Ind_gl 513 Ind_gl 127 Ind_gl 120 Ind_gl 157 Ind_gl 161 Ind_gl 537 Ind_gl 397 Ind_gl 103 Ind_gl 261 Ind_gl 239 Ind_gl 392 Ind_gl 353 Ind_gl 394 Ind_gl 219 Ind_gl 285 Ind_gl 543 Ind_gl 223 Ind_gl 128 Ind_gl 379 Ind_gl 38 Ind_gl 444 Ind_gl 386 Ind_gl 78 Ind_gl 390 Ind_gl 525 Ind_gl 419 Ind_gl 457 Ind_gl 218 Ind_gl 554 Ind_gl 312 Ind_gl 439 Ind_gl 327 Ind_gl 412 Ind_gl 464 Ind_gl 304 Ind_gl 121

End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine

20486 21906 21927 21969 22569 23247 23465 24066 24565 26355 26487 26975 27518 30349 30370 30515 31167 31279 32885 33050 33242 33270 33471 33806 36372 37468 40370 40503 41175 43385 43572 43848 44073 45323 49703 55679 55766 56880 59403 59785 59850 67874 68866 69455 82417 83058 84571

Ind_gr 192

162

Ind_gr 589 Ind_gr 433 Ind_gr 151 Ind_gr 181 Ind_gr 983 Ind_gr 488

836 631

Ind_gr 229 Ind_gr 209 Ind_gr 310 Ind_gr 312 Ind_gr 667 Ind_gr 191

285 536 621 1071

Ind_gr 655 Ind_gr 656 Ind_gr 464

1048

Ind_gr 237 Ind_gr 160 Ind_gr 641 Ind_gr 176 Ind_gr 644

536 700 298 462

Ind_gr 886

177

Ind_gr 893 Ind_gr 208

1862

272

100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146

Ind_gl 330 Ind_gl 515 Ind_gl 281 Ind_gl 47 Ind_gl 407 Ind_gl 160 Ind_gl 290 Ind_gl 522 Ind_gl 208 Ind_gl 383 Ind_gl 545 Ind_gl 351 Ind_gl 41 Ind_gl 408 Ind_gl 135 Ind_gl 146 Ind_gl 147 Ind_gl 567 Ind_gl 212 Ind_gl 59 Ind_gl 504 Ind_gl 346 Ind_gl 86 Ind_gl 454 Ind_gl 309 Ind_gl 76 Ind_gl 199 Ind_gl 265 Ind_gl 561 Ind_gl 437 Ind_gl 506 Ind_gl 188 Ind_gl 423 Ind_gl 453 Ind_gl 496 Ind_gl 345 Ind_gl 230 Ind_gl 173 Ind_gl 347 Ind_gl 179 Ind_gl 523 Ind_gl 211 Ind_gl 52 Ind_gl 481 Ind_gl 447 Ind_gl 263 Ind_gl 2

End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

88874 95923 98439 109142 117674 124427 132533 136622 136992 139032 140122 143007 169783 215831 237005 274437 282395 367020 20111 20762 20823 20927 20987 21005 21940 22706 23376 23580 23684 23982 24554 24933 25110 25337 25792 25861 26144 26177 26248 26339 26810 27117 27232 27576 27703 27921 28116

Ind_gr 556 Ind_gr 925 Ind_gr 440 Ind_gr 166 Ind_gr 311 Ind_gr 470 Ind_gr 319 Ind_gr 934 Ind_gr 165 Ind_gr 682 Ind_gr 263 Ind_gr 289 Ind_gr 295

306 455

798 712 505 1302 450 817 388

Ind_gr 917

Ind_gr 513 Ind_gr 172

Ind_gr 983

1601

273

147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193

Ind_gl 193 Ind_gl 387 Ind_gl 331 Ind_gl 63 Ind_gl 478 Ind_gl 115 Ind_gl 53 Ind_gl 221 Ind_gl 430 Ind_gl 480 Ind_gl 36 Ind_gl 521 Ind_gl 155 Ind_gl 65 Ind_gl 260 Ind_gl 336 Ind_gl 438 Ind_gl 317 Ind_gl 50 Ind_gl 116 Ind_gl 358 Ind_gl 196 Ind_gl 363 Ind_gl 81 Ind_gl 178 Ind_gl 195 Ind_gl 349 Ind_gl 192 Ind_gl 310 Ind_gl 186 Ind_gl 319 Ind_gl 308 Ind_gl 264 Ind_gl 544 Ind_gl 236 Ind_gl 113 Ind_gl 198 Ind_gl 257 Ind_gl 61 Ind_gl 276 Ind_gl 170 Ind_gl 169 Ind_gl 66 Ind_gl 174 Ind_gl 274 Ind_gl 441 Ind_gl 256

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

28501 29527 29716 30037 30178 30960 32553 32804 32934 33127 33410 33710 33886 34318 34582 34631 35002 35520 36720 36900 37210 37238 37340 37737 39562 39984 40339 40589 40910 41108 41218 41362 41499 43154 43435 44599 44958 45244 45608 45977 46107 47966 49628 49794 49984 50783 53693

Ind_gr 317 Ind_gr 642 Ind_gr 562

1128

Ind_gr 159

Ind_gr 595 Ind_gr 529

Ind_gr 178

Ind_gr 513 Ind_gr 529 Ind_gr 513

Ind_gr 205

506

274

194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240

Ind_gl 131 Ind_gl 568 Ind_gl 354 Ind_gl 242 Ind_gl 11 Ind_gl 97 Ind_gl 46 Ind_gl 476 Ind_gl 359 Ind_gl 477 Ind_gl 289 Ind_gl 463 Ind_gl 172 Ind_gl 451 Ind_gl 13 Ind_gl 286 Ind_gl 267 Ind_gl 95 Ind_gl 83 Ind_gl 168 Ind_gl 217 Ind_gl 514 Ind_gl 142 Ind_gl 342 Ind_gl 492 Ind_gl 90 Ind_gl 243 Ind_gl 32 Ind_gl 112 Ind_gl 429 Ind_gl 35 Ind_gl 180 Ind_gl 184 Ind_gl 524 Ind_gl 181 Ind_gl 277 Ind_gl 80 Ind_gl 33 Ind_gl 254 Ind_gl 352 Ind_gl 402 Ind_gl 118 Ind_gl 291 Ind_gl 313 Ind_gl 385 Ind_gl 472 Ind_gl 563

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine

54290 55303 55398 56930 57687 57845 57991 58100 59347 59538 61610 62304 62532 64088 65436 66744 67675 68722 69762 73930 75275 75282 81243 82094 84001 84349 93031 97969 98118 99603 109746 118027 120449 124809 125963 149241 155879 164973 180466 20411 20697 20782 21251 21418 22538 22807 23666

Ind_gr 893

Ind_gr 100

1220

Ind_gr 183

Ind_gr 597 Ind_gr 180 Ind_gr 328 Ind_gr 204 Ind_gr 158

930

371

Ind_gr 431 Ind_gr 177 Ind_gr 150

Ind_gr 670

1272

Ind_gr 636 Ind_gr 984

486 600

275

241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287

Ind_gl 389 Ind_gl 518 Ind_gl 452 Ind_gl 5 Ind_gl 460 Ind_gl 215 Ind_gl 551 Ind_gl 406 Ind_gl 400 Ind_gl 356 Ind_gl 373 Ind_gl 391 Ind_gl 270 Ind_gl 314 Ind_gl 271 Ind_gl 409 Ind_gl 410 Ind_gl 550 Ind_gl 202 Ind_gl 466 Ind_gl 485 Ind_gl 508 Ind_gl 372 Ind_gl 367 Ind_gl 72 Ind_gl 143 Ind_gl 154 Ind_gl 321 Ind_gl 417 Ind_gl 486 Ind_gl 475 Ind_gl 446 Ind_gl 171 Ind_gl 509 Ind_gl 473 Ind_gl 134 Ind_gl 20 Ind_gl 474 Ind_gl 232 Ind_gl 200 Ind_gl 381 Ind_gl 163 Ind_gl 67 Ind_gl 316 Ind_gl 54 Ind_gl 175 Ind_gl 467

Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Lateral Moraine Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial Supraglacial

23732 23899 24936 25439 29196 29453 29722 34931 35791 35910 36745 37357 37923 38431 39711 42599 49469 52634 53607 61467 72989 80797 85705 109425 20478 20489 20543 21358 21578 22950 23899 23953 26238 26757 27339 27648 29677 29705 29712 30210 31158 34982 35356 44300 47636 48893 49563

Ind_gr 643 Ind_gr 927

235

Ind_gr 679 Ind_gr 668 Ind_gr 604 Ind_gr 645 Ind_gr 523 Ind_gr 683 Ind_gr 683

1279 657

501

502 167

Ind_gr 896 Ind_gr 923 Ind_gr 603

788

Ind_gr 867

331

Ind_gr 923

Ind_gr 119

Ind_gr 318

Ind_gr 531 Ind_gr 168 Ind_gr 316 Ind_gr 899

276

288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328

Ind_gl 21 Ind_gl 468 Ind_gl 183 Ind_gl 382 Ind_gl 380 Ind_gl 45 Ind_gl 106 Ind_gl 62 Ind_gl 109 Ind_gl 108 Ind_gl 326 Ind_gl 119 Ind_gl 57 Ind_gl 124 Ind_gl 30 Ind_gl 253 Ind_gl 273 Ind_gl 1 Ind_gl 494 Ind_gl 553 Ind_gl 31 Ind_gl 88 Ind_gl 413 Ind_gl 247 Ind_gl 7 Ind_gl 493 Ind_gl 149 Ind_gl 14 Ind_gl 292 Ind_gl 132 Ind_gl 130 Ind_gl 288 Ind_gl 156 Ind_gl 122 Ind_gl 141 Ind_gl 145 Ind_gl 272 Ind_gl 416 Ind_gl 138 Ind_gl 547 Ind_gl 368

Supraglacial Supraglacial Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

54659 75446 23744 24018 24131 25706 27500 29193 33181 37937 38116 39436 41379 45968 47920 52565 53446 54966 63215 65578 66687 66843 68048 68441 70774 74627 77589 78454 82636 103612 106096 119316 127326 166922 224441 225652 226388 307605 343722 427697 1348826

Ind_gr 119 Ind_gr 899

Ind_gr 166 Ind_gr 193

1230

Ind_gr 212

Ind_gr 180 Ind_gr 690

1917

Ind_gr 299 Ind_gr 103 Ind_gr 484 Ind_gr 245

1141 2058

472

Ind_gr 279 Ind_gr 288

507 972

Ind_gr 268

967

277

Out of the 328 major lakes, about 35% are Erosion type (Table 10.2.7.2). The largest lake of this category is Ind_gl 254 having an area of 0.18 sq. km and the smallest one is Ind_gl 212 having an area of 0.02 sq. km. The Moraine Dammed lakes are 97 in number out of which 65 are End Moraine dammed lakes. There are 39 major Valley lakes, out of which the largest lake (Ind_gl 368) has an area of about 1.35 sq. km. while the smallest (Ind_gl 183) has an area of 0.024 sq. km.

