Cut grass

Uncut grass

Pennisetum setaceum flowers

Houses with turf roofs in Iceland Grasses, or more technically graminoids, are monocotyledonous, usually herbaceous plants with narrow leaves growing from the base. They include the "true grasses", of the Poaceae (or Gramineae) family, as well as the sedges (Cyperaceae) and the rushes (Juncaceae). The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns (turf) and grassland. Sedges include many wild marsh and grassland plants, and some cultivated ones such as water chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis) and papyrus sedge (Cyperus papyrus). Uses for graminoids include food (as grain, sprouted grain, shoots or rhizomes), drink (beer, whisky), pasture for

livestock, thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, construction, sports turf, basket weaving and many others.

Contents

1 Ecology 2 Agriculture 3 Lawns o 3.1 Sports turf 3.1.1 Cricket 3.1.2 Golf 3.1.3 Tennis o 3.2 Fiction 4 Gallery 5 Footnotes 6 References 7 External links

Ecology

A kangaroo eating grass Graminoids are among the most versatile life forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) have been found containing phytoliths of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo.[1] Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are now the most widespread plant type; grass is a valuable source of food and energy for all sorts of wildlife and organics. Graminoids are the dominant vegetation in many habitats, including grassland, salt-marsh, reedswamp and steppes. They also occur as a smaller part of the vegetation in almost every other terrestrial habitat. There are some 3,500 species of graminoids.[2] Many types of animals eat grass as their main source of food, and are called graminivores these include cattle, sheep, horses, rabbits and many invertebrates, such as grasshoppers and the caterpillars of many brown butterflies. Grasses are also eaten by omnivorous or even occasionally by primarily carnivorous animals.

In the study of ecological communities, herbaceous plants are divided into graminoids and forbs, which are herbaceous dicotyledons, mostly with broad leaves.

Agriculture
Plants of this type have always been important to humans. They have been grown as food for domesticated animals for up to 6,000 years. (See grass fed beef.) They have been used for paper-making since 2400 BC or before. Now they provide the majority of food crops, and have many other uses, such as feeding animals, and for lawns. There are many minor uses, and grasses are familiar to most human cultures.

Grasses used as an ornamental planting

Lawns
In some places, particularly in suburban areas throughout the world, the maintenance of a grass lawn is a sign of a homeowner's responsibility to the overall appearance of their neighborhood. One work credits lawn maintenance to,

...the desire for upward mobility and its manifestation in the lawn. As Virginia Jenkins, author of The Lawn, put it quite bluntly, 'Upper middle-class Americans emulated aristocratic society with their own small, semi-rural estates.' In general, the lawn was one of the primary selling points of these new suburban homes, as it shifted social class designations from the equity and ubiquity of urban homes connected to the streets with the upper-middle class designation of a "healthy" green space and the status symbol that is the front lawn.[3][4]

Many municipalities and homeowner's associations have rules which require lawns to be maintained to certain specifications, sanctioning those who allow the grass to grow too long. In communities with drought problems, watering of lawns may be restricted to certain times of day or days of the week.[5] The smell of the freshly cut grass is produced mainly by cis-3-Hexenal.[6]

Sports turf

Forms of grass are used to cover baseball fields, like this one in Citi Field, home of the Mets. Grass is important in many sports, notably with those played on fields such as American football, Association football, baseball, cricket, and rugby. In some sports facilities, including indoor domes and other places where maintenance of a grass field would be difficult, grass may be replaced with artificial turf, a synthetic grass-like substitute. Sports such as golf, tennis and cricket are particularly dependent on the quality of the grass on which the sport is played. Cricket

The gray area is the cricket pitch currently in use. Parallel to it are other pitches in various states of preparation which could be used in other matches. In cricket, the pitch is the strip of carefully mowed and rolled grass where the bowler bowls. In the days leading up to the match it is repeatedly mowed and rolled to produce a very hard, flat surface for the ball to bounce off. The quality of the preparation can have a considerable influence on the game; a relatively grassy pitch will favor bowlers and a hard and dryer pitch, with less grass remaining, will typically favor batsmen (at least initially). As the grass dries out and is damaged over the course of the match the pitch's characteristics will change, resulting in batting on the first day of a test match being vastly different to batting on the same pitch after 7 days of play. Golf Golf is very dependent on a quality grass surface. Grass on golf courses is kept in three distinct conditions: that of the rough, the fairway, and the putting green. Grass on the fairway is short and even, allowing the player to cleanly strike the ball. Playing from the rough is a disadvantage because the grass is generally much longer, which may affect the flight of the ball. Grass on the putting green is the shortest and most even, ideally allowing the ball to roll

smoothly over the surface. An entire industry revolves around the development and marketing of grasses for golf courses. Tennis In tennis, grass is grown on very hard-packed soil, and the bounce of a tennis-ball may vary depending on the grass's health, how recently it has been mowed, and the wear and tear of recent play. The surface is softer than hard courts and clay (other tennis surfaces), so the ball bounces lower, and players must reach the ball faster resulting in a different style of play which may suit some players more than others. The most famous grass tennis court in the world is Centre Court at Wimbledon located in England, home of the Wimbledon Championship. This is considered the most expensive lawn in the world.

