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COMPUTER NETWORKS ASSIGNMENT-2

Topic- Working of physical layer in 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G networks

Submitted byPunit Kyal 09CO70

First Generation Technology (1G) and AMPS


First-generation wireless technology is based on analog signals. Analog signals are radio transmissions sent in a wave-like form. A mobile device sends the waves to a base station where they are processed to determine the signals next destination (i.e., another base station, mobile phone, land-line phone etc.). Once the destination is determined, the signal is reconstructed as accurately as possible into its original wave form by the base station. The analog signal received by the end user may closely resemble the original transmission but rarely duplicate it. Noticeable differences in quality and form occur due to recreation errors of the signal wave. Signal destruction (the signal is lost or damaged during transmission), translation and interference problems threaten analog transmission to a greater extent than their digital counterparts. Many standards have evolved for analog cellular communications. The most notable is Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS), introduced in 1983. AMPS is primarily used to extend cellular network coverage through the use of analog signals to include the few areas that do not support the more recent digital communications systems. AMPS is also viewed as a backup or support system to digital communications networks in case of system failures. The compartments, or cells, of a honeycomb are comparable to the communication areas of cellular networks like AMPS. At the center of each cell is a base station, which transmits analog signals to and from users within that cell. A base station cannot communicate with users beyond the boundaries of its cell. If a mobile user passes through a cell boundary, the signal must be passed to the base station of the cell the user has entered. The transfer of signals from one base station to another is called a handoff.

The other devices that featured prominently in the age of 1G systems includeTotal Access Communication Systems (TACS) and Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT).

The analog systems use a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) radio system where each user channel has a dedicated carrier band. Eg. The AMPS system uses a 30 KHz wide carrier band for each mobile user channel. An improvement upon the AMPS system is the Narrow AMPS (NAMPS) where each carrier band is only 10 KHz wide so that 3 times as many mobile subscribers can be supported. An add-ons to the AMPS system is cellular digital packet data (CDPD). CDPD enabled transfer of packet data over analog channels by leveraging idle channels for short data transmissions. Data speeds reached upto 19.2 Kbps.

Second Generation Wireless Technologies (2G) Second generation (2G) wireless technology encompasses the majority of present technologies and will provide support for future communications systems (i.e., 2.5G, 3G and 4G). The following sections explore some of these technologies including Personal Communications Systems (PCS), Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).

Personal Communications Services (PCS) Most 2G systems we discuss are designed using digital signal transmission (versus analog signal transmission), which is one of the main differences between 1G and 2G networks. Digital signals differ from their analog ancestors in form and transmission properties. Digital signals have a more structured, defined form based on binary coding. Binary coding uses combinations of the digits 0 and 1 to represent any signal transmission. The sequence of 0s and 1s combine to form a signals unique pattern for each transmission sent over the network. The base station that receives the signal stores the original coding pattern of 0s and 1s before processing the signal. This allows the base station to reconstruct the signal to duplicate the original signal sent. The base station then transmits the new signal to its next destination. Although the new signal is almost an exact replica of the original transmission, translation errors can still occur. The error rate of digital transmission is reduced as compared to analog systems, improving efficiency. The quality of the reproduced digital signal is far greater than that for analog signals. It provides an alternative method to analog communications by using the digital frequency spectrum (frequency spectrum of communications channels specifically assigned to digital networks), allowing for greater user mobility and communications efficiency. PCS networks are structured similar to analog networks, with cells and base stations used to complete communications. PCS breaks down the larger cell areas used by analog-based networks to form microcells, Microcells, also known as picocells, allow more cells to inhabit one

