Carbon nanotube science and technology

Carbon nanotubes are molecular-scale tubes of graphitic carbon with outstanding properties. They are among the stiffest and strongest fibres known, and have remarkable electronic properties and many other unique characteristics. For these reasons they have attracted huge academic and industrial interest, with thousands of papers on nanotubes being published every year. Commercial applications have been rather slow to develop, however, primarily because of the high production costs of the best quality nanotubes. History

The current huge interest in carbon nanotubes is a direct consequence of the synthesis of buckminsterfullerene, C60 , and other fullerenes, in 1985. The discovery that carbon could form stable, ordered structures other than graphite and diamond stimulated researchers worldwide to search for other new forms of carbon. The search was given new impetus when it was shown in 1990 that C60 could be produced in a simple arc-evaporation apparatus readily available in all laboratories. It was using such an evaporator that the Japanese scientist Sumio Iijima discovered fullerenerelated carbon nanotubes in 1991. The tubes contained at least two layers, often many more, and ranged in outer diameter from about 3 nm to 30 nm. They were invariably closed at both ends.

A transmission electron micrograph of some multiwalled nanotubes is shown in the figure (left). In 1993, a new class of carbon nanotube was discovered, with just a single layer. These single-walled nanotubes are generally narrower than the multiwalled tubes, with diameters typically in the range 1-2 nm, and tend to be curved rather than straight. The image on the right shows some typical single-walled tubes It was soon established that these new fibres had a range of exceptional properties (see below), and this sparked off an explosion of research into carbon nanotubes. It is important to note, however, that nanoscale tubes of carbon, produced catalytically, had been known for many years before Iijimas discovery. The main reason why these early tubes did not excite wide interest is that they

were structurally rather imperfect, so did not have particularly interesting properties. Recent research has focused on improving the quality of catalytically-produced nanotubes.
Structure

The bonding in carbon nanotubes is sp, with each atom joined to three neighbours, as in graphite. The tubes can therefore be considered as rolled-up graphene sheets (graphene is an individual graphite layer). There are three distinct ways in which a graphene sheet can be rolled into a tube, as shown in the diagram below. The first two of these, known as armchair (top left) and zig-zag (middle left) have a high degree of symmetry. The terms "armchair" and "zig-zag" refer to the arrangement of hexagons around the circumference. The third class of tube, which in practice is the most common, is known as chiral, meaning that it can exist in two mirror-related forms. An example of a chiral nanotube is shown at the bottom left. The structure of a nanotube can be specified by a

vector, (n,m), which defines how the graphene sheet is rolled up. This can be understood with reference to figure on the right. To produce a nanotube with the indices (6,3), say, the sheet is rolled up so that the atom labelled (0,0) is superimposed on the one labelled (6,3). It can be seen from the figure that m = 0 for all zig-zag tubes, while n = m for all armchair tubes.
Synthesis

The arc-evaporation method, which produces the best quality nanotubes, involves passing a current of about 50 amps between two graphite electrodes in an atmosphere of helium. This causes the graphite to vaporise, some of it condensing on the walls of the reaction vessel and some of it on the cathode. It is the deposit on the cathode which contains the carbon nanotubes. Single-walled nanotubes are produced when Co and Ni or some other metal is added to the anode. It has been known since the 1950s, if not earlier, that carbon nanotubes can also be made by passing a carbon-containing gas, such as a hydrocarbon, over a catalyst. The catalyst consists of nano-sized particles of metal, usually Fe, Co or Ni. These particles catalyse the breakdown of the gaseous molecules into carbon, and a tube then begins to grow with a metal particle at the tip. It was shown in 1996 that single-walled nanotubes can also be produced catalytically. The perfection of carbon nanotubes produced in this way has generally been poorer than those made by arc-evaporation, but great improvements in the technique have been made in recent years. The big advantage of catalytic synthesis over arc-evaporation is that it can be scaled up for volume production. The third important method for making carbon nanotubes involves using a powerful laser to vaporise a metalgraphite target. This can be used to produce single-walled tubes with high yield.
Properties