Fiction
Grass plays a central role in two important science fiction catastrophe novels from the 1940s and 1950s, Ward Moore's Greener Than You Think, in which the world is slowly taken over by unstoppable Bermuda Grass, and John Christopher's The Death of Grass, in which a plague that kills off all forms of grass threatens the survival of the human species
>>>>>>>>
Fodder production under dryland farming. A large proportion of the area of our country is located in the dryland regions. In these areas, the farmers usually grow at least one crop in the rabi season after conserving the soil moisture. Thus there is a great scope for raising two crops under such situations. First, the growing of a fodder crop which gets ready in 45-50 days after sowing (cowpea, jowar, guar, sanwa, moth, etc.), yield 150-250 q per ha of green fodder. After harvesting the fodder crops, crops such as gram, linseed, barley, wheat and safflower are raised on the conserved moisture. GRASSLAND WEALTH OF INDIA According to the land-utilization statistics, the area under permanent pastures and grasslands is 13 million hectares. In addition, there are another 15 million hectares classified as cultivable wasteland, and still another 7-8 million hectares under the saline and alkaline soils. This large area, comprising areas effected by soil acidity, salinity and alkalinity, droughts, floods and ravines, can be utilized for the growing of various fodder species. The grasslands of our country are essentially the monsoon grasslands and the grasses in them show their best biological potential for a period of about four months, after which owing to moisture stress and the advent of winter, the grasses enter dormancy till the next monsoon. The grasslands normally considered to be the cheapest source of animal feed are in a degraded and denuded state because of overgrazing and faulty management over the ages. Thus the amelioration of the natural grasslands and pastures deserve special and careful attention and priority in our drive for increasing forage production. The Grassland Survey carried out by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has led to the recognition of four distinct grass covers in the plains and the lower hills and one at high altitudes. Information, in brief, on these grasslands and their important forage species is given below : (A)Tropical and subtropical grasslands

Four main grass covers have been recognized in the tropical and subtropical parts of the country. Details of the climate, area, rainfall, elevation, soil type, the present level of production and production potential of the four covers are given in Table 6. Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus cover is distributed in northern Gujarat, Rajasthan, excluding, the Aravalli ranges, western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and part of Jammu. The chief forage species are Dichanthium annulatum, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus, Lasiurus sindicus and Sporobolus marginatus. Sehima-Dichanthium is the largest grassland cover and is distributed in the Central Plateau, Chhota Nagpur, the Aravalli ranges, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, south-west Bengal, southern Bihar, the eastern hilly portion of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The dominant forage species are Sehima nevosum, Dichanthium annulatum, Iseilema laxum, Ischaemum indicum, Themeda triandra, Chrysopogon fulvus and Heteropogon contortus. The third, Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata cover mainly consists of tall coarse species exclusively utilized for thatching huts and in rope-making. It is found in the humid and per-humid regions of the Gangetic Plains and in the Brahmaputra Valley. The chief species are Phragmites karka, Saccharum spontaneum, Erianthus munja, Imperata cylindrica. The fourth cover, Themeda-Arundinella is distributed in Manipur, Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir up to an altitude of 2,100 metres. Important economic grass species of this cover are Themeda anathera, Arundinella nepalensis, Chrysopogon fulvus, Heteropogon contortus, etc. Table 6 Production Area Rainfall Soils level (tonnes) (million range type hectares) (mm) Present Potential 20.27 Sehimagrassland 300- Red, black Tropical 72.23 96.32 Dichanthium 36.13 2000 laterite (forest) Sub9.35 Dichanthiumtropical, 45.0 open 100CenchrusAlluvial 63.7 84.7 arid and to forest 450 Lasiurus semi-arid grazing 1.17 300 to Phragmites6.21, Humid and over Undifferentiated Saccharumforest Negligible 9.36 per-humid 4,000 alluvial soil Imperata area mm excluded 0.52 SubThemeda3.7 forest 1,000- Undifferentiated tropical hill 1.96 5.90 Arundinella area 2,000 forest hills soils grasslands excluded 0.23 3.34, 375Can be Temperate Undifferentiated Temperate forest 3,750 1.74 increased alpine cover forest hills soils area mm three-fold excluded Type of grass cover Climate

