The University of Queensland Department of Chemical Engineering

Bachelor of Engineering Thesis

The Production of Good Creamed Honey

Arie van den Berg Supervisor: Prof. E.T. White

Producing Good Creamed Honey

Arie van den Berg

16 October, 1998

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Acknowledgements

Special thanks to the following people for their help and encouragement:

Professor E.T. White, my thesis supervisor, for his assistance, encouragement, direction, counselling and humour. Nick Justo of Capilano Honey for his assistance and Ive just been through a thesis myself empathy Anthony Molony of Capilano Honey for the idea, and for providing me with my first taste of creamed honey I didnt know it was for experiments.

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Abstract
This thesis seeks to understand the factors that affect the crystallisation of honey. More specifically, it seeks to make progress toward solving the problem of inconsistent creamed honey product produced by Capilano Honey.

The factors important in the crystallisation of honey were found to be:

Using sufficient creamed honey seed as starter Conducting the crystallisation at the optimum temperature (14C) Stirring the seed into the liquid sufficiently to ensure the even distribution of many fine crystals

Studies on viscosity revealed that:

The viscosity of honey increases markedly with decreasing temperature. The viscosity of honey increases with decreasing moisture content. As crystal content of honey is increased, the mixture becomes increasingly nonNewtonian, with apparent viscosity increasing.

The most significant finding of the work was that the consistency of the creamed honey varies with temperature and the specific gravity of the parent liquid honey. Specific gravity is largely a reflection of moisture content, but other factors also influence it.

It is recommended that further study be undertaken on this point. Different honeys should be tested to see which honeys remain satisfactorily spreadable after storage at different conditions. The characteristics of honey can then be related more specifically to the quality of creamed honey product.

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ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................I TABLE OF FIGURES AND TABLES.......................................................................................... IV 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.0 2.1 2.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................................................................... 1 CREAMED HONEY ................................................................................................................ 2 CURRENT CAPILANO PROCESS FOR CREAMED HONEY PRODUCTION ....................................... 3 FACTORS THAT AFFECT CRYSTALLISATION ........................................................... 4 FLORAL SOURCE .................................................................................................................. 4 NUCLEI ............................................................................................................................... 5 Number of Nuclei....................................................................................................... 5 Size of Nuclei ............................................................................................................. 7 Air Bubbles................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.3 2.4 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4.0 4.1 5.0 6.0 7.0

STIRRING, PUMPING AND AGITATION.................................................................................. 11 TEMPERATURE ................................................................................................................... 14 VISCOSITY........................................................................................................................ 16 MEASUREMENT METHOD ................................................................................................... 16 THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VISCOSITY OF HONEY..................................................... 17 THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT ON THE VISCOSITY OF HONEY ..................................... 18 THE EFFECT OF CRYSTAL CONTENT ON VISCOSITY OF HONEY ............................................. 21 THE EFFECT OF CRYSTAL SIZE ON VISCOSITY OF HONEY ..................................................... 24 THE EFFECT OF AIR CONTENT ON VISCOSITY OF HONEY...................................................... 24 THE VISCOSITY OF GOOD CREAMED HONEY .................................................................... 24 THE FINAL CREAMED HONEY PRODUCT ................................................................ 25 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND SPREADABILITY OF FINAL PRODUCT................................................ 26 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK............................................................. 29 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 30

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Table of Figures and Tables

TABLE 1-1 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HONEYS .................................................................................. 2 TABLE 2-1 AVERAGE GLUCOSE-WATER RATIOS FOR HONEYS CLASSIFIED BY GRANULATION
CHARACTERISTICS ....................................................................................................................... 5

TABLE 2-2 EFFECT OF THE AMOUNT OF FINE CRYSTALS ADDED TO HONEY, ON THE RESULTING TYPE OF
CRYSTALLISATION ....................................................................................................................... 6

TABLE 2-3 RELATION OF SIZE OF CRYSTALS ADDED TO HONEY, TO TYPE OF CRYSTALLISATION

PRODUCED .................................................................................................................................. 7

TABLE 2-4 EFFECT OF MINUTE AIR BUBBLES ON CRYSTALLISATION ...................................................... 9 TABLE 2-5 TREATMENT OF HONEYS AND TYPES OF CRYSTALS FORMED .............................................. 11 TABLE 2-6 EFFECT OF ADDING CRYSTALLISED HONEY, AND AGITATION, ON CRYSTALLISATION OF
HONEY.. .................................................................................................................................... 13

TABLE 2-7 EFFECT OF STORAGE TEMPERATURE ON TYPE AND AMOUNT OF CRYSTAL FORMATION ........ 15 FIGURE 3-1 FIGURE 3-2 FIGURE 3-3 FIGURE 3-4 FIGURE 3-5 GRAPH OF VISCOSITY VS TEMPERATURE FOR CAPILANO HONEY SAMPLE ........................ 17 GRAPH OF VISCOSITY VS TEMPERATURE FOR SAGE HONEY. MUNRO (1943) .................. 18 WEDMORES (1955) REFRACTIVE INDEX VS MOISTURE CONTENT ................................... 19 GRAPH OF VISCOSITY VS MOISTURE CONTENT FOR CAPILANO HONEY SAMPLE ................ 20 GRAPH OF VISCOSITY VS MOISTURE CONTENT FOR WHITE CLOVER HONEY. MUNRO