The strength of the sp carbon-carbon bonds gives carbon nanotubes amazing mechanical properties. The stiffness of a material is measured in terms of its Young's modulus, the rate of change of stress with applied strain. The Young's modulus of the best nanotubes can be as high as 1000 GPa which is approximately 5x higher than steel. The tensile strength, or breaking strain of nanotubes can be up to 63 GPa, around 50x higher than steel. These properties, coupled with the lightness of carbon nanotubes, gives them great potential in applications such as aerospace. It has even been suggested that nanotubes could be used in the space elevator, an Earth-to-space cable first proposed by Arthur C. Clarke. The electronic properties of carbon nanotubes are also extraordinary. Especially notable is the fact that nanotubes can be metallic or semiconducting depending on their structure. Thus, some nanotubes have conductivities higher than that

of copper, while others behave more like silicon. There is great interest in the possibility of constructing nanoscale electronic devices from nanotubes, and some progress is being made in this area. However, in order to construct a useful device we would need to arrange many thousands of nanotubes in a defined pattern, and we do not yet have the degree of control necessary to achieve this. There are several areas of technology where carbon nanotubes are already being used. These include flat-panel displays, scanning probe microscopes and sensing devices. The unique properties of carbon nanotubes will undoubtedly lead to many more applications

What are Carbon Nanotubes?

Metallic Carbon Nanotubes Carbon Nanotube Production Carbon Nanotubes Nanotechnology Cost Of Carbon Nanotubes Carbon Nanotubes Production Carbon Nanotube Cost Carbon Nanotube Manufacturers

Carbon nanotubes are hexagonally shaped arrangements of carbon atoms that have been rolled into tubes. These tiny straw-like cylinders of pure carbon have useful electrical properties. They have already been used to make tiny transistors and one-dimensional copper wire. They were developed by using nanotechnology, a relatively new field that involves building electronic circuits and devices from single atoms and molecules. Nano means one thousand millionth of a unit. A nanometer is therefore one thousand millionth of a meter. The first nanofabrication experiments occurred in 1990 when individual xenon atoms were placed on a nickel substrate and used to spell out a company logo. One primary goal of nanotechnology is to build computer chips and other devices that are thousands of times smaller than they are now. Carbon nanotubes have enormous theoretical possibilities but have not lived up to the hype surrounding their development. Researchers have continued to look for ways to use them, however, as successful applications have the potential to be highly lucrative. Scientists have recently succeeded in altering carbon nanotubes so that they supply electrons when exposed to light. This was done by having two flat rings of carbon molecules sandwich a ferrocene (iron) molecule. Ferrocene is known for its tendency to relinquish electrons. When exposed to visible light, the carbon atoms accepted the ferrocene molecule. This is the first time that carbon nanotubes have been hybridized to undergo light-induced electron transfer. Researchers say that these modified carbon nanotubes are the first step in building solar cells using this technology.

Metallic Carbon Nanotubes Carbon Nanotube Production Carbon Nanotubes Nanotechnology Cost Of Carbon Nanotubes Carbon Nanotubes Production Carbon Nanotube Cost Carbon Nanotube Manufacturers

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Carbon Nanotube Production

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Carbon Nanotube Manufacturers

The newly-discovered ability of carbon nanotubes to serve as electron sources has great potential. Carbon nanotubes may one day replace the metal filaments in X-ray machines, which tend to burn out quickly. Scientists hope to use them to develop portable X-ray machines for use in airport security, ambulances, and customs work. Carbon nanotubes also have great significance for use in flatpanel displays, microwave generators, devices for electric surge protection, and high intensity lamps.

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What are the Properties of a Carbon Nanotube? The intrinsic mechanical and transport properties of Carbon Nanotubes make them the ultimate carbon fibers. The following tables (Table 1 and Table 2) compare these properties to other engineering materials. Overall, Carbon Nanotubes show a unique combination of stiffness, strength, and tenacity compared to other fiber materials which usually lack one or more of these properties. Thermal and electrical conductivity are also very high, and comparable to other conductive materials. Table 1. Mechanical Properties of Engineering Fibers Fiber Material Carbon Nanotube HS Steel Carbon Fiber - PAN Carbon Fiber - Pitch E/S - glass Kevlar* 49 Specific Density 1.3 - 2 7.8 1.7 - 2 2 - 2.2 2.5 1.4 E (TPa) 1 0.2 0.2 - 0.6 0.4 - 0.96 0.07 / 0.08 0.13 Strenght (GPa) 10 - 60 4.1 1.7 - 5 2.2 - 3.3 2.4 / 4.5 3.6 - 4.1 Strain at Break (%) 10 < 10 0.3 - 2.4 0.27 - 0.6 4.8 2.8

