294::558-559::312::306::13::297::http://www.eformulae.com/engineering/strength_m aterials.php::http://www.steel-insdag.org/new/pdfs/chapter5.pdf:: The moment of inertias in the principal coordinate system are called principal m oment of inertias.

bending (also known as flexure) In engineering mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the beha vior of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpe ndicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element. The structural element is assu med to be such that at least one of its dimensions is a small fraction, typicall y 1/10 or less, of the other two.[1] When the length is considerably longer than the width and the thickness, the element is called a beam. A closet rod sagging under the weight of clothes on clothes hangers is an example of a beam experien cing bending. On the other hand, a shell is a structure of any geometric form wh ere the length and the width are of the same order of magnitude but the thicknes s of the structure (known as the 'wall') is considerably smaller. A large diamet er, but thin-walled, short tube supported at its ends and loaded laterally is an example of a shell experiencing bending. In the absence of a qualifier, the term bending is ambiguous because bending can occur locally in all objects. To make the usage of the term more precise, engin eers refer to the bending of rods,[2] the bending of beams,[1] the bending of pl ates,[3] the bending of shells[2] and so on. Buckling is a failure mode characterized by a sudden failure of a structural mem ber subjected to high compressive stresses, where the actual compressive stresse s at failure are smaller than the ultimate compressive stresses that the materia l is capable of withstanding Buckling is also described as failure due to elastic instability Stable or Gentle Buckling is a buckling in which the displacements increase in a controlled fashion as loads are increased, ie. the structure's ability to susta in loads is maintained Unstable or violent Buckling is a buckling in which the displacements increase i nstantaneously, the load carrying capacity nose- dives and the structure collaps es catastrophically PREDICTION OF CRIPPLING STRESS: 1.Angle method (Needham method) Member is divided into number of angles Crippling strength is obtained by summation of individual crippling strength 2.Gerard method Effective Width The transverse distance indicating the amount of slab that acts in conjuction wi th the supporting member. effective width to be used in the stress calculation of post-tensioned T-beams.s imple beam formulas are used in the practical design of flange beams.The effecti ve width concept was introduced to make the calculated maximum stress from the s imple beam formula to be the same as that obtained from an elastic solution in w hich the plate action of the flange is recognized In a beam the vertical part is called the web and the horizontal part is called the flange. For an 'I' beam the middle vertical part is the web and the top and bottom horiz

ontal parts are the flanges. Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit th e flight and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Si nce the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever. The semicantilever wing has one or two supporting wires or struts extending betw een each wing and the fuselage. The semicantilever wing is braced both externally by means of wing struts attach ed to the fuselage, and internally by spars and ribs. Monocoque is a construction technique that supports structural load by using an object's external skin, as opposed to using an internal frame or truss that is t hen covered with a non-load-bearing skin or coachwork Pure monocoques lack internal longitudinal stiffening but are heavier as a resu lt A semi-monocoque differs in having longerons and stringers. In safe-life design products are designed to survive a specific design life with a chosen reserve. The Safe-life design technique is employed in critical systems which are either very difficult to repair or may cause severe damage to life and property. These systems are designed to work for years without requirement of any repairs. A fail-safe or fail-secure device is one that, in the event of failure, responds in a way that will cause no harm, or at least a minimum of harm, to other devic es or danger to personnel. Buckling In science, buckling is a mathematical instability, leading to a failure mode. Theoretically, buckling is caused by a bifurcation in the solution to the equati ons of static equilibrium. At a certain stage under an increasing load, further load is able to be sustained in one of two states of equilibrium: an undeformed state or a laterally-deformed state. In practice, buckling is characterized by a sudden failure of a structural membe r subjected to high compressive stress, where the actual compressive stress at t he point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stresses that the mate rial is capable of withstanding. For example, during earthquakes, reinforced con crete members may experience lateral deformation of the longitudinal reinforcing bars. This mode of failure is also described as failure due to elastic instabil ity. Mathematical analysis of buckling makes use of an axial load eccentricity t hat introduces a moment, which does not form part of the primary forces to which the member is subjected. When load is constantly being applied on a member, suc h as column, it will ultimately become large enough to cause the member to becom e unstable. Further load will cause significant and somewhat unpredictable defor mations, possibly leading to complete loss of load-carrying capacity. The member is said to have buckled, to have deformed. redundancy : A statically indeterminate structure. structure redundancy is also need to be consider on designing a building. Struct ural systems must be capable of transferring load to supports or the ground. For a structure to be stable, at least one load path capable of carrying loads must exist within the structure.Redundancy in load paths allows redirection of loads to alternative load paths. This maintains structural integrity, should one load path fail.Redundancy for gravity load systems can be tested mathematically by p erforming an analysis of the structure upon the removal of particular elements. An example would be remove from a structure. If one column can be removed and th e structure remains stable, path exists.

shear flow : the gradient of a shear stress force through the body (in solid mec hanics) The shear center (also known as the elastic axis or torsional axis) is an imagin ary point on a section, where a shear force can be applied without inducing any torsion. In general, the shear center is not the centroid. For cross-sectional a reas having one axis of symmetry, the shear center is located on the axis of sym metry. For those having two axes of symmetry, the shear center lies on the centr oid of the cross-section. ehow answer for elastic axis : Elastic bending theory defines an axis that, when bent, does not change in length. This is known as the neutral axis and it is th e line formed by the intersection of the two neutral faces of the elastic materi al. Imagine a steel I-beam which bends under a load - the neutral axis is the li ne through the relative center that is the same length whether the steel is bent or straight. This neutral axis corresponds to the center of gravity of the enti re piece. Center of twist: Shearing in continuum mechanics refers to the occurrence of a shear strain, whic h is a deformation of a material substance in which parallel internal surfaces s lide past one another. It is induced by a shear stress in the material. Shear st rain is distinguished from volumetric strain, the change in a material's volume in response to stress. The Wall thickness is used to generate the geometric thickness of the external w all elements of a building block. It is a significant parameter because zones ar e generated from the internal dimensions of the block which are derived from the external block geometry and the block wall thickness. So the Wall thickness inf luences: -Calculation of room air volume (thicker block walls mean less zone air volume) . -Size and shape of zones, especially roof zones (below). -Visual representation of external walls in rendered view (below). Pure bending is a condition of stress where a bending moment is applied to a bea m without the simultaneous application of axial, shear, or torsional forces. Pur e bending is the flexure (bending) of a beam under a constant bending moment (M) therefore pure bending only occurs when the shear force (V) is equal to zero si nce dM/dx= V. Flexural-torsional buckling may occur at a combination of a small stiffness in t he lateral-toload direction and small torsion stiffnes Flexural rigidity is defined as the force couple required to bend a non-rigid st ructure to a unit curvature. -Flexural rigidity of a plate torsion- Deflection, usually within elastic range, caused by twisting, ie applie d torque torsional stress -Stress resulting from applied torque; for torque tube Ss = Tc/ J where T is torque, c is radius and J polar moment of inertia. tension field- Surface within which tensile force acts, with direction parallel to forces. Hence * beam, eg wing spar, within which * acts diagonally in vertica l plane, tending to pull upper and lower booms together. tip :

1 Extremity of aerofoil. 2 Angle of rotation of reconnaissance camera about aircraft transverse axis; also called pitch. 3 Wing-tip fuel tank (DoD) (colloq., adjective). bulb angle, bulb flange : Structural sections, usually used as booms, having cir cular or polyhedral form. Nearly all were rolled from strip and had eight to 12 faces after assembly, complete ** being built up from one to five segments.