geographic area, thus providing better network coverage by reducing interference and increasing the chance that phone calls will be completed clearly and without interruption. There are two types of PCS, narrowband and broadband. Narrowband PCS is used for two-way paging, credit-card verification, location services, GPS, voice paging and text paging. Broadband PCS is used in portable computer communications. Both are important to PCS system and wireless communications. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is the main technology driving the PCS network Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a type of PCS digital cellular communications network. GSM offers data speeds of 9.614.4Kbps as compared to other 2G technologies which only offer 9.6Kbps. GSM differs from other technologies described in this chapter because it is considered a roaming technologythe coverage area of GSM-based networks allows users to complete wireless communications almost anywhere in the world. Most network providers establish user calling areas that specify the area or region in which users makes most of their mobile calls (also known as the home calling area). Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technology is one of the more popular standards both in the United States and internationally. It is used with a variety of networks including PCS and TDMA. CDMA is a 2G technology standard that is expanding to be a foundation for 3G networks worldwide. CDMA uses spread-spectrum technology which allows users to share the same radio frequencies for wireless communications. Spread-spectrum technology breaks up signals into smaller segments and spreads them over the entire bandwidth. This allows a larger volume of users to share the same band and can provide three times as much bandwidth capacity over any other digital system and up to 20 times that of an analog platform.

In addition, each CDMA transmission is assigned to a specific channel, giving the transmission use of the entire bandwidth within that channel. This reduces the possibility that a connection will be broken. CDMA uses packet-switched data transmission technology. Packet-switched data is data sent and received in packetsgroups of data bundled together transmitted over a network. The packets can be sent over one channel on the network and be received by a different channel. Packets can be rerouted to other channels if there is congestion. In addition, packets can be routed around multiple channels to find the most efficient path to complete the transmission without tying up a channel for an extended period of time. Once a packet is sent, the channel is free to send or receive more packets for this or other users, increasing this technologys effectiveness. To ensure security, CDMA technology assigns a unique code to each wireless transmission on the network. The code pertains only to the packet being sent and received and is not used by any other transmission on the network. The CDMA platform uses less power to transmit signals which increases talk time and battery life on wireless devices. Interference and background noise are less common in CDMA than with other systems. CDMA networks take less time to build than wireline networks or other types of wireless networks because they require fewer cell sites.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is technology used worldwide with GSM, CDMA and other network technologies. TDMA takes multiple calls and assigns each call to a different time slot on the same radio frequency. Two different technologies are used by TDMAFrequency-Division Duplex (FDD) and Time-Division Duplex (TDD). FDD uses two separate frequency bands. Each station within the frequency bands is assigned two specific time slots, one for sending and one for receiving signals from the base station. Usually these slots are staggered (slots do not transmit on the same time schedule) so that each station can both send

and receive messages effectively. TDD uses one frequency band and all stations take turns communicating over the band at different times. Each station is assigned a time slot and the base station transmits signals according to the assignments until all transmissions are complete. Once this process is complete, the base station starts the process over again, sending and receiving signals based on the time-slot assignments. Both FDD and TDD allow for multiple calls to use the same frequency simultaneously without interfering with one another. The downside to TDMA is that it transmits signals at specific time intervals whether or not there is a user is ready to transmit over the network. This makes TDMA inefficient at times and wastes bandwidth capacity on unnecessary transmissions. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) was first used for military and radio communications in the mid-1960s. Today, it is a new area of development for wireless communications technologies. OFDM has become a new technology used in WLAN development. However, it does have other uses in the development of communications networks. OFDM is based on Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). FDM divides frequency channels on the spectrum into smaller channels, or bands, which can be accessed by more than one person. The system then gives each new channel a different frequency on which to operate. However, when multiple frequencies are used, interference problems occur due to limited bandwidth. Limited bandwidth is a challenge for those competing for space on the global spectrum and companies cannot afford to implement transmission methods that use this space inefficiently. OFDM improves on the limitations of FDM by changing the signal shape and compacting more signals in one area of bandwidth to reduce the amount of spectrum in use. In addition, OFDM uses multiple carriers to transmit signals, limiting interference, delay and signal destruction. OFDM can transmit both data and voice and supports speeds of 26Mbps.