Table 7. Fodder and forage species suitable for different agro-climatic regions Name of tracts Grasses Legumes Lasirius sindicus Atylosia 1. Western Rajasthan, south-east Cenchrus ciliaris scarabaeoides Punjab, western Gujarat, including

Kutch and western Saurashtra

C. setigerus Panicum antidotale

Rhynchosia minima Dolichos lablab var. lignosus

Cenchrus ciliaris Sehima nervosum Cenchrus setigerus 2. Central Punjab, eastern Rajasthan, Pennisetum pedicellatum western Uttar Pradesh, northern Gujarat, Maharashtra, western Madhya Cynodon Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu plectostachyus Dichanthium and Karnataka plateau annulatum Panicum antidotale Heteropogon contortus Dichanthium annulatum Pennisetum polystachyum Brachiaria 3. Central and eastern Uttar Pradesh, mutica Central Madhya Pradesh, southern B. brizantha Bihar, southern Gujarat, coastal Panicum Andhra Pradesh, and Coastal Tamil maximum Nadu Chloris gayana Cynodon dactylon Pennisetum pedicellatum Dichanthium annulatum Panicum repens Setaria 4. West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, sphacelata eastern Madhya Pradesh, Konkan Urochloa mosambiensis Pennisetum clandestinum Chrysopogon fulvus Dichanthium 5. Lower hills of Himachal Pradesh, annulatum Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, montane tract Iseilema laxum of West Bengal Themeda anathera Arundinellaspp. Lolium perenne L. multiflorum Dactylis 6. High hills of Himachal Pradesh, glomerata Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Festuca Kashmir arundinacea Poa sp. Bromus sp. 7. Saline and alkaline soils of Punjab, Paspalum

Atylosia scarabaeoides Dolichos lablab Clitoric ternatea Stylosanthes humilis Velvet bean Stylosanthes hamata Siratro

Dolichos lablab Stizolobium deeringianum Centrosema pubescens Glycine wightii Stylosanthes gracilis Siratro

Stylosanthes gracilis Phaseolus calcaratus Centrosema pubescens Calapogonium sp. Desmodium sp. Stylosanthes humilis S. gracilis Dolichos lablab Siratro Atylosia scarabaeoides

Trifolium repens T. pratense T. subterraneum Medicago sativa M. falcata Sesbania

notatum P. dilatatum Sporobolus marginatus Desmostachya bipinnata Cynodon dactylon Chloris gayana Dichanthium annulatum Chrysopogon fulvus Cenchrus ciliaris 8. Ravine areas of Uttar Pradesh. C. setigerus Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Pennisetum etc. pedicellatum Heteropogon contortus Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat (B)Alpine, subalpine and temperate regions

aegyptiaca S. aculeata Atriplex sp. Acacia arabica Prosopis cineraria

Dolichos lablab Stizolobium niveum S. deeringianum Pueraria sp.

The temperate alpine cover is found in the high hills of the northern montane belt comprising Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam. The chief forage species are Agropyron spp., Agrostis spp., Dactylis glomerata, Phleum alpinum, Poa pratensis, Festuca ovina, Fetuca rubra and Bromus ramosus Though we have excellent grasses in our natural grasslands, yet owing to the continual use and misuse of grasslands, for centuries in the past, the proportion of perennial species has considerably dwindled, resulting in the preponderance of annual, inferior and less palatable grasses, coupled with a high density of undesirable bushes and shrubs. Thus, these reservoirs of forage require careful attention, care and scientific management. The following steps should be adopted, depending upon the condition of the grassland to be brought under biological improvement. PROTECTION OF GRASSLAND OR CLOSURE TO GRAZING The condition survey of the natural grasslands should be conducted to assess the botanical composition and the overall percentage of grasses present in them. Depending upon the physical statistics, decisions regarding the protection against uncontrolled grazing or complete renovation through reseeding can be taken if it is felt that the desired grasses are not present in good proportion, then, offering protection to such areas would result in an abundance of growth and coverage of the area within 2-3 years through auto-reseeding. For giving protection, fencing the areas is a prerequisite. Though angle-iron poles with barbed wire or woven-wire fencing is costly to begin with, yet it proves economical in the long run. In addition, other types of fencing material, such as cement or stone posts with wire fencing or the live hedge or thorny fencing can be used successfully. The best live-hedge materials are mehndi (Lawsonia alba), jangal jalebi (Inga dulcis), Zizyphus nummularia, Parkinsonia, etc. In the rocky terrain, stones may be stacked to an optimal height to serve as stone-wall fencing. The protected grasslands yield rich dividends in terms of animal gain Bush clearance. The natural grasslands in our country are heavily infested with undesirable bushes, shrubs, etc. These bushes and shrubs compete with grasses for space, light, nutrients, besides being poisonous to the grazing animals and harbouring some carnivorous animals which prove detrimental to economic livestock production and thus considerably reduce the biological yields. Common bushes, namely jharberi (Zizyphus nummularia), Flame of Forest or dhak (Butea monosperma), Carissa spp., Lantana spp. and Mimosa, should be cut manually at ground level and the stumps should be treated with 0.4% solution of 2, 4, 5-T to kill them.