Table 10.2.7.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Indus River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Area (km2) 1 51 65 32 115 25 39 328 0.103 5.117 4.944 1.265 5.905 0.825 5.110 23.269 Area(m2) Largest Smallest 103228 411236 22069 367020 20486 109425 20411 180466 20111 75446 20478 1348826 23744

Among these major lakes, the lakes identified as potentially dangerous are 15 in number (Figure 10.2.7.1). The details of each potentially dangerous lake are included in Table 102.7.3. These potentially dangerous lakes are located in the central western part and the southeastern parts of the basin. The maximum of 9 End Moraine lakes have been identified as potentially dangerous lakes. Most of these lakes are either very close or in contact with the hanging glacier. Few of them like Ind_gl 394 are close to large glaciers (Ind_gr 656). One of these lakes Ind_gl 351 has a snow avalanche source. The four Cirque lakes have been characterized as potentially dangerous lakes. These lakes are mostly associated with hanging glaciers (Figure10.2.7.2). One of the two potentially dangerous Valley lakes is at a distance of 472 m from the associated hanging glacier Ind_gr 245. The other (Ind_gl 95) is in contact with the hanging glacier Ind_gr 183.

278

Table 10.2.7.3: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Indus River basin.

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Lake type Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Valley Lake Number Ind_gl 125 Ind_gl 502 Ind_gl 519 Ind_gl 162 Ind_gl 394 Ind_gl 444 Ind_gl 457 Ind_gl 47 Ind_gl 160 Ind_gl 290 Ind_gl 351 Ind_gl 41 Ind_gl 135 Ind_gl 147 Ind_gl 130 Area (m2) 144937 149108 168166 269774 33806 43848 56880 109142 124427 132533 143007 169783 237005 282395 106096 Ind_gr 165 Ind_gr 263 Ind_gr 295 Ind_gr 245 505 450 388 472 Ind_gr 928 Ind_gr 313 Ind_gr 656 Ind_gr 878 Ind_gr 886 Ind_gr 166 Ind_gr 311 Ind_gr 470 177 Associated Distance to Glacier glacier (m) Ind_gr 213 Remarks In contact with hanging glacier Near hanging ice mass Large lake near hanging glacier In contact with hanging glacier In contact with large glacier In contact with hanging glacier Near hanging glacier Near hanging glacier Near hanging glacier In contact with hanging glacier Snow avalanche source Large lake near hanging glacier Near hanging glacier Near hanging glacier Near hanging glacier

279

Figure 10.2.7.1: Distribution of potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Indus River basin.

280

(a) Ind_gl 519.

(b) Ind_gl 444

Figure 10.2.7.2: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Indus River basin in FCC Pan,7,4.

10.2.8 Shingo River basin Out of 238 glacial lakes of this basin 139 lakes are characterized as major lakes (Table 10.2.8.1). The Erosion type lakes are maximum (78) followed by Valley lakes (26). The Cirque lakes are 19 in number while End Moraine lakes are only 14 in number. The largest Erosion lake Shin_gl 142 has an area of 0.27 sq. km while the largest Valley lake Shin_gl 96 has an area of about 1.36 sq. km (Table 10.2.8.2).

Table 10.2.8.1: Major Lakes of Shingo River basin

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Lake number Shin_gl 237 Shin_gl 100 Shin_gl 93 Shin_gl 50 Shin_gl 97 Shin_gl 211 Shin_gl 124 Shin_gl 74 Shin_gl 202 Shin_gl 82 Shin_gl 1 Shin_gl 141 Shin_gl 128 Shin_gl 120 Shin_gl 189 Shin_gl 68 Shin_gl 135 Type Blocked Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Area (m2) 27606 20357 20884 22097 27759 27892 29945 30613 36496 49071 49418 55961 59270 89242 101203 104845 134008 Associated glacier Shin_gl 170 Distance to glacier (m)

Shin_gr 98

413

281

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

Shin_gl 112 Shin_gl 53 Shin_gl 75 Shin_gl 110 Shin_gl 235 Shin_gl 36 Shin_gl 225 Shin_gl 51 Shin_gl 103 Shin_gl 220 Shin_gl 215 Shin_gl 238 Shin_gl 86 Shin_gl 4 Shin_gl 167 Shin_gl 118 Shin_gl 115 Shin_gl 178 Shin_gl 78 Shin_gl 27 Shin_gl 46 Shin_gl 60 Shin_gl 180 Shin_gl 38 Shin_gl 156 Shin_gl 11 Shin_gl 55 Shin_gl 43 Shin_gl 28 Shin_gl 147 Shin_gl 236 Shin_gl 108 Shin_gl 197 Shin_gl 198 Shin_gl 117 Shin_gl 134 Shin_gl 129 Shin_gl 176 Shin_gl 177 Shin_gl 187 Shin_gl 30 Shin_gl 162 Shin_gl 7 Shin_gl 191 Shin_gl 57 Shin_gl 29 Shin_gl 152 Shin_gl 230 Shin_gl 130

Cirque Cirque Cirque End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

174399 193496 259860 20152 25601 27758 31686 36933 36940 45193 46853 56813 58906 67136 72199 89450 126852 20053 20760 21269 21575 21705 21734 21741 22096 22293 22703 23011 23534 23923 23933 23959 24118 24585 25620 26289 27499 28457 29964 30060 32160 34132 35008 35174 35282 35297 35477 36526 36658

Shin_gr 75 Shin_gr 85 Shin_gl 170

Shin_gr 151 Shin_gl 172

Shin_gr 118 Shin_gr 89 180

Shin_gl 170

282

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115

Shin_gl 132 Shin_gl 203 Shin_gl 171 Shin_gl 126 Shin_gl 14 Shin_gl 174 Shin_gl 131 Shin_gl 144 Shin_gl 56 Shin_gl 223 Shin_gl 31 Shin_gl 79 Shin_gl 133 Shin_gl 136 Shin_gl 182 Shin_gl 196 Shin_gl 99 Shin_gl 138 Shin_gl 186 Shin_gl 70 Shin_gl 67 Shin_gl 111 Shin_gl 61 Shin_gl 183 Shin_gl 140 Shin_gl 175 Shin_gl 192 Shin_gl 80 Shin_gl 15 Shin_gl 65 Shin_gl 163 Shin_gl 12 Shin_gl 213 Shin_gl 201 Shin_gl 181 Shin_gl 143 Shin_gl 146 Shin_gl 219 Shin_gl 190 Shin_gl 94 Shin_gl 168 Shin_gl 184 Shin_gl 188 Shin_gl 121 Shin_gl 151 Shin_gl 142 Shin_gl 232 Shin_gl 148 Shin_gl 226

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine Valley Valley

38312 38337 38386 38704 39711 39895 39987 40208 41148 41514 41667 43307 46370 47057 47140 47806 52278 55183 56459 59651 60908 61006 64801 65358 67236 72178 73645 77801 82424 84445 86846 89168 97480 100240 105425 111339 122350 134497 151512 161000 164901 190002 198654 211179 265731 272231 84125 23145 23997

Shin_gr 84

Shin_gr 56

700

Shin_gr 150 Shin_gr 121

Shin_gr 99 Shin_gr 85

283

116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139

Shin_gl 205 Shin_gl 8 Shin_gl 204 Shin_gl 105 Shin_gl 90 Shin_gl 195 Shin_gl 81 Shin_gl 170 Shin_gl 13 Shin_gl 193 Shin_gl 73 Shin_gl 158 Shin_gl 217 Shin_gl 19 Shin_gl 157 Shin_gl 159 Shin_gl 227 Shin_gl 172 Shin_gl 155 Shin_gl 92 Shin_gl 95 Shin_gl 214 Shin_gl 153 Shin_gl 96

Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

24522 24533 24937 25729 28041 29327 31604 41208 41319 48906 52736 57222 59133 60862 69091 77525 83520 133999 144520 146978 152912 185339 196807 1359533

Shin_gl 157

200

Table 10.2.8.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Shingo River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Supraglacial Valley Total Number Area (km2) 1 19 14 1 78 26 139 0.028 0.799 0.742 0.084 4.932
-

3.147 9.732

Area(m2) Largest Smallest 27606 259860 20357 126852 20152 84125 272231 20053 1359533 23145

284

The details of potentially dangerous lakes are presented in Table 10.2.8.3. Out of 5 dangerous lakes of this basin three are End Moraine, and one each Cirque and Valley. Four of these lakes are located in the northern part while the fifth one is in the central part of the basin (Figure 10.2.8.1). The Cirque lake (Shin_gl 75) is in contact with a hanging glacier (Shin_gr 85) which is the main source of snow avalanches (Figure 10.2.8.2). Out of three End Moraine lakes the Shin_gl 115 is located at a distance of 180 meters from the glacier Shin_gr 89. The other two End Moraine lakes (Shin_gl 167 and Shin_gl 220) are in contact with the glaciers (Shin_gl 118 and Shin_gl 151 respectively). The potentially dangerous Valley lake (Shin_gl 227) have a source glacier (Shin_gr 157) at a distance of 200 meters.

Table 10.2.8.3: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Shingo River basin.