Third Generation Technology (3G) WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) is the radio access scheme used for third generation cellular systems that are being rolled out in various parts of the globe. The 3G systems to support wideband services like highspeed Internet access, video and high quality image transmission with the same quality as the fixed networks. In WCDMA systems the CDMA air interface is combined with GSM based networks. The WCDMA standard was evolved through the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) which aims to ensure interoperability between different 3G networks. The standard that has emerged through this partnership project is based on ETSI's Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) and is commonly known as UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA). The access scheme for UTRA is Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA). The information is spread over a band of approximately 5 MHz. This wide bandwidth has given rise to the name Wideband CDMA or WCDMA. In WCDMA, there are two different modes of operation possible:

TDD: In this duplex method, uplink and downlink transmissions are carried over the same frequency band by using synchronized time intervals. Thus time slots in a physical channel are divided into transmission and reception part. FDD: The uplink and downlink transmissions employ two separated frequency bands for this duplex method. A pair of frequency bands with specified separation is assigned for a connection. Since different regions have different frequency allocation schemes, the capability to operate in either FDD or TDD mode allows for efficient utilization of the available spectrum

Key Features of WCDMA The key operational features of the WCDMA radio interface are listed below: 1. Support of high data rate transmission: 384 Kbps with wide area coverage, 2 Mbps with local coverage. 2. High service flexibility: support of multiple parallel variable rate services on each connection. 3. Both Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD).

4. Built in support for future capacity and coverage enhancing technologies like adaptive antennas, advanced receiver structures and transmitter diversity. 5. Support of inter frequency hand over and hand over to other systems, including hand over to GSM. 6. Efficient packet access. WCDMA Technical Specifications Multiple Access Scheme Duplex Scheme Packet Access Dual mode Multi rate/Variable rate scheme Chip Rate Carrier Spacing Frame Length Inter Base Station synchronization DS-CDMA FDD/TDD (Combined and dedicated channel) Variable spreading factor and multi-code 3.84 Mbps 4.4-5.2 MHz (200 kHz carrier raster) 4.4-5.2 MHz (200 kHz carrier raster) FDD: No synchronization neededTDD: Synchronization required

The chip rate may be extended to two or three times the standard 3.84 Mbps to accommodate data rates higher than 2 Mbps. The 200 kHz carrier raster has been chosen to facilitate coexistence and interoperability with GSM. The data are sent through packet switching. Packet switching is a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data regardless of content, type, or structure into suitably sized blocks, called packets. Packet switching features delivery of variable-bit-rate data streams (sequences of packets) over a shared network. When traversing network adapters, switches, routers and other network nodes, packets are buffered and queued, resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on the traffic load in the network.

Fig. Difference between regular CDMA and W-CDMA

There are many other 3G technologies as GSM EDGE, UMTS, DECT, WiMax and CDMA2000.

Fourth Generation Technology (4G)

ITU-R organization specified the IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G standards, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 Mbps for high mobility communication and 1 Gbps for low mobility communication. The ITU announced in December 2010 that WiMax, LTE, and HSPA+ are 4G technologies. One of the key requirements is to realize a wireless 4G IP-based access system. The ultimate goal is to create a protocol suite and radio communication schemes to achieve broadband mobile communication in 4G wireless systems. A new protocol suite for 4G wireless systems supported by Department of Defense (DoD) contains: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Transport layer protocols Error control protocols Medium access protocols Mobility management Simulation testbed Physical testbed Protocol suite in the mobile terminal Protocol suite in the base station

Physical layer transmission techniques are as follows:


MIMO: To attain ultra high spectral efficiency by means of spatial processing including multi-antenna and multi-user MIMO Frequency-domain-equalization, for example Multi-carrier modulation (OFDM) in the downlink or single-carrier frequency-domain-equalization (SC-FDE) in the uplink: To exploit the frequency selective channel property without complex equalization. Frequency-domain statistical multiplexing, for example (OFDMA) or (Singlecarrier FDMA) (SC-FDMA, also known as Linearly pre-coded OFDMA, LP-

OFDMA) in the uplink: Variable bit rate by assigning different sub-channels to different users based on the channel conditions Turbo principle error-correcting codes: To minimize the required SNR at the reception side

References 1. www.wikipedia.org 2. Wireless center (articles) 3. Electronics for you magazine 4. Blogs eg.-indianblogger.com 5. www.freewimaxinfo.com

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