In inaccessible areas or on steep slopes where the complete bush clearance would lead to serious soil erosion and it would be difficult to establish the grass-legume components, very little soil-working is necessary and bush clearance is achieved by the application of Gramoxone. It has been proved beyond doubt that even the protection of grasslands without bush clearance increased the dry grass yields to 5.5 q per ha as compared with 0.8 q per ha from the unprotected area. It has also been demonstrated that the yield of dry grass can be increased to 40-42 q per ha with complete protection and bush clearance whereas the grass yields were of the order of 12.5 q per ha and 5.59 q per ha with, 2,175 and 3,575 bushes per ha respectively. Adoption of soil and water conservation measures. The undulating topography in certain areas and ravine areas poses serious problems in their improvement. In such difficult areas, adequate soil and water-conservation measures, viz. pitting, contour-bunding and contour-furrowing, should be adopted. The spacing may vary according to the steepness of the slope. For 3-4% slopes, contourfurrows, 8-10 metres apart should be opened. The harvesting of rain-water by plugging gullies, streams or nullas, especially in the areas with undulating topography or to put the check bunds at several points on a stream, is done so as to harness water for utilization during the periods of moisture stress (November onwards) for rejuvenating the grasses. Similarly, the low-lying areas vulnerable to frequent floods are drained of excess water and utilized during the periods of moisture stress for increasing fodder yields. Reseeding with better species. Under the completely denuded and worst condition of the grassland, reseeding with better-yielding, adaptable, persistent and aggressive species would become essential. The technique of reseeding is quite simple and can be followed successfully. It involves the following steps : (a) The land is cleared of undesirable bushes. One or two disc harrowings, followed by one planking will give good tilth and land preparation. At the time of the final land preparation, 25-30 cartloads of farmyard manure should be thoroughly mixed with the soil. (b) Grass seeds, being very small, light and with appendages are likely to be washed or blown away by the currents of water or wind. Thus for efficient and easy reseeding, the seed is processed into small pellets which are easy to handle and are less vulnerable to water and wind currents. The seed is worked into a homogenous thick paste, made by mixing three parts of sand, one part of clay, cowdunf and fertilizer, and pellets of convenient size are prepared in such a way that each pellet contains 2 or 3 seeds. (c) Pellets prepared in this way are either placed in shallow furrows opened either with a bullock- or tractor-drawn cultivator at a recommended distance for each species or variety or are broadcast with the onset of the monsoon. Enhancing herbage quality through legumes. The tropical and subtropical grasses at the time of their optimal utilization contain, on an average, 6% crude protein. The nutritive value and palatability of these grasses are increased at least twofold by overseeding them with leguminous forage species. With the introduction of siratro (Macroptilum atropurpureum) and banulthi (Atylosia scarabaeoides), the protein level in dry hay was increased substantially. Thus the inter- and intra-row spaces of the grasses should be utilized by adopting suitable seed-rates of the compatible species of the legumes. Like grasses, the legume seeds are also turned into pellets by the tumbling action of lime so as to protect the rhizobia on them against the acidic action of soil, fertilizers and the injury due to ants, birds and rodents. Use of adequate fertilizers to boost yields. The tropical and subtropical grasses show a good response to the application of nitrogen, but in view of the shortage of chemical fertilizers, farmyard manure and sheep or goat foldings should be used. Their use will not only improve the fertility of this but also its structure, thereby also increasing its water-holding capacity. For instance, an application of 60 kg of N per ha increased the production of hay in the case of spear grass (Heteropogon contortus), sain (Sehima nervosum) and anjan (Cenchrus ciliaris). The hay yields were 64, 50.1 and 47.9 q per ha respectively as compared with 27-30 q per ha given by the controls. Thus the fertilizer