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 Lake Type Cirque End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Valley Lake Number Shin_gl 75 Shin_gl 115 Shin_gl 167 Shin_gl 220 Shin_gl 227 Area (m2 ) 254810 126852 72199 45193 83520 Associated Glacier Shin_gr 85 Shin_gr 89 Shin_gr 118 Shin_gr 151 Shin_gr 157 200 180 Distance to glacier (m) Remarks In contact with hanging glacier Near hanging glacier In contact with hanging glacier Lake in contact with hanging glacier Near hanging glacier source

285

Figure 10.2.8.1: Distribution of potentially dangerous glacial lakes of Shingo River basin.

286

(a) Cirque lake (Shin_gl_75)

(b) End Moraine lake (Shin_gl_167) Figure 10.2.8.2: Dangerous glacial lakes of Shingo River basin

10.2.9 Astor River basin There are 126 glacial lakes in Astor River basin out of which 64 are major lakes (Table 10.2.9.1). Most of the major glacial lakes are in contact with or at a distance of less than 500 meters from the glaciers. Table 10.2.9.2 gives the summary of major lakes. Out of 64 major lakes maximum are of Cirque type (21) followed by Valley (19) and Erosion (15). One each is the lateral Moraine and Supra glacial lake. The accumulative area contributed by the major lakes is 4.953 sq. km out of which maximum is contributed by Cirque and Valley lakes. The Valley lakes ranges in size from 0.02 (Astor_gl 86) to 0.167 (Astor_gl 4) sq. km. Generally Cirque lakes are larger in size since they range from 0.063 (Astor_gl 22) to 0.541 (Astor_gl 92) sq. km. The remaining lake area is contributed by other types of lakes.

287

Table 10.2.9.1: Major glacial lakes associated with the glaciers in Astor River Basin.
S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 Lake number Astor_gl 109 Astor_gl 123 Astor_gl 122 Astor_gl 22 Astor_gl 48 Astor_gl 25 Astor_gl 75 Astor_gl 69 Astor_gl 79 Astor_gl 39 Astor_gl 73 Astor_gl 81 Astor_gl 1 Astor_gl 116 Astor_gl 77 Astor_gl 94 Astor_gl 36 Astor_gl 93 Astor_gl 41 Astor_gl 51 Astor_gl 95 Astor_gl 40 Astor_gl 96 Astor_gl 92 Astor_gl 110 Astor_gl 21 Astor_gl 87 Astor_gl 23 Astor_gl 42 Astor_gl 98 Astor_gl 62 Astor_gl 49 Astor_gl 17 Astor_gl 102 Astor_gl 2 Astor_gl 126 Astor_gl 20 Astor_gl 15 Astor_gl 91 Astor_gl 105 Astor_gl 107 Astor_gl 53 Astor_gl 121 Astor_gl 108 Type Blocked Blocked Blocked Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Area (m2) 65847 72747 155047 63245 74658 139441 20530 20939 21861 22975 25438 29493 34823 36434 41333 51352 53376 61420 91559 106373 147588 159634 246619 541924 22093 23029 24083 27059 27787 28439 29172 29713 31314 33056 37940 39231 50999 55002 59900 53465 45632 82314 93774 160565 Associated glacier No. Astor_gr 445 Astor_gr 579 Astor_gr 579 Astor_gr 157 Astor_gr 250 Astor_gr 163 Astor_gr 366 Astor_gr 346 Astor_gr 369 Astor_gr 217 Astor_gr 360 Astor_gr 370 Astor_gr 466 Astor_gr 368 Astor_gr 199 Astor_gr 220 Astor_gr 252 Astor_gr 218 Distance to glacier (m) 310 335

200

Astor_gr 157 Astor_gr 378 Astor_gr 160 Astor_gr 221 Astor_gr 308

310 320

480

Astor_gr 415 Astor_gr 56 Astor_gr 588

355 650 155

Astor_gr 420 Astor_gr 444 Astor_gr 254 Astor_gr 564 Astor_gr 445

75

288

45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

Astor_gl 125 Astor_gl 86 Astor_gl 74 Astor_gl 55 Astor_gl 54 Astor_gl 64 Astor_gl 16 Astor_gl 71 Astor_gl 63 Astor_gl 50 Astor_gl 90 Astor_gl 112 Astor_gl 85 Astor_gl 82 Astor_gl 101 Astor_gl 5 Astor_gl 118 Astor_gl 3 Astor_gl 59 Astor_gl 4

Supraglacial Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

21088 20320 25353 32282 34620 41442 57846 74600 78751 309309 342952 23108 26378 32877 36035 56438 85756 121362 124842 167989

Astor_gr 579 Astor_gr 378 Astor_gr 361 Astor_gr 255 Astor_gr 255 Astor_gr 310 Astor_gr 150 Astor_gr 357 Astor_gr 309 Astor_gr 252 Astor_gr 449 Astor_gr 377 Astor_gr 373 Astor_gr 111 Astor_gr 98 Astor_gr 292 Astor_gr 99

255 1240

875 125 470 1040 730 376 340 680

The Moraine Dammed lakes are four in number and all of them are associated with glaciers. The largest and the smallest lake in this group have an area of 0.16 and 0.04 km2 respectively. In the present study 9 glacial lakes are identified as potentially dangerous lakes (Table 10.2.9.3 and Figure 10.2.9.1). The lakes identified as potentially dangerous consist of 5 Cirque, 3 End Moraine and one Valley lakes. The potentially dangerous glacial lakes are Astor_gl 25, Astor_gl 36, Astor_gl 40, Astor_gl 48, Astor_gl 50, Astor_gl 51, Astor_gl 53, Astor_gl 108 and Astor_gl 121(Figure 10.2.9.2). All the Cirque lakes, which were identified as potentially dangerous glacial lakes are situated at the toe of the hanging glacier. Normally if the hanging glacier is associated with the glacial lake, the lakes will be in dangerous condition as the ice mass can slipped and plunge to the lake resulting the surge and breaching the dam causing glacial lake outburst flood.

Table 10.2.9.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Astor River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 5 4 6 Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Supraglacial Valley Number 3 21 4 1 15 1 19 Area (km2) 0.294 1.991 0.382 0.053 0.519 0.021 1.692 Area (m2) Largest Smallest 155047 65847 541924 63245 160565 45632 53465 59900 22093 21088 167989 20320

Total

64

4.953

289

Table 10.2.9.3: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Astor River basin.

S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Lake type Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Lake Number Astor_gl 36 Astor_gl 48 Astor_gl 51 Astor_gl 25 Astor_gl 40 Area (m2) 53376 74658 106373 139441 159634 82314 93774 160565 Associated Glacier Astor_gr 199 Astor_gr 250 Astor_gr 254 Astor_gr 163 Astor_gr 218 Astor_gr 254 Astor_gr 564 Astor_gr 445 Distance to glacier (m) Remarks

End Moraine Astor_gl 53 End Moraine Astor_gl 121 End Moraine Astor_gl 108

Valley

Astor_gl 50

309309

Astor_gr 252

Hanging glacier source Snow avalanche source Hanging glacier source In contact with hanging glacier Hanging glacier source 75 Close to large glacier At active glacier tongue In contact with large glacier Situated in hanging valley ,dangerous 125 glacial lake 300m upstream

290

Figure 10.2.9.1: Distribution of potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Astor River basin

The Valley Lake Astor_gl 50 has the area of 0.30 sq. km and is formed by merging of closely developed lakes along the river valley. The lake is just 300 meters downstream from the potentially dangerous glacial lake. As the upstream lake is in danger, ultimately the lakes downstream are in danger.

291

Figure 10.2.9.2: Potentially dangerous glacial lake (Astor_gl 108).

Out of three End Moraine lakes, the largest one (Astor_gl 108) is in contact with a large glacier Astor_gr 445. The other two End Moraine lakes (Ast_gl 121 and Ast_gl 53) are dangerous because one of them is near a large glacier (Astor_gr 564) and the other one is at a distance of 75 meters from a glacier (Astor_gr 254).

10.2.10 Jhelum River basin In Jhelum River basin out of 196 glacial lakes, 95 lakes have been characterized as major lakes. The detail of each major lake is given in the Table 10.2.10.1. Out of these, maximum are Erosion lake (41) followed by Cirque lakes (33). There is only one Blocked and one Lateral Moraine dammed lakes. The Valley lakes are eight in number (Table 10.2.10.2). The largest Cirque lake (Jhe_gl 89) and Valley lake (Jhe_gl 14) have an area of 1.04 and 0.87 sq. km respectively. The accumulative lake area of all the major lakes is 10.66 sq. km out of which Cirque type has about 37% followed by Erosion and Valley lakes 26 and 23 % respectively. Lateral Moraine and Blocked lakes contribute less than one percent to the lake area. Table 10.2.10.1: Major Lakes of Jhelum River basin
S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Lake number Jhe_gl 80 Jhe_gl 30 Jhe_gl 20 Jhe_gl 99 Jhe_gl 27 Jhe_gl 33 Jhe_gl 63 Jhe_gl 68 Jhe_gl 53 Jhe_gl 55 Jhe_gl 87 Jhe_gl 90 Jhe_gl 110 Jhe_gl 29 Type Blocked Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Area (m2) 37565 21666 22190 26107 26905 27279 28501 31038 33675 34087 34486 38864 40750 43632 Associated glacier No. Distance to glacier (m)

292

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Jhe_gl 18 Jhe_gl 62 Jhe_gl 50 Jhe_gl 65 Jhe_gl 38 Jhe_gl 150 Jhe_gl 149 Jhe_gl 189 Jhe_gl 193 Jhe_gl 113 Jhe_gl 19 Jhe_gl 54 Jhe_gl 46 Jhe_gl 95 Jhe_gl 97 Jhe_gl 96 Jhe_gl 85 Jhe_gl 184 Jhe_gl 134 Jhe_gl 89 Jhe_gl 56 Jhe_gl 127 Jhe_gl 22 Jhe_gl 186 Jhe_gl 49 Jhe_gl 181 Jhe_gl 98 Jhe_gl 140 Jhe_gl 135 Jhe_gl 94 Jhe_gl 131 Jhe_gl 15 Jhe_gl 31 Jhe_gl 41 Jhe_gl 17 Jhe_gl 86 Jhe_gl 58 Jhe_gl 93 Jhe_gl 163 Jhe_gl 106 Jhe_gl 178 Jhe_gl 34 Jhe_gl 61 Jhe_gl 52 Jhe_gl 36 Jhe_gl 74 Jhe_gl 152 Jhe_gl 165 Jhe_gl 45 Jhe_gl 174 Jhe_gl 120

Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque Cirque End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine End Moraine Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion

47336 49335 53126 53275 55120 55649 55789 88480 91487 117873 145414 169895 199000 201474 202073 211592 215769 226043 240657 1036592 23713 25279 25333 31287 32377 59579 62360 117217 151045 206856 713186 20140 20580 20806 20955 21090 22288 22931 22992 27242 28375 29749 29755 29955 31770 33213 34350 34853 37754 38873 39303

Jhe_gr 200

468

Jhe_gr 170 Jhe_gr 174

242 483

Jhe_gr 315

Jhe_gr 364 Jhe_gr 362

160 459

Jhe_gr 300

153

Jhe_gr 166

430

Jhe_gr 355

422

Jhe_gr 106 Jhe_gr 359

700

293

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95

Jhe_gl 145 Jhe_gl 169 Jhe_gl 157 Jhe_gl 138 Jhe_gl 116 Jhe_gl 139 Jhe_gl 24 Jhe_gl 40 Jhe_gl 176 Jhe_gl 88 Jhe_gl 141 Jhe_gl 28 Jhe_gl 79 Jhe_gl 111 Jhe_gl 59 Jhe_gl 107 Jhe_gl 117 Jhe_gl 132 Jhe_gl 69 Jhe_gl 39 Jhe_gl 170 Jhe_gl 91 Jhe_gl 81 Jhe_gl 190 Jhe_gl 164 Jhe_gl 196 Jhe_gl 101 Jhe_gl 73 Jhe_gl 185 Jhe_gl 14

Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosion Lateral Moraine Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

41411 42101 44569 48682 48708 49054 49133 50592 50672 50931 51441 53137 55629 59498 73048 81913 106195 118569 123239 222837 791251 27055 22251 25005 29980 79563 304392 443447 669214 874930

Jhe_gr 360 Jhe_gr 332 Jhe_gr 333

1385 885 1212

Jhe_gr 337 Jhe_gr 140

973

Jhe_gr 226

653

Jhe_gr 41

644

294

Table 10.2.10.2: Summary of Major Lakes of Jhelum River basin.

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Type Blocked Cirque End Moraine Lateral Moraine Erosion Valley Number 1 33 11 1 41 8 95 Area (km2) 0.038 3.925 1.448 2.780 0.027 2.449 10.667 Area (m2) Largest Smallest 37565 1036592 21666 713186 23713 27055 791251 20140 874930 22251

There are five potentially dangerous lakes in this basin and are mainly concentrated in the central northern part of the basin (Figure 10.2.10.1). Among the 33 major Cirque lakes, three are identified as potentially dangerous lakes (Table 10.2.10.3). The lake Jhe_gl 97 is not in contact with any glacier. The Jhe_gl 134 is associated with a large glacier Jhe_gr 315 and has snow avalanche source. Generally these lakes are in contact with hanging glaciers or large ice masses. The two potentially dangerous End Moraine lakes are Jhe_gl 131 and Jhe_gl 140. One of these is very near to the hanging glacier source while the other is in contact with the hanging glacier. The potentially dangerous lakes of the basin are shown in Figure 10.2.10.2.

295

Figure 10.2.10.1: Distribution of potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Jhelum River basin.

296

Table 10.2.10.3: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Jhelum River basin.

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 Lake type Cirque Cirque Cirque End Moraine End Moraine Lake Number Jhe_gl 97 Area (m2) 202073 Distance Associated to glacier Glacier (m) Jhe_gr 200 Jhe_gr 315 Jhe_gr 300 153 Remarks In contact with large glacier In contact with hanging glacier Snow avalanche source Near hanging glacier In contact with hanging glacier

Jhe_gl 113 117873 Jhe_gl 134 240657 Jhe_gl 131 713186 Jhe_gl 140 117217

(a) Cirque lake (Jhe_gl 97)

(b) End Moraine (Jhe_gl 131)

Figure 10.2.10.2: Potentially dangerous glacial lakes of Jhelum River basin.

297

10.2.11 Summary In conclusion out of total of 2420 glacial lakes, 1328 lakes are characterized as major lakes (Table 10.2.11.1). Among the total number of lakes more than 77% are contributed by five river basins namely Gilgit, Indus, Shingo, Swat and Jhelum. Shyok and Shigar

Table 10.2.11.1: Summary of glacial lakes in selected ten basins

Basins Swat Chitral Gilgit Hunza Shigar Shyok Indus Shingo Astor Jhelum Total Number of lakes Total 255 187 614 110 54 66 574 238 126 196 2420 Major 163 70 380 47 11 31 328 139 64 95 1328 Lake Area Largest lake (km2) (km2) Dangerous 2 1 8 1 6 15 5 9 5 52 15.862 9.365 39.17 3.215 1.092 2.682 26.063 11.59 5.528 11.786 126.353 0.81 1.86 2.72 0.29 0.24 0.27 1.35 1.36 0.54 1.04

River basins have the minimum number of total as well as major lakes. Highest numbers of major lakes are in Gilgit River basin (614) followed by Indus River basin (328). A total of 83% major lakes are contributed by five basins which contribute highest number of total lakes as well. Out of 1,328 major lakes, 52 are characterized as potentially dangerous lakes. Most of them (61%) are identified in Indus (15), Astor (9) and Gilgit (8) river basins. The total lake area follows the pattern of total number of lakes in ten river basins. The largest lake in ten basins is in Gilgit River basin having an area of 2.72 sq. km. The other river basins like Chitral, Shingo, Indus and Jhelum also have large size lakes. The largest lakes of Shigar, Shyok and Hunza river basins are relatively smaller in size compared to other basins. Among various types of major lakes the highest number is of Erosion type lakes (498) followed by Valley (277) and End Moraine (226). The minimum number (20) is of Block type lakes (Table 10.2.11.2). The Valley, Erosion, End Moraine and Cirque lakes are more common in Gilgit, Indus and Swat River basins. In Swat, Shingo and Jhelum River basins Supraglacial lakes are not present. In Shigar River basin only Blocked, Supraglacial and Valley type major lakes are present.

298

Table 10.2.11.2: Summary of Major Lakes in selected ten basins

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Type Blocked Cirque Erosion Moraine Dammed End Lateral River Basins Shigar Shyok Indus 5 1 1 5 1 11 1 7 12 2 1 7 31 51 115 65 32 25 39 328

Swat Chitral 3 3 10 80 31 2 37 163 5 17 12 2 1 30 70

Gilgit 1 43 140 74 27 2 93 380

Hunza 1 5 3 1 20 17 47

Shingo 1 19 78 14 1 26 139

Astor 3 21 15 4 1 1 19 64

Jhelum 1 33 41 11 1 8 95

Total 20 183 498 226 69 55 277 1328

Supraglacial Valley Total

Table 10.2.11.3: Summary of Potentially Dangerous Glacial Lakes in selected ten basins
Ten Basins Lake Type Cirque End Moraine Valley Total Swat Chitral Gilgit Hunza Shigar Shyok Indus Shingo Astor Jhelum Total 2 2 1 1 6 2 8 1 1 4 2 6 4 10 1 15 2 2 1 5 5 3 1 9 3 2 5 13 31 8 52

299

In ten basins of HKH region of Pakistan among the 1,328 major lakes, a total of 52 are characterized as potentially dangerous lakes based on criteria defined earlier (Table 10.2.11.3). Generally the lakes identified as dangerous lakes belong to Cirque, End Moraine and Valley type lakes. Out of 52 dangerous lakes 31 are End Moraine, 13 Cirque and only 8 Valley type lakes. Dangerous Cirque lakes are present in four southern basins namely Indus, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum. Similarly the dangerous Valley lakes are distributed in these basins along with Gilgit River basin. End Moraine dangerous lakes are present in the entire basin in variable numbers except Shigar River basin.

300

Figure 10.2.11.1:Distribution of potentially dangerous glacial lakes in ten river basins

301

302

Chapter 11 Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Mitigation Measures, Monitoring and Early Warning Systems
There are several possible methods for mitigating the impact of glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) surges, for monitoring, and for early warning systems. The most important mitigation measure for reducing GLOF risk is to reduce the volume of water in the lake in order to reduce the peak surge discharge. Downstream in GLOF prone areas, measures should be taken to protect infrastructure against the destructive forces of GLOF surge. There should be monitoring systems prior to, during, and after construction of infrastructures and settlements in the downstream area. Careful evaluation by detailed studies of the lake, mother glaciers, damming materials, and the surrounding conditions are essential in choosing an appropriate method and in starting any mitigation measure. The measures taken must be such that these should not create or increase the risk of a GLOF during and after the mitigation measures are in place. Physical monitoring systems of the dam, lake, mother glacier/s, and the surroundings are necessary at different stages during and after the mitigation process. 11.1 REDUCING THE VOLUME OF LAKE WATER Possible peak surge discharge from a GLOF could be reduced by reducing the volume of water in the lake. In general, any one or combination of the following methods may be applied for reducing the volume of water in the lake: controlled breaching, construction of an outlet control structure, pumping or siphoning out the water from the lake, and making a tunnel through the moraine barrier or under an ice dam.

Controlled Breaching Controlled breaching can be carried out by blasting, excavation, or even by dropping bombs from an aircraft. One of the successful examples has been reported on Bogatyr Lake in Alatau, Kazakhastan (Nurkadilov et al. 1986). An outflow channel was excavated using explosives and 7 million cubic metres of water was successfully released in a period of two days. These methods, however, can give strong, uncontrolled regressive erosion of the moraine wall causing a fast lowering of the lake level. Liboutry et al. (1977a, b, and c) described a case from Peru of the sudden discharge of 610 million cubic meters of water after two years of careful cutting of a trench in the moraine wall.