(1943)...2 1 FIGURE 3-6 FIGURE 3-7 GRAPH OF APPARENT VISCOSITY VS CRYSTAL CONTENT ................................................ 23 GRAPH OF POWER LAW EXPONENT VS CRYSTAL CONTENT ............................................. 23

FIGURE 3-8 APPARENT VISCOSITY VS SHEAR RATE FOR GOOD CREAMED HONEY ................................ 25

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1.0
1.1

Introduction
Problem Statement

Capilano have been producing creamed honey for many years. While the majority of product is of high quality, it is too often the case that the creamed honey wearing the Capilano label in the supermarket does not meet manufacturer or consumer standards. Honey that is too hard, with consistency more like a brick than a nice spread is as unacceptable as honey that is too soft.

The process currently used by Capilano to produce its creamed honey is a batch process that has been in place for many years. The details of this process are outlined in Sec ???. Application of this process has, for the most part, yielded satisfactory product, and so it has been thought that the poor quality creamed honey produced is the result of ineffective application of the outlined proper process. By this thinking, it was deemed appropriate to ascertain whether the current batch process could be turned effectively into a continuous process. Should the outlined proper process be successfully converted to a continuous form, the proper method of production would be free from many of the human failings that have heretofore hampered effective production. Control of the process would also be achieved much more easily and to a greater extent. If the inputs to this continuous process were kept constant, then the output, too, would be constant; a consistent, high quality creamed honey.

It cannot be argued that a continuous process would not provide the greater control over the process that is desired. It is seen necessary, however, before conversion of the current process to a continuous one, to determine what effect the current process has on the quality of creamed honey produced by it.

The current process cannot just be accepted as being correct. Even if it is a process whereby creamed honey can be produced, is it the best process? Before the process becomes continuous, are there any changes that can and should be made to improve the process? What are the factors that affect the quality of the final creamed honey

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product? What is a good creamed honey product? This thesis seeks to answer these questions.

1.2

Creamed Honey

Creamed honey is finely crystallised honey.

Crystallisation in honey is a natural

phenomena, occurring when glucose, one of three main sugars in honey (see Table 1-1), spontaneously separates out of the supersaturated honey solution. The glucose loses water, becoming glucose monohydrate, and takes the form of a crystal. Creamed honey is the product of the deliberate, controlled crystallisation of honey.

Table 1-1

Average composition of honeys (White, Reithof, Subers and Kushnir, 1962)

Component

Average

Standard Deviation

Range

Water (%) Fructose (%) Glucose (%) Sucrose (%) Maltose (%) Higher Sugars (%) Free acid (%) Lactone (%) Total acid (%) Ash (%) Nitrogen (%) pH Diastase value

17.2 38.2 31.3 1.3 7.3 1.5 0.43 0.14 0.57 0.169 0.041 3.91 20.8

1.5 2.1 3.0 0.9 2.1 1.0 0.16 0.07 0.20 0.15 0.026

13.4 22.9 27.2 44.3 22.0 40.7 0.2 7.6 2.7 16.0 0.1 8.5 0.13 0.92 0.0 0.37 0.17 1.17 0.020 1.028 0.000 0.133 3.42 6.10

9.8

2.1 61.2

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1.3

Current Capilano Process for Creamed Honey Production

The first step in making creamed honey is to blend the brown honey in accordance with the standard operating procedure (SOP) using the varieties of honey listed in the SOP.

The liquid honey is chilled to 16C and mixed with solid blocks of crystallised honey, called creamed seed, in the ratio of 10 parts brown honey to one part creamed seed. The temperature of the creamed seed is generally 14C. The creamed seed can and is enhanced in texture, which will be reflected in the final product, by increasing the ratio of creamed seed (starter) that the batch is made from. Normal ratio is 10:1 (brown honey to seed) however this can increase to 5:1 and improves the appearance of texture of the final product. The two components are mixed together in a machine that minces the solid creamed seed and mixes the brown honey at the same time. The mixture then passes into another part of the same machine where large paddles aerate the mixture.

The mixture is allowed to beat for 15 minutes to a creamy texture and will be cream in colour.

The process is continuous in small batches (600kg) throughout the day. The mixture is pumped to a holding tank and subsequently to a filling machine where consumer containers are filled.

After the consumer containers are packed into cartons and palletised, they are then loaded into a coldroom.

This room has an initial temperature of 3C. The purpose of this low temperature is to keep the air bubbles in suspension and evenly dispersed throughout the product. This low temperature then prevents the bubbles from rising to the surface of the product.