should be applied at least once in 2-3 years, to keep up the grass species in optimum botanical composition and at high production level. Feeding the tree tops during lean periods. All the tropical and subtropical grasses, owing to their faster rate of growth during the monsoon provide grazing for the livestock, mainly in the monsoon and post-monsoon periods. With the advent of winter, and owing to the lack of sufficient moisture in the soil in a ready available form, they enter dormancy. Thus during the lean periods of spring and summer, tree-tops come to the rescue of the livestock-owners. The young leafy, succulent material, highly nutritive and rich in crude protein and minerals, serves as a concentrate, even if fed in small quantities along with other dried grasses and crop residues. The loppings of the trees obtained in spring and summer also contain some substances which bring the animals quickly into the reproduction phase. Some of the important trees giving loppings and producing gum are koo-babul (Leucaena leucocephala) and Sesbania aegyptiaca and Saculeata. The gum content in the seeds of the two species of Sesbania is of superior quality and has a property to reduce the cholesterol content in the blood. These trees, therefore, need immediate attention and may be planted on the boundaries of the fields, in the cattle-yards, etc. to serve as shade-cum-fodder-cum-gum-producing plants. The spacing between the trees should be 6-8 metres or even more in cattle-yards and 5-6 metres on the bunds of the fields. Besides the use of trees on the farm for various purposes the trees are planted in the pastures as companion species with grasses. This practice of growing fodder-cum-fuel-trees in association with the grasses is popularly known as the silvipastural system. Under this system, compatible foddertrees are planted 5-7 metres apart both ways during the monsoon. The fodder from the trees is available after 4-5 years. Under this system, an extra yield of the order of 40-41 q per ha of dry grass (hay) is obtained without affecting the yield and growth of the fodder-trees. For the terrains and difficult areas, some of the fodder-trees that have shown promise and compatibility with the grass species are : Grasses Anjan (Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus) Dhaulu (Chrysopogon fulvus) Sain (Sehima nervosum) Dinanath (Pennisetum pedicellatum)

Trees 1. Israeli babool (Acacia tortilis) 2. Babool (Acacia arabica) 3. Siris (Albizia lebbeck) 4. Unjal (A. amara) A list of the fodder trees is given below : North-Western Region

Acacia tortilis, A. catechu, A. nilotica (Syn. A. arabica), Albizia amara, A. lebbeck, Anogeissus pendula, Azadirachta indica, Capparis spinosa, Dalbergia sissoo, Grewia oppositifolia, Ficus carica, Leucaena leucocephala, Prosopis cineraria, P. juliflora, Quercus incana, Q. semecarpifolia*, Salix tetrasperma*, Robinia psedacacia*, Salvadora oleoides, Dendrocalamus strictus. Indo-Gangetic Plain Acacia nilotica, Acacia tortilis, Albizia amara, A. lebbeck, Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, A. pendula, Azadirachta indica, Artocarpus integrifolia, A. chaplasha, Basia latifolia, Bridelia retusa, Bauhinia spp., Cassia fistula, Cordia dichotoma, Castania sativa*, Dalbergia sissoo, Ehretia laevis, Syzygium cumini (Syn. Eugenia jambolana), Fagus sylvatica*, Ficcus spp., Gmelina arborea, Grewia oppositifolia, Helicteres isora, Kydia calycina, Leucaena leucocephala, Mallotus philippinensis, Millettia auriculata, Moringa pterigosperma, Morus spp., Ougeinia dalbergioides, Musa sapientum, Pithecellobium dulce, Delonix regia, Quercus spp., Schleichera trijuga, Sesbania grandiflora, Terminalia spp., Tamarindus indica, Ulmus wallichiana, Zizyphus jujuba , Dendrocalamus strictus. Central Zone

Adina cordifolia, Abizia lebbeck, Anogeissus spp., Azadirachta indica, Artocarpus integrifolia, Basia latifolia, Bridelia ratusa, Bauhinia spp., Cordia dichotoma, Dalbergia latifolia, Syzygium cumini, Ficcus spp., Gmelina arborea, Gliricida maculata, Hardwickia binata, Kydia calycina, Leucaena leucocephala, Moringa pterigosperma, Morus spp., Ougeinia dalbergioides, Pithecolobium saman, Delonix regia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia spp., Zizyphus jujuba . Coastal Zone Acacia tortilis, Cassia siamea, Tamarix articulata, Albizia amara, Syzygium cumini, Ficcus retusa, Erythrina indica, Ailanthus malabarica. North-Eastern Zone Albizia spp., Bamboos, Artocarpus integrifolia, A. chaplasha, Bauhinia spp., Castania sativa*, Desmodium spp., Fagus sylvatica*, Syzygium cumini, Ficus benghalensis, F. religiosa, Gliricida maculata, Gmelina arborea, Moringa pterigosperma, Morus alba, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Delonix elata, Schleichera oleoides, Terminalia tomentosa, Tinospora cordifolia.