303

For more permanent and precise control of lake outflows, rigid structures made out of stone, concrete, or steel can be used. However, the construction and repairs of the required mitigation works at high elevations, in difficult terrain conditions and in glacial lake areas far from road points and not easily accessed, will cause logistic difficulties. Therefore, preference should be given to construction materials available locally such as boulders and stones. The boulders on the moraine walls can be held in place by wire mesh (gabion) and/or held down by appropriate anchors. Open cuts in a moraine dam can be excavated during the dry season when a lakes water level is lower than during the wet season. Such a method is risky as any displacement wave arising from an ice avalanche can rip through the cut and breach the moraine. This method should be attempted where there is no risk of avalanches into the lake. Pumping or siphoning the water out from the lake Examples given by Liboutry et al. (1977a, b, and c) from Peru and the pumping programme for the control of Spirit Lake after the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington State in the USA are very costly because of the large amount of electricity needed for the powerful pumps. The pumping facility consisted of 20 pumps with a total capacity of 5 m3 s1 and the cost of the pumping plant including the operation and maintenance for about 30 months was approximately US $11 million (Sager and Chambers 1986). In the HKH region, there is neither hydroelectric power distribution system at high altitudes nor a simple means for transporting fuel to high elevations. Many of the lakes are higher than the maximum flying altitude of helicopters. The use of a turbine, propelled by the water force at the outside of the moraine dam, will lower the energy costs. The problems of coupling the turbine and the pumps have to be solved. Siphons with manageable component size are attractive in that they are readily transportable, relatively easy to install, and can be very effective for smaller size lakes. Making a tunnel through the moraine dam Tunneling through moraines or debris barriers, although risky and difficult because of the type of material blocking the lake, has been carried out in several countries. In Peru, Liboutry et al. (1977a, b, and c) reported problems related to tunneling through a moraine dam, which had been severely affected by an earthquake. Tunneling can only be carried out through competent rock beneath or beside a moraine dam. The costs of such a method are very high. Unfortunately, not all moraine dams are suitable for tunneling. The construction of tunnels would pose difficulties in the Himalayas due to the high cost of transporting construction materials and equipment to high elevations.

304

11.2 PREVENTATIVE MEASURES AROUND THE LAKE AREA Any existing and potential source of a larger snow and ice avalanche, slide, or rock fall around the lake area, which has a direct impact on the lake and dam, has to be studied in detail. Preventative measures have to be taken such as removing masses of loose rocks to ensure there will be no avalanches into the lake. 11.3 PROTECTING INFRASTRUCTURE AGAINST THE DESTRUCTIVE FORCES OF THE SURGE The sudden hydrostatic and dynamic forces generated by a rapid moving shock wave can be difficult to accommodate by conventionally designed river structures such as diversion weirs, intakes, bridges, settlements on the river banks, and so on. It will be necessary to build bridges with appropriate flow capacities and spans at elevations higher than those expected under GLOF events. The NepalChina highway, after reconstruction, has arched bridges well above the 1981 GLOF levels. Also, the road has been moved to higher levels and has gabion protection at the base of the embankments. Settlements should not be built at or near low river terraces but at heights well above the riverbed in an area with GLOF potential. Slopes with potential or old landslides and steep slopes on the banks of the river near settlements should be stabilized. It is essential that appropriate warning devices for GLOF events be developed in such areas. 11.4 MONITORING AND EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS A programme of monitoring GLOFs throughout the country should be implemented using a multi-stage approach, multi-temporal data sets, and multi-disciplinary professionals. Focus should first be on the known potentially dangerous lakes and the river systems on which infrastructure is developed. Monitoring, mitigation, and early warning system programmes could involve several phases as follow.

Detailed inventory and development of a spatial and attribute digital database of the glaciers and glacial lakes using reliable medium- to large-scale (1:63,360 to 1:10,000) topographic maps Update of the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes and identification of potentially dangerous lakes using remote-sensing data such as the Land Observation Satellite (LANDSAT) Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus (ETM+), Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS)1C/D Linear Imaging and Self-scanning Sensor (LISS)3, Systme Probatoire dObservation de la Terre (SPOT) multi-spectral (XS), SPOT panchromatic (PAN) (stereo), IRS1C/D PAN (stereo) images, IKONOS , Quickbird and others. Semi-detailed to detailed study of the glacial lakes, identification of potentially dangerous lakes and the possible mechanism of a GLOF using aerial photos Annual examination of medium- to high-resolution satellite images, e.g. Landsat TM and ETM+, IRS1D, SPOT, and so on to assess changes in the different parameters of potentially dangerous lakes and the surrounding terrain Brief over-flight reconnaissance with small format cameras to view the lakes of concern more closely and to assess their potential for bursting in the near future

305

Field reconnaissance to establish clearly the potential for bursting and to evaluate the need for preventative action Detailed studies of the potentially dangerous lakes by multi-disciplinary professionals Implementation of appropriate mitigation measure(s) in the highly potentially dangerous lakes Regular monitoring of the site during and after the appropriate mitigation measure(s) should be carried out Development of a telecommunication and radio broadcasting system integrated with on-site installed hydro-meteorological, geophysical, and other necessary instruments at lakes of concern and downstream as early warning mechanisms for minimising the impact of a GLOF Interaction/cooperation among all of the related government departments/ institutions/agencies /broadcasting media, and others for detailed studies, mitigation activities, and preparedness for possible disasters arising from GLOF events. In the Hindu Kush-Himalayan-Karakoram region, many rivers flow down from the high Himalayan or Tibetan Plateau to more than one country. Flash floods from landslide dam failure or glacial lake outburst in one country can cause havoc in the downstream areas of other countries. So in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan-Karakoram region, inter-country flood warning systems should be established in the river valleys when more than one country is affected. A mechanism for sharing the costs and benefits of flash flooding mitigation works should be devised.

11.5: EARLY WARNING AND FLOOD FORECASTING SYSTEMS IN PAKISTAN The 1973 floods caused extraordinary damage, revealed that single events could undo years of development, and prompted the first national flood investigation (Harza 1975). A succession of floods in 1975, 1976 and 1978 ensured continuing public attention. Prior to independence, flood protection had been a provincial responsibility; following the 1973 floods the federal government sought to coordinate provincial and national flood protection efforts. This was done by a Central Flood Committee until 1977 when a Federal Flood Commission (FFC) was formed. The lapses and failures identified in the past planning strategies include:

Flood management was provincial subject and there was lack of coordination between the provinces and federal agencies Flood sector was given low priority in the provincial programmes Funds for operation and maintenance and flood management were grossly inadequate Flood works planned were on basis of local requirement No systematic procedure was followed for evaluating protection measures and design never related to level of protection Interdependent hydrologic/hydraulic effects were never evaluated Modern soil engineering practices were never considered

306

So the main function of establishment of Federal Flood Commission (FCC) was to integrate flood management planning from Provincial level to National level and to administer, plan, execute and coordinate the flood management activities at the national level. FFC also has a role to coordinate the government agencies and flood fighting agencies. Since the establishment of FFC, the flood problems are receiving increasing recognition as matters of national concern and greater emphasis is now being given to flood problems in national policies and development plans. Another change in approach has been the growing emphasis upon continuous, rather than with the traditional crisis provoked approach. Prior to the establishment of FFC since January 1977, the Provincial Irrigation Departments and other Federal and Provincial Agencies like Irrigation Departments, Building and Roads, Pakistan Railways, Highway Departments, etc. used to prepare flood plans for their areas of jurisdiction. These plans were essentially nonunified, un-integrated, crisis provoked and piece-meal efforts, as no single institute had the responsibility of flood management planning and co-ordination at the national level. The FFC commissioned a National Flood Protection Plan published in 1979 (NESPAK and Harza, 1979), which was followed by flood protection investment plan in 1987 (NESPAK, 1987). The Asian Development Bank (ADB) financed a major study of flood protection priorities in 1989 (NESPAK, 1989). Today, annual flood damage reports are prepared by the Meteorological Department and detailed flood damage reports are prepared by provincial irrigation departments after major floods, like the 1988 and 1992 events in Punjab. In view of the recent experience of 1992 and 1994-floods, Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre has now been redesigned as the National Flood Forecasting Bureau (NFFB).The Director, NFFB is authorized to call the meeting of the Bureau as and when the serious flood situation occurs or lack of coordination comes to his notice calling for immediate remedial action. Figure 11.1 represents the organizational setup of NFFB. It has taken in hand the dissemination of the flood forecasts/warnings to considerably large number of recipients directly or indirectly concerned with the flood mitigation process, over and above the dissemination being done by the Flood Warning Centre (FWC). Press briefings have been started in the office of Director, NFFB as a regular feature to ensure correct and authentic flood and weather information to the public. Such briefings are arranged through the representative of the Punjab Information Department on duty at the FWC, only when the flood situation is or is likely to become serious enough to call for such briefings. Considerable improvement has been made in the dissemination system since the time that it was initially started in early fifties by FWC. Most of the discrepancies have been removed, keeping in view the past experiences specially that of 1992-Floods. A much better hot line coordination now exists with Federal Flood Commission, Army, WAPDA, Provincial Irrigation, Relief and other related departments by the National Flood Forecasting Bureau. The existing dissemination process has been reviewed and lists of the recipients of flood information have been streamlined. Basically there are two types of flood information required to be provided for use by the appropriate recipients namely; advance flood forecasts and the flood data. Flood forecasts are disseminated by NFFB as well as the FWC, the flood data is disseminated by the FWC only. Colour coded forecasts are issued in three colors to warn the concerned organization of the severity of the forecast (red, blue, yellow). Significant flood forecast is issued in case of Low, Medium, 307

and High as well as quantitative flood range which is kept as narrow as possible. Significant flood forecast is the most important flood forecast and thus calls for the immediate action by the concerned authorities. A real inundation forecast is issued only when the exceptionally high flood situation is anticipated (Sheikh www.southasianfloods.org/document/). Chief Meteorologist Flood Forecasting Division (FFD), Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) Head Director, National Flood Forecasting Bureau (N.F.F.B) Director Director Floods, Representative of Hydrology, Provincial Irrigation Commissioner For and Drainage Authority Indus Waters WAPDA (Punjab) Member Member Member Figure 11.1: Organizational setup of NFFB. Existing facilities for the flood forecasting system: These are briefly summarized as under: i. Pakistan Meteorological Department has a network of around 72 Meteorological Stations within the country. Meteorological data from the adjoining countries is also collected for the preparation of surface and upper air weather charts to identify and track the flood generating weather systems. Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) system for receiving cloud pictures from the NOAA Satellites. A network of Quantitative Precipitation Weather Radars. Pakistan Meteorological Department at present has one 10-cm Radar at Lahore, and five 5-cm Radars installed at Karachi, Rahim Yar Khan, D.I.Khan, Sialkot and Islamabad. The radars at Karachi, Rahim Yar Khan, D.I.Khan and Islamabad are connected to the National Flood Forecasting Bureau through networking for the collection of realtime data from the catchments. High Frequency (H.F) Radio Communication System: 69 HF Radio Communication sets for various federal as well as provincial departments related to flood mitigation were procured as a part of Flood Protection Sector Project-1 and distributed to various departments.

ii.

iii.

iv.