After 72 hours at 3C, the room temperature is allowed to rise to a controlled 14C. The product is held at this temperature for 5 to 7 days during which time it will start to

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go quite hard. At the stage where the product is able to sustain the impression of a finger pressed on the outside of the container, the room temperature is altered.

The product then goes through a process of stabilisation which is very important, as this will determine to a large extent the spreadability of the final product.

The room temperature is heated and maintained at 24C. This temperature has been found by experience to be the most suitable stabilising temperature.

The creamed honey is left in this condition for a further period of 7 days minimum. When the finished product is released to supermarkets from Tasmania to Queensland it should maintain its spreadability without going hard despite the large variances in temperatures of retailers warehouses. For the most part, this seems to work quite satisfactorily. If the product was not stabilised and was left at 14C it would remain hard indefinitely.

2.0
2.1

Factors that Affect Crystallisation

Floral source

The average composition of honeys as shown in table 1-1 is just that, an average. Honeys from different sources can vary widely in composition. White, Reithof, Subers and Kushnir (1962) discussed the relation between the tendency of honey to crystallise and its composition. Several indices had previously been proposed, but through their study of 477 honeys, and use of statistical procedures, they showed that the glucose/water ratio gives the best value. Their results are summarised in table 2-1 where the average glucose/water (G/W) ratio for honeys placed into ten different granulation categories is shown.

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Table 2-1

Average glucose-water ratios for honeys classified by granulation

characteristics

Extent of Granulation None Few scattered crystals 1.5-3mm layer of crystals 6-12mm layer of crystals Few clumps of crystals of depth granulated of depth granulated of depth granulated Complete soft granulation Complete hard granulation

No. samples 96 114 67 68 19 32 19 16 18 28

G/W 1.58 1.76 1.79 1.83 1.86 1.99 1.98 2.06 2.16 2.24

2.2

Nuclei

In the process of crystallisation, it is necessary that there be nuclei in the liquid honey at which crystal growth can occur. Air bubbles, pollen or other particulate elements can all act as nuclei for crystal growth. In the production of creamed honey,

previously processed crystallised honey is added to the liquid honey to act effectively as nuclei.

2.2.1 Number of Nuclei The number of crystal nuclei present in the liquid honey that is to be used to produce creamed honey directly influences the size of the crystals that are formed. If the initial concentration of nuclei is high, and these nuclei are distributed evenly in the honey, the glucose diffuses rapidly to these points. Since the rate of crystal growth is

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approximately the same, the glucose in excess of saturation is used up before the crystals grow too large. If, on the other hand, the nuclei are few in number, the glucose must diffuse a relatively long distance. The rate of growth is therefore small, and the resulting crystals are large in size and small in number.

Palatable creamed honey consists of small crystals. Large crystals make for an objectionable creamed honey, and so it is necessary to add sufficient nuclei to the liquid honey for a quality creamed honey product. Previously crystallised honey is added to provide the nuclei and Dyce (1931) conducted an experiment to determine the exact quantity of crystallised honey that should be used to give the best results.

25 pounds of liquefied honey was cooled to 60F and poured into ten 2.5 pound pails. As shown in table 2-2, varying amounts of fine crystallised honey were added to each of the containers. Each sample of honey was then stirred for ten minutes in exactly the same manner, and then all were placed in a constant temperature room at 60F.

Table 2-2

Effect of the amount of fine crystals added to honey, on the

resulting type of crystallisation

Sample no.

% of crystallised honey added

Approximate % of Approximate type crystallisation 2 days later of crystallisation 10 days later Coarse Fine Very fine Very fine Very fine Very fine Very fine Very fine Very fine Very fine

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2 5 8 10 12 15 18 20 25 30

15 70 85 90 95 100 100 100 100 100

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It can be seen that 5 % crystallised honey starter produces a finely crystallised honey. At 8 %, the product crystals are very fine. The process currently used by Capilano for creamed honey production stipulates that about 10 % of previously crystallised honey be used as starter. Observation of the table indicates that this amount produces very fine crystals at a very satisfactory rate.

2.2.2 Size of Nuclei Dyce (1931) conducted an experiment to determine the effect of the size of starter crystals on the final crystallised honey.

30 pounds of liquefied honey, sp. gr. 1.414, was carefully poured into six 5 pound containers, and 5 % of fine, medium and coarse crystallised honey was introduced in each of the pails. The crystals were incorporated by stirring the honey of each

container in exactly the same manner. The treated honey was then placed in a constant temperature room at 60F.

Table 2-3 produced

Relation of size of crystals added to honey, to type of crystallisation

Sample no.

Type of crystallised honey added

Approximate % of Approximate type crystallisation 5 days later 100 100 90 90 of crystallisation 10 days later Very fine Very fine Fine Fine

1 2 3 4

Fine Fine Medium Medium

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5 6

Coarse Coarse

75 75

Medium coarse Medium coarse

As shown in table 2-3, there is a correlation between the type of crystallised honey added to the liquid honey, and the resulting type of granulation. It is therefore

desirable that fine crystallised honey be used as a starter if fine granulation is desired.