Graminae

Panicum maximum Jacq.

Common names Guinea grass (Australia, United States), zaina, pasto Guinea (Peru), gramalote (Puerto Rico). Description A tufted perennial, often with a shortly creeping rhizome, variable 60-200 cm high, leaf-blades up to 35 mm wide tapering to fine point; panicle 12- 40 cm long, open spikelets 3-3.5 mm long, obtuse, mostly purple red, glumes unequal, the lower one being one-third to one-fourth as long as the spikelet, lower floret usually male (Chippendall, 1955). Upper floret (seed) distinctly transversely wrinkled. Distribution From tropical Africa, but introduced in many countries. Season of growth Summer. Altitude range Sea-level to 2 500 m. Rainfall requirements It requires a rainfall usually in excess of 1 000 mm per year. With a summer dominance, cv. Gatton and creeping Guinea do not tolerate very wet conditions. Range 780-1 797 mm (Russell & Webb, 1976). Drought tolerance It does not tolerate severe drought. On an oxisol at Carimagua, Colombia, it dried the profile to a depth of 60 cm in the dry season, where Andropogon gayanus dried it to

over 120 cm depth (CIAT, 1978). Soil requirements It will grow on a large range of soils, but produces poor stands on infertile types. It is well adapted to sloping, cleared land in rain forest areas where it will support heavy stocking. It will tolerate acid conditions if drainage is good. On an ultisol at Quilichaco, Colombia, P. maximum gave its maximum yield at 70 kg P2O5/ha per year and on an oxisol at Carimagua, Colombia, maximum yields were obtained at 100 kg P2O5/ha (CIAT, 1978). Ability to spread naturally It spreads slowly by seed, but needs fertile soil. Land preparation for establishment Full seed-bed preparation is generally required for Guinea grass establishment. Sowing methods Drilling on the contour in small drill furrows and pressing in with press wheels (Wilson, 1978) gives an excellent stand. Sowing sods at intervals of 0.6 m in rows 1.25 m apart is successful but laborious. In Sri Lanka, it has been found that close planting of P. maximum cuttings (with a spacing of 15 x 45 cm) increases yield. Transplanting of P. maximum seedlings is more reliable than that of root cuttings, especially if they have recently started to show new growth after rain. In Puerto Rico it is also generally sown by clumps of roots (Vicente-Chandler et al., 1953). One hectare will provide material for five hectares of planting. Sowing depth and cover Sowing depth should be no more than 1.5 cm. Rickert (1970) has shown better germination by using a straw mulch at 8 00010 000 kg/ha to cover the surface-sown seed. Sowing time and rate Sow in spring or early summer, so the pasture is established before the extreme heat of summer, at 3-6 kg/ha (1-2 kg for 'Hamil', 3.5-4.5 for 'Common'). Number of seeds per kg. 1 750 000; 1 030 000 ('Hamil'); 2 200 000 (United States). Seed treatment before planting It does not require any special treatment except ageing. Tolerance to herbicides To control weeds in Panicum maximum, atrazine (2- chloro-6-ethylamino-4isopropylamino-1,3,5-triazine) can be used. Gatton panic survived over 4.5 kg AI/ha on the Atherton Tableland, Queensland, whereas most of the associated weeds Nicandra physaloides, Raphanus raphanistrum, Argemone ochraleuca, Ageratum conyzoides, Sida cordifolia and Eleusine indica were killed with the low concentration of 0.9 kg AI/ha (Hawton, 1976). Panicum maximum is a major weed itself in sugar-cane fields, due to its ability to grow under poor conditions. It can be killed by a pre-