308

v.

Flood Forecasting Models: National Flood Forecasting Bureau is presently using the CLS model for rainfall run-off computations and is based upon the concept of unit hydrograph and thresholds. For river flow routing, a simple model which is based on the regression analysis relating the downstream flows to the upstream flows is used. This does not take into account the variable flows in tributaries, breaching of banks etc. Empirical techniques are then used to accommodate such flow conditions. Flood forecasting models called SAMFIL and SOBEK were developed as a part of Flood Protection Sector Project-I (1978-88). SAMFIL is the rainfall run-off model based on the concept of Sacramento model originally developed by California Department of Water Resources in 1973. It simulates run-off processing by dividing it into land phase and a channel phase. SOBEK is a onedimensional hydrodynamic river flow simulation model based on the full SaintVenant equation of unsteady flow. It is developed using the physical description of the geometry of rivers, continuity equation and a balance of forces governing the flow of water in open channels. It can properly accommodate the influence of bridges, barrages and dams on the propagation and attenuation of flood waves. Both the models are still under verification stage.

Efficiency of flood forecasting system: The system is still not perfect and has some limitations. Data acquisition in the real time particularly in case of big events, lack of perfection in the mathematical models used for flood forecasting and some other problems are still inhibiting the proper use of the flood forecasting system but the efficiency of the system even then is quite good. The evaluation of the flood forecasts issued after 1990 remained around 90%. Lead times for Mangla Catchment, however, remained mostly less than a day but the qualitative forecasts were issued with a lead-time of 24 to 36 hours. Future developments: In 1997, in view of the encouraging results of the First Flood Protection Sector Project (FPSP-1), further enhanced facilities in this sector were planned. These are still under implementation through Asian Development Bank financed loan and include broadly the following:

Procurement and installation of a 10-cm weather radar system in Mangla catchment in order to have extended radar coverage over the northern parts of upper catchment areas of river Indus and Jhelum. Procurement of High Resolution Picture Transmission (HRPT) for the receipt of high-resolution clouds imageries. Extension and strengthening of Automatic Gauging and Telemetric System of WAPDA and of the HF-Radio Communication Network. Bathymetric Survey of Indus River and its major tributaries. Meteorological studies for better quantitative measurement of rainfall. Study on Mangla Dam operation during flood season to further refine Reservoir's Flood Management rules. 309

Flood Plain Mapping and Zoning studies for flood prone areas.

Needs within the HKH regional framework: Despite improvements in FFS carried out in the recent past in Pakistan, shortcoming are still felt which ask for a mutual co-operation of the countries in the HKH region. Immediate and long-term needs are summarized below: Immediate needs: o Development of HKH-HYCOS The World Hydrological Observing System (WHYCOS) was launched by WMO in1993 with the aim of promoting cooperation in the collection and the exchange of hydrological data and in exchanging products of interest to the participating countries. WHYCOS is being developed through a series of regional HYCOS projects. A HKH-HYCOS needs to be developed in HKH region and the data needs to be made accessible on internet in the real time. Reporting frequency and the products need to be discussed with a mutual consensus of the countries in the region. o Meteorological data acquisition in real time: All countries in HKH region are interdependent upon each other for the exchange of weather data which is the first and foremost requirement for the preparation of weather charts and consequently for the identification of flood generating weather systems. During big events, data communication links especially at times when the data is needed, get badly disrupted leaving little room for the timely preparation of weather charts and the issuance of flood forecasts in time. Measures to exchange data in real time through regional internet links need to be developed. o Exchange of research in the field: Whatever research work be done in the hydro-meteorological side, be immediately exchanged through ICIMOD or directly among the countries.

Long term needs: o Human recourse development: Training courses mutually offered by the countries in HKH region can go a long way in developing the human resources in the field of flood forecasting in the region. The knowledge and expertise need to be exchanged through academic courses, seminars and workshops.

310

Chapter 12 Conclusions
The inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes of the Pakistan was carried out. Altogether the study area was divided into ten river basins, which clockwise include; Swat, Chitral, Gilgit, Hunza, Shigar, Shyok, Indus, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum. Using remote sensing data and the topographic maps available at a scale of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 the inventory was completed. For glacier inventory, the methodology developed by the Temporary Technical Secretary for the World Glacier Inventory (Muller et al. 1977) was followed. For glacial lake inventory, the methodology developed by the LIGG/WECS/ NEA was used with some modifications. The methodology for the compilation of inventories of glaciers and glacial lakes is applied using medium-scale maps. The inventories of glaciers and glacial lakes can be facilitated by the use of better quality remote sensing data combined with the topographic maps. The integration of visual and digital image analysis with GIS can provide useful tool for the study of glaciers, glacial lakes, and GLOFs. Analysts experiences and adequate field knowledge of the physical characteristics of the glacier, glacial lakes, and their associated features are always necessary for the interpretation of the topographic maps, satellite images, and aerial photographs. Evaluation of spectral responses by different surface cover types in different bands of satellite images is necessary. Different techniques of digital image enhancement and spectral classification of ground features are useful for the study of glaciers and glacial lakes. Different spectral band combinations in False Colour Composite and individual spectral bands were used to study glaciers and glacial lakes using the knowledge of image interpretation keys. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is useful in deciding the rules for discrimination of features and land-cover types in GIS techniques and for better perspective viewing and presentations. The major sub basins of Indus River in HKH region of Pakistan are of Swat, Chitral, Gilgit, Hunza, Shigar, Shyok, Upper Indus, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum River. Most of the snow and ice reserves are concentrated in the mountain ranges lying in these basins. These river basins contain the glaciated part in northern Pakistan, which forms the headwaters of the main Indus basin. In the first phase, out of 10 sub basins, the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes of Astor sub basin was completed in 2003 and in the second phase the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes was completed for Upper Indus, Jhelum, Shingo, Shigar and Shyok basins in 2004. In the third and final phase the inventory of rest of four River basins i.e. Swat, Chitral, Gilgit and Hunza was completed in 2005. In this report the comprehensive data and information has been compiled for all the basins oh HKH region of the country. The geographic area comprising of ten river basins covers about 128,731 sq. km. Among the ten basins, Indus River Basin has the largest area covering about 25 % of the total 311

geographic area. Another 55% area is shared by Hunza, Chitral, Swat and Gilgit river basins. Shingo and Astor River basins are the smallest basins. Over the vast track of these ten basins, 5,218 glaciers are identified. These glaciers are mainly distributed in the northern part of HKH region covering higher Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges. These glaciers are also present at the higher elevations of Himalayas. Maximum number of glaciers (1,098 and 1,050) is in the Indus and Hunza river basins respectively. Among these two basins, the glaciers are larger in size in Hunza River basin. The southern basins like Swat, Shigar, Shyok and Jhelum have relatively less number of glaciers. Astor and Gilgit River basins contribute equal number (11% each) of glaciers. All the ten basins contribute to a total glaciated area of about 15,041 sq. km which is 11.7% of the total area. The Shingo and Jhelum river basins contribute less than one percent to the glaciated area. On contrary only 194 glaciers in Shigar River basin contribute about 15% to the glaciated area and 1,098 glaciers in Indus River basin contribute only about 5% of glaciated area. The total length of glaciers in ten basins is more than 9,718 km. The glacier length in Hunza River basin is the highest (about 2,915 km) followed by Chitral and Gilgit (1,416 and 1,185 km respectively). Shyok and Indus basins have about the same total length of glaciers (around 1,000 km each). The three river basins i.e. Shingo, Jhelum and Swat have glaciers smaller in size as well as length. The total ice reserve estimated in these 10 basins is about 2,738 km3 . Altogether, more than 80% of the ice reserves are contributed collectively by Shyok River basin (32%), Hunza (30%) and Shigar river basin (21%). The Chitral and Gilgit River basins contribute about 9 and 3% respectively. The contribution of southern basins especially Swat, Jhelum and Shingo is extremely low for being 0.74% altogether. The Valley glaciers contribute much of the ice reserves followed by the Mountain glaciers. The distribution of various types of glaciers in ten river basins shows maximum number of glaciers are of Mountain type (1,918) followed by Cirque (1,237) and Niche type (974). The Ice cap and Ice apron type glaciers are low in number (149 and 394 respectively). Among these ten basins, generally the Mountain and sub types of mountain glaciers are higher in number compared to Valley glaciers (546). In the northern basins like Chitral, Hunza and Shigar the number of Valley glaciers is relatively high whereas in the southern basins like Swat, Jhelum and Shingo the number of Valley glaciers are low. Compared to the number of Valley glaciers, the area contribution by the Valley glaciers (about 77%) is higher. The Mountain glaciers contribute 18% to the glaciated area while the subtypes of Mountain glaciers collectively contribute only 7%. Ice cap glaciers are smallest and therefore, contribute the minimum area. In Swat, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum River basins the area coverage of Valley glaciers is less than of Mountain glaciers while in rest of the basins the area of Valley glaciers exceeds that of the Mountain glaciers. In Gilgit and Indus river basins the Mountain glaciers contribute 41 and 31 percent of the area respectively. Overall in the ten basins, maximum glaciers are oriented towards North (959) and Northeast (919). The E, S and NW aspects have the equal percentage of glacier number. 312