Previously processed creamed honey is used as starter. This is finely crystallised, as that is what is required for a good product. Grinding the seed when adding, and blending well will further ensure that the initial nuclei are sufficiently small to produce a finely crystallised product.

2.2.3 Air Bubbles Creamed honey produced in Australia differs markedly from other creamed honeys in that air is incorporated into the product. Air bubbles are recognised as being capable of acting as nuclei for crystallisation, and so their effect on crystallisation should be studied. Dyce (1931) conducted an experiment with the purpose of ascertaining the importance of minute air bubbles incorporated into the honey, as a factor in stimulating crystal formation.

60 pounds of light amber honey, sp. gr. 1.414 was divided into two lots of 30 pounds each. The honey in the two containers was then placed in a constant temperature room, and when cooled to 60F it was removed for treatment. As shown in table 2-4, sample 1 was run through a honey pump five times and a large number of small air bubbles were incorporated into it. 5% of fine crystallised honey was then added to both the pumped and the unpumped honey. The crystallised honey added was

thoroughly incorporated into both honeys by stirring with a wooden paddle for a period of ten minutes. It was found in previous tests, as well as in this experiment, that little or no air is incorporated when the honey is carefully stirred with a paddle. The honeys in the two containers were therefore alike, except that one had a large number

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of minute air bubbles, owing to the pumping. The honey was then placed in a constant temperature room at 60F, to crystallise.

Table 2-4

Effect of minute air bubbles on crystallisation

Sample no.

Run through honey pump 5 times

5% of starter stirred into honey for ten minutes

Amount of air present in honey

Approximate % of crystallisation 3 days later

Approximate type of crystallisation 20 days later

1 2

Yes No

Yes Yes

Great Small

100 90

Very fine Very fine

The honey which was pumped and which contained a large number of small air bubbles crystallised with a little more rapidity than did the honey which was not pumped and which contained few air bubbles. It would therefore appear that the presence of air bubbles in honey is not an essential factor in causing fine crystals to be formed, but that crystallisation may be hastened to a small extent by their presence.

Dyce, adding to the sentiments of many others, comments that since air is undesirable in the final product, then the small advantage of having air bubbles incorporated to act as nuclei should be disregarded and effort made to prevent the incorporation of any air.

Air bubbles will rise to the top of the final product, giving it an objectionable appearance, and so in countries where air is not considered part of the product, then it is obviously advantageous to avoid any incorporation of air at all. Australian creamed honeys, and particularly that produce by Capilano, do have air bubbles incorporated.

Unfortunately, desire, alone, to have air bubbles incorporated into ones product is not enough to prevent the natural problems associated with the storage of air bubbles in creamed honey. Capilano creamed honeys are also prone to suffer from the frothy layer on top of the product that has been formed by the rising of the bubbles.

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2.3

Stirring, Pumping and Agitation

In combining the liquid honey and the seed, stirring is necessary. The transport of the liquid honey and liquid/seed mixture requires pumping. Experiments conducted by Dyce (1931) demonstrate the effect of these physical processes on the crystallisation of honey.

The first of his experiments was conducted with the object of ascertaining the size of the crystals formed when a small amount of crystallised honey is thoroughly stirred into liquid honey and later reagitated at intervals of 24 hours.

White-Dutch-and-alsike-clover honey was liquified and cooled to room temperature. 12 small glass jars were filled with this honey, and about 5 % of finely crystallised honey was added. The samples were stirred and restirred as shown in table 2-5. The honey was left at room temperature to crystallise.

Table 2-5

Treatment of honeys and types of crystals formed

Sample no.

Minutes stirred initially

Minutes stirred second day 5 5 5 5 10 15 20

Minutes stirred third day 5 5 5 10 15 20

Minutes stirred fourth day 5 5 10 15 20

Approximate type of crystallisation Coarse Coarse Coarse Coarse Coarse Coarse Medium coarse Medium coarse Medium coarse Medium coarse Medium coarse

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 20 20 20

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12

Control. Not stirred.

Very coarse

As shown in table 2-5, stirring apparently stimulates reduction in size of crystals. This was most evident when the samples were agitated on the third and fourth day following the introduction of crystals and the first agitation of the honey. The length of time that agitation was continued beyond a certain minimum apparently does not induce the forming of smaller crystals.

Another experiment was conducted to determine the effects of pumping and agitation on the crystallisation of honey.

420 pounds of light amber honey, sp. gr. 1.414, was heated to 140F. The honey was then cooled as quickly as possible to 60F in a pasteurizer. The crystallised honey which was used as a starter was very coarse. As shown in table 2-6, 1 % of this coarse crystallised honey was added and a sample was taken after each ten minutes of agitation until the honey contained a total of 5 % of starter.