emergent spray of 2,4-D sodium salt at 4.5 kg/ha of an 840 g AI/kg product (e.g. Hormicide). No wetting agent is required when used as a pre-emergent spray. Use a minimum of 340 litres of water per hectare. For seedlings in the five-leaf stage, use Diuron at 2.5 kg/ha of an 800 g AI/kg product (Karmex, Diuron) applied in a minimum of 340 litres of water per hectare. For mature plants use 2,2-DPA at 2.3 kg of a 740 g AI/kg product (Shirpon, Dowpon) plus paraquat at 85 ml of a 200 g AI/litre product (e.g. Gramoxone) plus wetting agent at 250 ml per 200 litres of water. Spray to the point of runoff (Tilley, 1977). Seedling vigour It has good seedling vigour. Response to defoliation Guinea grass stands a good deal of defoliation but should not be grazed or cut below about 30 cm for permanence (McLeod, 1972). Grazing management In the wet tropics it is necessary to let this pasture become well-established before grazing so that it can compete with weeds. Guinea usually seeds in autumn; do not graze a new pasture until after this seeding period. Guinea cannot be grazed below 35 cm, or it will recover slowly. Adjust the stocking rate to maintain this height. Rotational grazing will give better control of pasture growth. Mowing or slashing is useful to control excess growth and weeds, but do not mow below 35 cm, and not after mid-autumn, as it will give slow regrowth and encourage winter weeds. Do not graze under extremely wet conditions, as trampling damages pastures growing in boggy ground. Response to fire It is tolerant of fire. Dry-matter and green-matter yields In the year 1973/74 at South Johnstone, Queensland, cv. Makueni produced more than 60 000 kg DM/ha when 300 kg/ha of nitrogen was applied (Middleton & McCosker, 1975). Vicente-Chandler, Silva and Figarella (1959) obtained 26 846 kg DM/ha with 440 kg N/ha, cut at 40-day intervals, in Puerto Rico. Suitability for hay and silage It has been used successfully for silage at Mpwapwa, Tanzania (Semple, 1970). Silage was also made in Brazil (Cezar et al., 1976), Nigeria (Miller, Clifton & Cameron, 1963) and Australia (Teitzel, 1969). It also makes useful hay in Thailand (Ghl, 1975). Value as a standover or deferred feed 'Hamil' and 'Coloniao' Guinea grasses are reasonably palatable when mature, and provide good roughage to use in conjunction with urea molasses licks. Toxicity No clear-cut evidence of toxicity with this grass is recorded by Everist (1974). Ndyanabo (1974) recorded 0.28 percent of total oxalic acid in the dry matter but no toxicity.

Seed yield Javier (1970) recorded 48-156 kg/ha; Paretas et al. (1972), 395 kg/ha from three cuts in Cuba; Fernando (1958),100 kg/ha in Sri Lanka. Cultivars

'Hamil Panic'

seed obtained from Jack Hamil of Daintree, north Queensland, its source unknown. A tall, tufted perennial to 2.5-3 m, more robust and coarser then 'Common Guinea' and more like 'Coloniao'. Dense, stiff hairs on the basal leaf-sheath distinguish it from 'Coloniao'. Leaves blue-green, less hairy than 'Common Guinea'. Adapted to frost-free, warm conditions and fertile scrub soils. Grows vigorously during the wet season, when it is very palatable but is less so as it hays off. Seed set is poor. Probably apomictic.

'Coloniao'

a giant robust type with thick, fleshy stems growing to 3 m. The leaves are a distinct blue-green, 80-90 cm long and 25-30 mm broad, glabrous, the sheath is glabrous, except for short hairs on the sheath margin toward the junction of sheath and blade. The seed-head is 20-50 cm long, 1540 cm wide, dark green, and the spikelet (seed) outer glume is glabrous (Middleton & McCosker, 1975).

'Embu' (creeping Guinea)

has a semi-erect, rambling habit, rooting freely from the nodes, producing aerial roots from the lower nodes. It grows to 1-1.5 m. The leaves are light green to green, the leaf-blades have a few short surface hairs, and are 20-30 cm long and 12-16 mm wide. There are occasional short hairs on the leaf surface, and sparse short hairs on the lower outside of the sheath near the node junction; occasional hairs on the lower stem internodes. The panicle is 15-20 cm long, 12-15 cm wide, green, and the spikelet outer glume is glabrous (Middleton & McCosker, 1975). Has good winter growth and is a leafy, light-seeded cultivar.

'Common Guinea' (common Guinea grass)

medium height 1.8-2 m, erect canopy, fine stems, green leaves 70-80 cm long, 15-18 mm wide, sparsely hairy upper surface, few on lower surface, sheaths moderately hairy on outside surface, density increasing toward node. Stems hairless, panicle 1540 cm long, 12-30 cm wide, green. Spikelet outer glume hairless. It is the most widely used cultivar, but variable, and cv. Riversdale was selected to replace it.

'Coarse Guinea'

giant, robust, with thick woody stems, 2.5-3 m high, dark green leaves, 80-90 cm long, 25-30 mm wide, sparse to moderately dense, short hairs giving rough feel to the leaf. Moderately dense, long, stiff bristle hairs on outside surface, increasing in density toward the junction of blade and leaf. Sheath painful to handle. Sow 'Hamil' together with 'Coarse Guinea' to make it easier for stock to penetrate (Walsh, 1959).