Each basin behaves differently as far as the orientation of the glaciers in various ordinal directions is concerned. The glaciers in Indus, Jhelum and Shyok River basins are generally oriented towards northern and eastern aspects. In Shyok River basin besides the northern aspects the southern aspects have also higher number of glaciers. The Shigar River basin has glaciers in all direction but predominantly on north and north eastern aspects. In this basin north western aspects also have higher numbers. A total of 2,420 glacial lakes have been identified in ten river basins of HKH region of Pakistan. The maximum glacial lakes are identified in Gilgit River basin (614), followed by Indus (574), Swat (255) and Shingo (238) River basins. The lowest number of glacial lakes is in Shigar (54) and Shyok (66) River basins. Among various types of lakes the highest number is of Erosion type (1,064) due to the fact that they are present in all the basins except Hunza and Shigar river basins. In Hunza River basin they are low in number and in Shigar they do not exist. These are followed by Valley lakes (412) and End Moraine Dammed (322) lakes. Blocked lakes are lowest in number (51) out of which 21 are present in Shigar River basin while in Shingo and Jhelum river basins these are one each. The Cirque lakes are more common in Gilgit, Indus, Jhelum, Astor and Shingo River basins. Similarly the End Moraine lakes are also common in these basins alongwith Swat River basin while Lateral Moraine lakes are highest in number in Indus and Gilgit River basins. The Supraglacial lakes are common in the basins where there are large size glaciers like Indus, Hunza, and Shigar. Very few Valley lakes are present in the northern basins like Shigar (2) and Shyok (8) River basins. The trends of distribution of glacial lakes in ten river basins showed that generally the lakes are distributed all over the ten basins but mostly concentrated in different pockets. The maximum concentration is observed in the northern part of Indus River basin and adjoining southern part of Gilgit River basin. One cluster can also be observed in the northeastern part of Swat River basin. In the northern part of Jhelum River basin and eastern part of Shingo River basin boardering the Indus River basin clusters of lakes are found. In the center of Astor River basin the glacial lakes are quite prominent. A total of 2,420 glacial lakes in HKH region of Pakistan contribute about 126 sq. km of lake area. The maximum lake area is recorded for Gilgit River basin (about 39 sq. km) followed by Indus River basin (26 sq. km). Just like the lower number, the lowest lake area was observed in Shigar and Shyok River basins. The southern basins especially Shingo and Jhelum contribute the equal lake area (about 12 sq. km each). Among the various types of lakes, Valley lakes are the largest and altogether contribute about 33% of the total lake area followed by Erosion (26%) and End Moraine Dammed (18%) lakes. Generally Blocked, Supraglacial and Later Moraine lakes are small in size and contribute very low lake area. Out of total of 2,420 glacial lakes, 1,328 lakes are characterized as major lakes. Among the total number of lakes more than 77% are contributed by five river basins namely Gilgit, Indus, Shingo, Swat and Jhelum. Shyok and Shigar River basins have the minimum number of total as well as major lakes. Highest numbers of major lakes are in Gilgit River basin (380) followed by Indus River basin (328). A total of 83% major lakes are contributed by five basins which contribute highest number of total lakes as well. Out of 1,328 major lakes, 52 are characterized as potentially dangerous lakes. Most of them (61%) are identified in Indus (15), Astor (9) and Gilgit (8) river basins. 313

The total lake area follows the pattern of total number of lakes in ten river basins. The largest lake in ten basins is in Gilgit River basin having an area of 2.72 sq. km. The other river basins like Chitral, Shingo, Indus and Jhelum also have large size lakes. The largest lakes of Shigar, Shyok and Hunza river basins are relatively smaller in size compared to other basins. Among various types of major lakes the highest number is of Erosion type lakes (498) followed by Valley (277) and End Moraine (226). The minimum number (20) is of Block type lakes. The Valley, Erosion, End Moraine and Cirque lakes are more common in Gilgit, Indus and Swat River basins. In Swat, Shingo and Jhelum River basins Supraglacial lakes are not present. In Shigar River basin only Blocked, Supraglacial and Valley type major lakes are present. In ten basins of HKH region of Pakistan among the 1,328 major lakes, a total of 52 are characterized as potentially dangerous lakes based on criteria defined earlier. Generally the lakes identified as dangerous lakes belong to Cirque, End Moraine and Valley type lakes. Out of 52 dangerous lakes 31 are End Moraine, 13 Cirque and only 8 Valley type lakes. Dangerous Cirque lakes are present in four southern basins namely Indus, Shingo, Astor and Jhelum. Similarly the dangerous Valley lakes are distributed in these basins alongwith Gilgit River basin. End Moraine dangerous lakes are present in all the basins in variable numbers except Shigar River basin. These identified dangerous lakes especially near the head waters and settlements needs to be monitored regularly.

314

References
Ahmed, N. and Chaudhry, G.R. 1990. Summaries of Irrigated Agriculture of Pakistan. Lahore: Shahzad Nazir, 61-62, Gulberg-3. Lahore. Arnoff, S., 1989. Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective. Ottawa, Canada: WDL Asim, R. K, M. Kaleem Ullah, and S. Muhammad, 2002. Water Availability and Some Macro Level Issues Related to Water Resources Planning and Management in the Indus Basin Irrigation System in Pakistan. http://www.riob.org/ag2000/pakistan.htm Awan, S. 2002. www.comsats.org.pk/latest/shoukat_awan.pdf Chaohai, Liu and Liangfu, Ding. 1986. The Newly Progress of Glacier Inventory in Tianshan Mountains. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 8(2): 168-169. Clague, J.J., and Mathews, W.H. 1973. The Magnitude of Jokulhlaups. Journal of Glaciology, 12: 66. Clarke, D. K. C., 1991. Length, Width and Slope Influences on Glacier Surging, J. Glaciol., 37, 236B46. Clarke, D. K. C., S. G. Collins, and D. E. Thompson, 1984. Flow, Thermal Structure, and Subglacial Conditions of a Surge-type Glacier, Can. J. Earth Sci., 21, 232B40. Costa, J.E. 1985. Floods from Dam Failures, Open File Report. USA: US Geological Survey. Costa, J.E. 1988. Floods from Dam Failures. In Baker, V.R.; Kochel, R.G.; and Patton, P.C. (eds) Flood Geomorphology, pp 439463. New York: Wiley Interscience. Desloges, J.R., Jones, D.P., and Ricker, K.E. 1989. Estimates of Peak Discharge from the Drainage of Ice-dammed Ape Lake, British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Glaciology, 35: 349354. Electrowatt Engineering Services Ltd., 1982. Feasibility Study of Mulghat Hydropower Project; Report to Asian Development Bank and HMG Nepal. Farrukh, M. 2002. Saviours of Karakoram Highway at Work, The Crops of Engineers Journal, Military college of Engineering, Risalpur.

315

Francis M. R., K. J. Miller and Dong Zhi-bin, 1984. Impulse Radar Ice-depth Sounding of the Gulkin Glacier, In K. J. Miller, The International Karakoram Project-2. Cambridge University Press, p-111. Gazdar, M.N. 1987. Groundwater and the Environment: Pakistan Scenario. In Groundwater and the Environment: Proceedings of the International Groundwater Conference 1987. Malaysia: University Kebangsaan. H12-21. GOP, 1998. Agriculture Statistics of Pakistan. Economic Wing of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Government of Pakistan. GOP, 2001. Population Census Organization 1998, Pakistan Statistical yearbook 2001, Federal Bureau of Statistics, Statistics division, Islamabad, Pakistan. GOP, IUCN, World Conservation Union, IIED and UNDP 1992. Pakistan National Report to UNCED. Environment and Urban Affairs Division, Government of Pakistan. GOP, 1992. Agriculture Statistics of Pakistan. Economic Wing of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Government of Pakistan. Goudie, A.S., D. Brunsden, D.N. Collin, E. Derbyshire, R.I. Ferguson, Z. Hashmet, D.K.C. Jones, F.A. Perrott, M. Said, R.S. Waters and W.B. Whalley. 1984. The Geomorphology of Hunza Valley, Karakoram Mountains, Pakistan. In Keith Miller, Proceedings of the International Karakoram Project. London: Royal Geographical Society. pp. 359-410 Gunn, J.P., 1930. Report of the Khumdan Dam and Shyok Flood of 1929. Government of Punjab Publication: Lahore, Pakistan. Harza Engineering Co. International. 1975. Appraisal of Flood Management Systems in Pakistan. Lahore. Hewitt, K. 1969. Glacier Surges in the Karakoram Himalaya (Central Asia). Canadian Journal of Earth Science 6:1009-1018. Hewitt, K. 1985. Pakistan Case Study: Catastrophic Floods, Publication No. 149. UK: IAHS. Hewitt, K. 1989. The Altitudinal Organization of Karakoram Geomorphic Processes and Depositional Environments. Zeitschrift Geomorph., 76: 9-32. Hewitt, K. 1998. Recent Glacier Surges in the Karakoram Himalaya, South Central Asia, http://www.agu.org/eos_elec/97016e.html, 1998 American Geophysical Union.