After 5% of crystallised honey was added, the agitation completed, and the samples taken, 60 pounds of the honey was removed from the pasteurizer and placed in a small tank which was connected by means of a sanitary pipe to a centrifugal honey pump. From the pump the honey passed through a sanitary pipe and hose to the receiving containers. As shown in table 2-6, the honey was run through the pump six times, a sample being taken each time it passed through.

Sixteen hours later, the honey that remained in the tank was again stirred for three tenminute periods, a sample being taken at the end of each period.

All the samples, as well as the remaining honey in the pasteurizer, were stored in a constant-temperature room in which a temperature of about 60F was maintained.

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Table 2-6 of honey

Effect of adding crystallised honey, and agitation, on crystallisation

Sample no.

Percent of starter added

Minutes agitated

Minutes

Number

Approx. % of crystallisation 3 days later

Type of crystallisation 20 days later

reagitated of times 16 hours later pumped

1 2 3

1 2 3

10 20 30

0 0 0

10 20 30

Coarse Coarse Medium coarse

40

40

Medium coarse

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 (Control)*

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 10 20 30

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0 0

50 90 100 100 100 100 100 60 70 80 0

Fine Fine Very fine Very fine Very fine Very fine Very fine Fine Fine Fine (Liquid)

* Original heated honey, taken before starter was added.

As shown in table 2-6, samples 7 to 11, which were pumped from two to six times, became totally crystallised in about 3 days. Up until this experiment, such early

crystallisation had not been observed and the speed of granulation was a matter of some surprise. The honey that was run through the pump had considerable air

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incorporated into it. The question again arose as to whether it was the incorporation of air or the increased agitation of the honey pump which caused such rapid crystallisation. The results with samples 12 to 14 indicate that increased agitation hastens the rapidity of crystallisation. It would therefore appear that agitation is a greater factor than the incorporation of minute air bubbles, in causing fine crystals to be formed. As shown by samples 1 to 5, there appears to be a direct correlation between the amount of starter added and the rapidity and size of the crystals formed. Since all of the samples to which 5% of crystallised honey was introduced formed fine or very fine crystals, it would appear that 5% of starter is sufficient for all practical purposes.

2.4

Temperature

Crystal growth in honey is affected by supersaturation and viscosity.

For crystal

growth to occur, there must be molecular movement in the honey. As temperature decreases, viscosity increases and molecular movement is decreased. Conversely,

when the temperature is reduced, supersaturation of the glucose in honey is increased, favouring crystal growth. The effects of increasing viscosity and increasing

supersaturation balance out at a certain temperature at which crystal growth is a maximum.

Dyce (1931) conducted an experiment to determine the temperature at which the rate of crystal growth is highest. In this experiment, sixty pounds of liquid honey was cooled to 40F, and about 8% of medium coarse crystallised honey was thoroughly stirred into it. The seeded honey was then poured into twelve 5-pound pails and these were placed at different temperatures as shown in table 2-7.

As indicated in table 2-7, there is a definite correlation between storage temperature and the type of crystallisation. Sample 8, which was kept at 55F, appeared to

crystallise with greatest rapidity, but only a slight difference was reported in the size of the crystals formed in the samples stored at temperatures between 50F and 60F. As

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the temperature was increased to and above 75F, larger crystals were formed. Below 50F, crystallisation was greatly retarded, owing apparently to the increased viscosity of the honey. Table 2-7 formation Effect of storage temperature on type and amount of crystal

Sample no.

Temperature at which honey was stored (F)

Approximate % of Approximate % of crystallisation 10 days later 20 40 60 85 95 100 100 100 100 50 5 0 crystallisation 30 days later Very coarse Very coarse Coarse Coarse Medium coarse Medium coarse Fine Very fine Fine * * *

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

100 95 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 35 30

* Impossible to judge, due to high viscosity

This experiment was duplicated for buckwheat honey, sp. gr. 1.428, and it was found that the sample stored at 60F crystallised the most rapidly, but only a slight difference was noted in the size of the crystals formed in the samples kept between 55F and 65F. The results of these two experiments indicate that the honeys crystallise more rapidly, and form smaller crystals, when kept at temperatures between 50F and 65F.

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Further experimentation found that honeys of average consistency crystallised most rapidly at a constant temperature of 14C (57F). Honey with a low moisture content crystallised faster at 15C, and honey with a higher moisture content crystallised faster at slightly lower temperatures.

3.0

Viscosity

The quality of creamed honey as pertaining to spreadability has been defined by viscosity. It is thought that an understanding of what parameters affect viscosity will be beneficial in producing a product that is consistently spreadable.

For this work, the effect on viscosity of the following five parameters, has been studied:

1. Temperature 2. Moisture Content 3. Crystal Content 4. Crystal Size 5. Air Content

Experimental results have been obtained showing:

the effect of temperature on the viscosity of a liquid honey sample the effect of moisture content on the viscosity of a liquid honey sample the effect of crystal content on the viscosity of a honey sample

3.1

Measurement Method

The Contraves Rheomat 115 Viscometer was used to measure the viscosities in this study. Readings from the viscometer are prepared as an input file to a computer program which exists to process the raw data provided by the viscometer.