Kevlar is a registered trademark of DuPont. Table 2. Transport Properties of Conductive Materials Material Carbon Nanotubes Copper Carbon Fiber - Pitch Carbon Fiber - PAN Thermal Conductivity (W/m.k) > 3000 400 1000 8 - 105 Electrical Conductivity 106 - 107 6 x 107 2 - 8.5 x 106 6.5 - 14 x 106

What are the Potential Applications for Carbon Nanotubes? Carbon Nanotube Technology can be used for a wide range of new and existing applications: Conductive plastics Structural composite materials Flat-panel displays Gas storage Antifouling paint

Micro- and nano-electronics Radar-absorbing coating Technical textiles Ultra-capacitors Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) tips Batteries with improved lifetime Biosensors for harmful gases Extra strong fibers How Does Nanocyl Produce Carbon Nanotubes? Nanocyl uses the "Catalytic Carbon Vapor Deposition" method for producing Carbon Nanotube Technologies. This proven industrial process is well known for its reliability and scalability. It involves growing nanotubes on substrates, thus enabling uniform, large-scale production of the highest-quality carbon nanotubes worldwide.

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Carbon Nanotubes can be categorized by their structures: Single-wall Nanotubes (SWNT) Multi-wall Nanotubes (MWNT) Double-wall Nanotubes (DWNT)

ingle-wall Nanotubes (SWNT)

Single-wall nanotubes (SWNT) are tubes of graphite that are normally capped at the ends. They have a single cylindrical wall. The structure of a SWNT can be visualized as a layer of graphite, a single atom thick, called graphene, which is rolled into a seamless cylinder. Most SWNT typically have a diameter of close to 1 nm. The tube length, however, can be many thousands of times longer. SWNT are more pliable yet harder to make than MWNT. They can be twisted, flattened, and bent into small circles or around sharp bends without breaking. SWNT have unique electronic and mechanical properties which can be used in numerous applications, such as field-emission displays, nanocomposite materials, nanosensors, and logic

elements. These materials are on the leading-edge of electronic fabrication, and are expected to play a major role in the next generation of miniaturized electronics.

Multi-wall Nanotubes (MWNT)

Multi-wall nanotubes can appear either in the form of a coaxial assembly of SWNT similar to a coaxial cable, or as a single sheet of graphite rolled into the shape of a scroll. The diameters of MWNT are typically in the range of 5 nm to 50 nm. The interlayer distance in MWNT is close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite. MWNT are easier to produce in high volume quantities than SWNT. However, the structure of MWNT is less well understood because of its greater complexity and variety. Regions of structural imperfection may diminish its desirable material properties. The challenge in producing SWNT on a large scale as compared to MWNT is reflected in the prices of SWNT, which currently remain higher than MWNT. SWNT, however, have a performance of up to ten times better, and are outstanding for very specific applications.

ouble-wall Nanotubes (DWNT)

Double-wall nanotubes (DWNT) are an important sub-segment of MWNT. These materials combine similar morphology and other properties of SWNT, while significantly improving their resistance to chemicals. This property is especially important when functionality is required to add new properties to the nanotube. Since DWNT are a synthetic blend of both SWNT and MWNT, they exhibit the electrical and thermal stability of the latter and the flexibility of the former. Because they are developed for highly specific applications, SWNT that have been functionalized are more susceptible to breakage. Creating any structural imperfections can modify their mechanical and electrical properties. However, with DWNT, only the outer wall is modified, thereby preserving the intrinsic properties. Also, research has shown that DWNT have better thermal and chemical stability than SWNT. DWNT can be applied to gas sensors and dielectrics, and to technically-demanding applications like fieldemission displays, nanocomposite materials, and nanosensors.