Hewitt, K., 1990. Overall Report: Snow and Ice Hydrology Project, Upper Indus Basin SIHP, Cold Regions Research Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University, 179 pp. 316

Hewitt, K., 1993. Altitudinal Organisation of Karakoram Geomorphic Processes and Depositional Environments, Chapter 7, In Shroder J. F., Jr., Routledge, Himalaya to the Sea: Geology, Geomorphology and the Quaternary, London, 159B83,. Hughes R. E. 1984. Yasin Valley: The Analysis of Geomorphology and Building Types, In Miller, K. J. The International Karakoram Project-2 Cambridge University Press, pp-272, 273. Johnson, P.G. 1988. Glacier-dammed lakes and mass movement-dammed lakes, Upper Hunza valley, Pakistan. Unpubl. Paper, Snow and Ice Hydrology Project, Wilfrid Laurier University. Kamb, W. B., 1987. Glacier Surge Mechanism Based on Linked Cavity Configuration of the Basal Water Conduit System, J. Geophys. Res., 92(B9), 9,083B9,100. Kamp, U., 1999. Late Quaternary Geomorphology and Glaciation in the Eastern Hindu Kush, Chitral, Northern Pakistan / Jungquartre Geomorphologie und Vergletscherung im stlichen Hindukusch, Chitral, Nordpakistan. Berliner Geographische Studien, 50), Berlin, 254 pp. (In German). (ISBN: 3-7983-1812-3). Kazmi, A. H. and Qasim, M. 1997. Geology and Tectonics of Pakistan. Graphic Publishers, Karachi, Pakistan. Khan, M. I. 1994. Glaciology- Glacier and Avalanche Research. Peshawar. Kelly, R.E.J. 1988. Preliminary investigations into the formation and drainage of the glacially-dammed Virjerab lake, Shimshal valley, Northern areas, Pakistan. Unpubl. Paper, Snow and Ice Hydrology Project, Wilfrid Laurier University. Kick, W. 1964. The Chogo-Lungma Glacier, Karakoram. Zeitschriff Gletscherkunde udn Glazialgeologie, 5(1): 59p. Liboutry, L., Arnoa, B.M., and Schnieder, B. 1977a. Glaciological Problems Set by the Control of Dangerous Lake in Cordillera Blanca, Peru; Part I, Historical Failures of Morainic Dams, Their Causes and Prevention. J. of Glaciology, 18(79). Liboutry, L.; Arnoa, B.M.; and Schnieder, B. 1977b. Glaciological Problems Set by the Control of Dangerous Lake in Cordillera Blanca, Peru; Part II; Movement of a Covered Glacier Embedded within a Rock Glacier. J. of Glaciology, 18(79). Liboutry, L.; Arnoa, B.M.; and Schnieder, B. 1977c. Glaciological Problems set by the Control of Dangerous Lake in Cordillera Blanca, Peru; Part III; Studies of Moraines and Mass Balances at Safund. J. of Glaciology, 18(79). LIGG/WECS/NEA. 1988. Report on the First Expedition to Glaciers and Glacier Lakes in the Pumqu (Arun) and Poique (Bhote-Sun Kosi) River Basins, Xizang (Tibet), China, Sino-Nepalese Investigation of Glacier Lake Outburst Floods in the Himalaya. Beijing, China: Science Press.

317

Marcus, M.G. 1960. Periodic Drainage of Glacier-Dammed Tulsequah Lake, B.C. In Geographical Review, 31. Mason, K. 1930. The Glaciers of the Karakoram and Neighborhood. Geological Survey. India, Rec, 63: 214-278. Mason, K. 1935. The Study of Threatening Glaciers. Geog. J., 85: 24-41. Mayewski, P., G. P. Pergeant, P. A. Jeschke, and N. Ahemad, 1980. Himalayan and Transhimalayan Glacier Fluctuations and the S-Asian Monsoon Record, Arctic and Alpine Research, 12/1, 171B82. Mercer J. H. 1975. Mountain Glaciers of the Northern Hemisphere, U. S. Cold Regions Res. and Engg. Lab., In W. O. Field (ed.), Hanover, N. Y., 1: 371-409. Miller, K.J. 1984. The International Karakoram Project: Proceedings of Conferences in Islamabad and London. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mool, P.K., Bajracharya, S.R., and Joshi, S. P. 2001a. Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes, and Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Monitoring and Early Warning System in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region, Nepal. 364P. ICIMOD in cooperation with UNEP/RRC-AP, ISBN 92 9115 331 1, Published by ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal. Mool, P.K., Wangda, D., Bajracharya, S.R., Joshi, S. P., Kunzang, K., and Gurung, D.R. 2001b. Inventory of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes, and Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Monitoring and Early Warning System in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region, Bhutan. 227. ICIMOD in cooperation with UNEP/RRC-AP, ISBN 92 9115 345 1, Published by ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal. Muller, F., Caflish, T., and Muller, G. 1977. Instruction for Compilation and Assemblage of Data for a World Glacier Inventory. Zurich: Temporary Technical Secretariat for World Glacier Inventory, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich NACS, 2001. Support Project, Northern Areas Strategy for Sustainable Development Background Paper on Water Final Draft. NESPAK and Harza Engineering Co. International, 1979. National Flood Protection Plan-1978. Islamabad, Pakistan. NESPAK, 1987. National Flood Protection Plan-Phase II. Lahore, Pakistan. NESPAK, 1989. 1988-Flood Damages Restoration Project. Lahore, Pakistan. Nurkadilov, L.K., Khegai, A.U., and Popov, N.V., 1986. Artificial Draining of an Outburst-dangerous Lake at the Foot of Surging Glacier. In Data of Glaciological Studies, 18: 220221.

318

Owen, L. 1988a. Terraces, Uplift and Climate, the Karakoram Mountains, Northern Pakistan. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department of Geography, University of Leicester, UK. Owen, L.A. 1989. Terraces, Uplift and Climate in the Karakoram Mountains, Northern Pakistan: Karakorum Intermontane Basin Evolution.- Zeitschrift fr Geomorphologie N.F. 76: 117-146. PSIHP, 1991. Project Direction and Review Report, Pakistan Snow and Ice Hydrology Project, H and R Directorate, WAPDA, Lahore, Pakistan. Raschid, S., 1995. Between Two Burrs on the Map-Travels in Northern Pakistan, Vanguard Books, Lahore. Rathur, A.Q., 1987. Groundwater Management to Eradicate Waterlogging and Salinity in the Upper Indus basin, Punjab, Pakistan. In Groundwater and the Environment: Proceedings of the International Groundwater Conference 1987. Malaysia: Universitiy Kebangsaan. G96-107. Raymond, C. F., 1987. How do Glaciers Surge? A review. J. Geophys. Res., 92(B9), 9,121B34. Rthlisberger, F. and Geyh, M.A. 1985. Glacier Variations in the Himalayas and Karakorum. In Zeitshrift fr Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, 21: 237249. Sager, J.W., and Chambers, D.R.1986. Design and Construction of the Spirit Lake Outlet Tunnel, Mount St. Helens, Washington, Special Geotechnical Publication No. 3. New York, USA: ASCE Searle, M. P., 1991. Geology and Tectonics of the Karakoram Mountains, John Wiley, New York. Shafique, M.S. and Skogerboe, G. V. 1984. Planning and Implementation Framework for Salinity Control in the Indus River Basin. In French, R.H. Salinity in Watercourses and Reservoirs. Proceedings of the 1983 International: Symposium on State-of-the-Art Control of Salinity. Salt Lake City, Utah, 13-15 July 1983. Boston: Butterworth. 93-102. Shifeng, Y. and Wang, W. 1980. Research on Snow-Cover in China and the Avalanche. Survey of Pakistan, 1997. Atlas of Pakistan. Pp.143. Swain, P.H., and Davis S.M., 1979. Remote sensing: The Quantitative Approach. USA: McGraw-Hill. von Klebelsberg, 1925B6. Der Turkestanische Gletschertypus, Zeitschrift fr Gletscherkunde, 14, 193B209. Wadia D. N., 1957. Geology of India, 3rd Ed., Macmillian, London. 531 pp. 319

WAPDA, 1976. Sediment Appraisal of West Pakistan Rivers 1966-75, Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority, Lahore. WECS, 1987a. Erosion and Sedimentation in the Nepal Himalaya; an Assessment of River Process, WECS Report No. 4/3/010587/1/1, Seq. No. 259. Kathmandu, Nepal: WECS. WECS, 1987b. Study of Glacier Lake Outburst Floods in the Nepal Himalayas, Phase I, Interim Report, May, 1997, WECS Report No. 4/1/200587/1/1, Seq. No. 251. Kathmandu, Nepal: WECS. WECS, 1995. Data Report, Meteorological and Hydrological Data at Tsho Rolpa Glacier Lake, Rowaling HimalFrom June 1993 to May 1995, WECS N551489 DAT. Kathmandu, Nepal: WECS. WGMS, 1989. World Glacier Inventory, Status 1988, a Contribution to the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) and the International Hydrological Programme, Compiled by the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS). IAHS (ICSI), UNEP, UNESCO. Whiteman, Peter T.S., 1985. Mountain Oases: a Technical Report of Agricultural Studies (1982-1984) in Gilgit District, Northern Areas, Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: United Nations Development Program/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Williams, G.P., 1988. Paleofluvial Estimates from Dimensions of Former Channels and Menders. In Baker, V.R, Kochel, R.C., and Patton, P.C. (eds) Flood Geomorphology, pp 321334. New York: Wiley Interscience. Wissman H. Von., 1959. The Present Day Glacier Cover and Snowline in High Asia. Akad. D. wiss. Und.d. Litt. 14: 1101-1436. www.agu.org/cos/97016c.html www.baltistantours.com www.geocities.com www.geocities.com/Pentagon/Barracks/9722/Mountains/index.htm www.geocities.com/swat_pakistan, www.gla.ac.uk/ibls/Biosed/linprnov www.hgp.com.pk/northpakistan www.hussaini.20m.com www.icimod.org.np/publications/newsletter/New38 320

www.littletibet.org/rivers.htm www.mountainleaders.com www.pasha.org.pk/tourism-punjab.com www.southasianfloods.org/document www.southasianfloods.org/regional/pakistan www.travel-culture.com/pakistan/swat www.waterinfo.net.pk/fsmd.htm www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/indusbasin www.wrmin.nic.in/riverbasin/Indus (www.28.brinkster.com/pakistan4ever) XuDaoming. 1985. Characteristics of Debris Flows Caused by Outbursts of Glacier Lakes in Boqu River in Xizang, China, 1981. Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Cryopedology, Academia Sinica. Zhang, Jinhua and Bai Zhongyan., 1980. The Surface Ablation and its Variation on the Batura Glacier. In Shi Yofeng (ed.) Papers on the Batura Glacier, Karakoram Mountains. Beijing Sci. Press 83-98. Zhang, X., and Shifeng, W., 1980. Changes in the Batura Galcier in the Quaternary and Recent Times, In, Professional Papers on the Batura Glacier, (Ed Shifeng, W.)

321