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Temperature control is available through the use of a pump which can be connected to a bath. Bob and cup 125 was used with a 1/100 speed reduction. As the sample temperature moves toward the constant experimental temperature, there will be some variation in the readings from the viscometer. These variations become less apparent, though, as a constant temperature is reached, and the average of the latter readings is taken by the computer program which processes the data. 3.2 The Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of Honey

The viscosity of a liquid honey sample provided by Capilano was measured from 2C to 60C. All results showed Newtonian behaviour. The results are shown in Figure 31.

Viscosity versus Temperature

1000

Viscosity, Pa s

100

10

0.1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Temperature, C
Figure 3-1 Graph of viscosity vs temperature for Capilano honey sample

Noting that the y axis of the graph in figure 3-1 is a logarithmic scale, it is evident that the viscosity of honey is very much dependent upon the temperature. From 0C to 60C, the viscosity changes by a factor of more than 2000.

Data from Munro (1943) presented in Crane (1975) reveals similar results. The results of his study on viscosity vs temperature for Sage honey are shown in figure

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3-2.

While Munro did not explore viscosity values below 11.7C, it is evident that the values are of similar magnitude and follow the same general trend as was discovered experimentally with the Capilano honey sample.

Viscosity vs Temperature
1000

Viscosity, Pa s

100

10

0. 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Temperature, C
Figure 3-2 Graph of viscosity vs temperature for Sage honey. Munro (1943)

The National Honey Board of America also cites the values presented by Munro (1943) on their web page of Physical Characteristics of Honey.

3.3

The Effect of Moisture Content on the Viscosity of Honey

The moisture content of the supplied Capilano honey sample was increased by the addition of water, and decreased by the addition of dextrose crystals. Wedmore

(1955) provided an accurate means of determining moisture content of honeys by measuring refractive index. A plot showing the relationship between refractive index and moisture content for temperatures 20, 30 and 40C is given in figure 3-3.

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The refractive index information was used to determine the moisture content, and viscosities of different moisture content honeys were measured. The results are given if figure 3-4.

Refractive Index vs Water Content

1.505 T=20 T=30 1.5 T=40 y = -0.0026x + 1.5331 y = -0.0025x + 1.5373 y = -0.0025x + 1.5352

Refractive index

1.495

1.49

1.485

1.48

1.475 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

% Water

Figure 3-3

Wedmores (1955) refractive index vs moisture content

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Viscosity vs Moisture Content

100

Viscosity at 30 C, Pa s

10

0.1 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

% Water in honey

Figure 3-4

Graph of viscosity vs moisture content for Capilano honey sample

Munro (1943) conducted a similar experiment for white clover honey at 25C. His results are shown in figure 3-5.

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Viscosity vs Moisture Content

100

Viscosity at 25 C, Pa s

10

1 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

% Water

Figure 3-5 Munro (1943)

Graph of viscosity vs moisture content for White Clover honey.

The values obtained differ, but this can be attributed largely to temperature, Munros experiment was at 25C whereas the experiment conducted on the Capilano honey was at 30C. The trends shown are similar, and it is evident that the viscosity of honey does not vary as widely over the range of moisture contents normally found in honey as it does with temperature.

The National Honey Board of America once again uses Munros data to demonstrate the effect of moisture content on viscosity. In comparing the effects of temperature and moisture content, it is noted that 1% moisture is equivalent to about 3.5C in its effect on viscosity.

3.4

The Effect of Crystal Content on Viscosity of Honey

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Honeys of different crystal content were prepared by the addition of dextrose crystals to the supplied Capilano honey sample. The dextrose crystals were sized by the Malvern Mastersizer, and their volume median size is 0.2 mm. It is noted that the crystallised honey is non-Newtonian, and becomes more so as the crystal content increases. The behaviour of the crystallised honey can be described by the power law, which is given by:
n 1

du du = K dy dy

(3.1)

where

= shear stress; du/dy = velocity gradient; K = consistency index; n = exponent.

The fluid viscosity is given by:

n 1

du =K dy

(3.2)

where

= viscosity.

Figure 3-6 shows the effect that crystal content has on viscosity, while figure 3-7 shows the power law exponent as a function of crystal content.

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Viscosity vs Crystal content

1000

Viscosity at 30 C (at 10s-1)

100

10

1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

V, Crystal - liquid mass ratio

Figure 3-6

Graph of apparent viscosity vs crystal content

Effect of Crystal Content on Viscosity

1

n, Power law exponent

0.95

0.9

0.85

0.8 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

V, Crystal - liquid mass ratio

Figure 3-7

Graph of power law exponent vs crystal content

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3.5

The Effect of Crystal Size on Viscosity of Honey

No experiments were performed to determine the effect of crystal size on the viscosity of honey. Advice from an academic source suggested that crystal size would have negligible effect on the viscosity of honey. A paper by Awang and White (1976) titled, Effect of Crystal in the Viscosity of Massecuites suggests that any effect is small. Similar results might be expected for crystallised honey.

Crystal size is, however, related to product quality. Small crystals are desired for a palatable product, and this fact will ensure that it is highly unlikely that crystal size differences realistically encountered in creamed honey product would have any effect on its viscosity.

3.6

The Effect of Air Content on Viscosity of Honey

Capilanos creamed honey differs significantly from that produced in other parts of the world in that incorporated air is an important part of the final product. No experiments were conducted to determine the effect of air directly on the viscosity of honey, and other information on air in honey was unavailable because of this phenomenons rarity. A paper by Black and White (1977) titled, The Effect of Aeration on the Viscosity of Molasses, reveals that bubbles increase the viscosity of molasses. It can be expected that honey, being a viscous material like molasses, would also have its viscosity increased by aeration. For 10 % bubbles in molasses, an increase in viscosity of the order of 20 % was reported.

3.7

The Viscosity of Good Creamed Honey

Amongst all the experiments to determine what are the significant factors on the viscosity of creamed honey, there was also a desire to determine what the viscosity of a

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Arie van den Berg

good, spreadable creamed honey was.

Various samples were purchased for

experimental and other purposes (the author discovered the flavorsome delight of creamed honey), and one which was deemed a good spreadable honey was measured in the viscometer.

The power law exponent was 0.737, and the constant in the power law was 140. A plot of apparent viscosity vs shear rate is shown in figure 3-8.

Apparent Viscosity vs Shear Rate

1000

Apparent Viscosity T = 25 C, Pa s

100

10

1 0.1 1 10 100

Shear Rate, s-1

Figure 3-8 Apparent viscosity vs shear rate for good creamed honey

4.0

The Final Creamed Honey Product

When the finished product is released to supermarkets from Tasmania to Queensland it should maintain its spreadability without going hard despite the large variances in the temperatures of retailers warehouses. Brian Maryborough, 19/03/98 Ayres, Production Manager, CHL

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Investigating the above quote has been the main motivation of this research. It is claimed that if the outlined proceedure is followed, then the product will be perfect. Another experiment by Dyce (1931) sheds light on the problem in what seems to be a much clearer way.

4.1

Specific Gravity and Spreadability of Final Product

After processing a large number of samples, Dyce (1931) noticed a considerable variation in the body of the crystallised honeys when they were later stored at room temperature. Some remained soft, while others remained decidedly hard.

An experiment was performed to determine whether a correlation between specific gravity and hardness existed.

Fourteen samples of light white honey from different floral sources ranging in specific gravity from 1.414 to 1.463, were all processed in the same manner. Five percent of starter was added to each sample, and care was taken to incorporate the crystallised honey uniformly. The samples were then placed in a constant temperature room at 55F (13C).

At the end of the two weeks, the samples were placed at a constant temperature of 65F (18C). After being at this temperature for 24 hours, the honeys were carefully observed and the following terms were used to estimate the consistency of the crystallised samples:

1. Very hard 2. Hard 3. Medium hard* 4. Medium soft* 5. Soft* 6. Very soft 7. Almost liquid

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8. Liquid

(*Honeys which of a satisfactory spread hardness are designated by the terms medium hard, medium soft and soft.)

The samples were then placed, as shown in table 4-1, at successive constant temperatures of 70F (21C) to 100F (38C). At the end of each 24 hour period, the samples were observed and were then placed at a temperature 5F higher.

It was noticed that the honeys having a high specific gravity crystallised more slowly than did those with a low specific gravity. All honeys were left in the constant

temperature room at 55F for two weeks, in order to make sure that all the samples had become thoroughly crystallised.

The results given in table 4-1 show a correlation between storage temperature, specific gravity and spreadability. This experiment, seems to demonstrate a phenomena that has been occuring to Capilano creamed honey for a long period of time. It shows that while a creamed honey might be good (spreadable) at one temperature, spreadability will change with temperature. It shows that honeys with a certain specific gravity will give a good, spreadable creamed honey product at one temperature, but will give a rock hard or too soft consistency at a different temperature.

It is the results and thinking behind this experiment that seem most appropriate to study further. Specific gravity is largely dependent upon water content. Other factors such as floral source slighty affect the specific gravity of honey.

It is interesting to note that these points seem to have been touched upon in other Capilano internal literature (Memo to Brisbane PJS/JT/M/97/3):

Honey suppliers recommend that certain honeys be used for creaming, but this advice is not always followed

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The people at Capilano believe that moisture content is one of the factors that contribute to the quality of the final product, but nothing significant has been done.

What the exact details of this reported correlation are, is not yet certain.

It is

unfortunate that this experiment was discovered toward the end of the study, so that time didnt permit further investigation.

Further investigation and experimentation, crystallising different honeys with different characteristics should be performed to determine what is the necessary feed to a process which will produce a good product. Perhaps the type of honey that is used to produce creamed honey for Tasmania may have to differ from that which is used for Queensland. Whatever the outcome, further experimentation is necessary.

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Table 4-1
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Effect of specific gravity on the consistency of crystallised honey in storage

Specific gravity 1.414 1.419 1.424 1.428 1.430 1.430 1.432 1.432 1.435 1.435 1.437 1.440 1.447 1.463 Storage temperature 65F(18.3C) Soft* Medium hard* Medium hard* Medium hard* Medium hard* Medium hard* Hard Medium hard* Hard Hard Very hard Very hard Very hard Very hard 70F(21.1C) Soft* Medium hard* Medium soft* Medium soft* Medium soft* Medium hard* Medium hard* Medium hard* Medium hard* Medium hard* Very hard Very hard Very hard Very hard 75F(23.9C) Very soft Medium soft* Soft* Soft* Soft* Medium soft* Medium soft* Medium soft* Medium soft* Medium soft* Hard Hard Hard Very hard 80F(26.7C) Very soft Soft* Very soft Soft* Soft* Soft* Soft* Soft* Soft* Soft* Medium hard* Hard Hard Hard 85F(29.4C) Almost liquid Soft* Very soft Very soft Very soft Soft* Very soft Soft* Very soft Soft* Soft* Medium hard* Medium hard* Hard 90F(32.2C) Liquid Very soft Almost liquid Almost liquid Almost liquid Very soft Almost liquid Very soft Almost liquid Almost liquid Very soft Almost liquid Soft* Soft* 95F(35.0C) Liquid Almost liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid 100F(37.8C) Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid

* Good Spreadibility

Producing Good Creamed Honey

Arie van den Berg

5.0

Summary and Conclusions

The preceding research and experimentation has yielded much knowledge on the crystallisation of honey. The main points are listed below:

The spreadability of creamed honey product is affected by changes in storage temperature and the specific gravity of the honey from which it is produced.

This has been the most important discovery of the research, and further experiments are strongly recommended. Other knowledge on honey and its crystallisation:

Honey crystallises most rapidly at 14C. Variation in types of honey gives some temperatures which are a little higher, or lower. The minimum amount of crystallised honey seed to be added for satisfactory product is 5%. 10% seems to be an optimum value, minimising seed addition and final crystal size.

Honeys from different sources have different crystallisation tendencies (this will be explored further in recommended extra study). The glucose-water ratio is a good indication of propensity to crystallise.

Air bubbles play a minor role as nuclei for crystallisation. Agitation and pumping increase the rate of crystallisation, through the breaking up of crystals into smaller crystals and distributing them evenly throughout the honey. Too much agitation can have a negative effect on crystallisation as the honey heats up and some of the crystals melt. The viscosity of honey increases markedly with decreasing temperature. The viscosity of honey increases with decreasing moisture content. As crystal content of honey is increased, the mixture becomes increasingly nonNewtonian, with apparent viscosity increasing. Crystal size is not expected to have a large effect on viscosity.

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Increasing the air content may be expected to increase the viscosity of honey.

The current process for the production of creamed honey at Capilano has a number of points which are founded on the scientific findings contained in this report. Other aspects of the process are definitely understood at a lower level, and research as recommended above should be carried out.

6.0

Recommendations for Future Work

The relationship between final product storage temperature, spreadability and the specific gravity of the honey used to produce the creamed product is one which deserves further research.

The experiment by Dyce (1931) reflects the phenomena seen by Capilano that has been a topic of interest and frustration in many memoranda over a long period of time.

It is already recognised that certain types of honey will crystallise more readily than others, and it seems likely that some types of honey will remain a satisfactory product at desired conditions.

The experimentation could likely consist of experiments similar to that conducted by Dyce (1931) with honeys that Capilano use. The characteristics of the honeys (ie G/W ratio, moisture content, content of other sugars, etc) could then be analysed as factors in the stability of the final product.

Should further experimentation yield the expected results, development of a continuous process might proceed further, should it still be found economically desirable.

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7.0

References

Crane, E. 1975 Honey: a comprehensive survey, Heinemann, London.

White, J.W., Jr., Reithof, M.L., Subers, M.H. & Kushnir, I. 1962 Composition of American honeys., Tech. Bull. U.S. Dep. Agric. No. 1261, 124 pp

Dyce, E.J. 1931 Fermentation and crystallisation of honey., Bull. Cornell agric. Exp. Sta. No. 528

Munro, J.A. 1943 The viscosity and thixotropy of honey., J. econ. Ent. 36(5): 769777

National Honey Board of America Some physical properties of honey., http://www.nhb.org/foodtech/physical.html

Wedmore, E.B. 1955 The accurate determination of the water content of honeys. I. Introduction and results., Bee Wld 36(11): 197-206

Awang, M. & White, E.T. 1976 Effect of crystal on the viscosity of massecuites., Proc. Qld. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., 43: 263-270

Black, B. & White, E.T. 1977 The Effect of Aeration on the viscosity of Molasses., Proc. Qld. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., 44: 185-188

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