'Gatton Panic'

derived from seed introduced from Zimbabwe. Less robust and not as coarse as cv. Hamil, but more robust than 'Petrie' (green panic, P. maximum var. trichoglume). It has broader and longer leaves, with a more prominent midrib and more scabrid margins than green panic, and its spikelets are glabrous. Adapted to 760-1 000 mm rainfall. A little more vigorous, drought resistant, and persistent and more palatable than green panic, flowers later and responds better to nitrogen. Apomictic. The seed

takes on a silver sheen when mature. Harvest when 80 percent has silver sheen and 510 percent seed has shattered. 1 401 000 seeds per kilogram.

'Makueni'

introduced from Kenya in 1965, it has given better cool- season growth than other Guinea grasses. It is easily distinguished from other Guinea grasses because the whole plant is covered with dense, whitish, soft hairs, giving it a furry feel. The outer seed coat is also hairy and can be so distinguished under magnification. It is very like the seed of green panic and can only be identified after germination. 'Makueni' is erect, tufted, with the leaf canopy slightly drooping, and is not so tall es 'Hamil', 'Coloniao' end 'Coarse Guinea'. It is readily grazed and gives good live-weight gains (Middleton & McCosker, 1975). Not as productive as cv. Riversdale, and is difficult to establish in the presence of weed competition (Teitzel & Middleton, 1979). 1 143 000 seeds per kilogram.i

'Likoni Guinea'

recommended for the high-rainfall areas (1 0001 270 mm) on the Kenya coastal strip in association with Macroptilium atropurpureum and Neonotonia wightii.

'Ntchisi'

used in Zambia and propagated by vegetative planting material (Thorp, 1979). Stems hairless, panicle 20-60 cm long, 15-40 cm wide, distinctive dark brown colour, spikelet outer glume hairless (Middleton & McCosker, 1975).

'Riversdale'

a selection from 'Common Guinea' to be continued as a certified seed line (Middleton, 1977).

'Local' or 'Common'

resistant to drought and heavy grazing. Suitable for drier areas.

'Gramalote'

a robust form in more humid areas, but always infested with leaf spot.

'Borinquen', 'Broad-leaf' and 'Fine-leaf'

under test.

'Silky Guinea'

a very leafy type for drier areas.

'St Mary's Cowgrass'

more robust and stemmy, grown in more humid parts. In Mauritius, cv. Sigor was highly productive, nutritious and drought resistant (Wright, 1961). In Brazil, 'Common' is the ordinary robust form; and 'Sempre-verde' (P. maximum var. gongylodes) is a fine-leaved, drought-resistant type with the base of the culms expanded. Diseases

Bunt has interfered with Guinea grass seed production in Kenya in the Rift Valley (Semple, 1970). In Puerto Rico a leaf spot is caused by Cercospora fusimaculosus. In Colombia the inflorescence has been attacked by Fusarium spp. and a smut (Ustilago sp.) (CIAT, 1978). Main attributes Its wide adaptation, quick growth and palatability, ease of establishment from seed and good response to fertilizers (Harding, 1972). Main deficiencies 'Common Guinea' has two main weaknesses: the bulk of its growth occurs in summer and, in recent years, commercial Guinea grass seed has been contaminated with less desirable types, such as 'Coarse Guinea'. Rapid summer growth and quick subsequent deterioration result in management difficulties (Hartley, 1950). Optimum temperature for growth The mean range is 19.1-22.9C (Russell & Webb, 1976). Minimum temperature for growth Mean temperature for the coldest month ranges from 5.4-14.2C (Russell & Webb, 1976). Frost tolerance It will not tolerate heavy frosts, but recovers from light frosts with the return of warm weather. Latitudinal limits 16.3-28.7N and S (Russell & Webb, 1976)., Response to light It is fairly tolerant of shading, and in its natural habitat inhabits woodlands throughout subhumid Africa. Ability to compete with weeds In the wet tropics, weed competition is severe. However, a well-established Guinea grass pasture, well-fertilized, will suppress weeds. Maximum germination and quality required for sale 25 percent germinable seed; 40 percent purity in Queensland. Germinate at 20-35C, moistened in water. Germination is promoted by light (Ballard, 1964). Palatability It is very palatable. Response to photoperiod

It is a short-day plant (Wang, 1961). Chemical analysis and digestibility In Costa Rica, analysis of flowering material revealed 7.81 percent crude protein, 30.62 percent crude fibre, 40.88 percent nitrogen-free extract, 2.33 percent ether extract and 8.36 percent ash in the dry matter on a 10 percent moisture basis (Gonzalez & Pacheco, 1970). Ghl (1975) has records from Tanzania, Malaysia and Thailand with crude protein varying from 5.3 to 25 percent of the dry matter.s Natural habitat Grassland and open woodland and shady places. Tolerance to flooding It does not tolerate waterlogging. Fertilizer requirements The optimum content of phosphorus in the dry matter was determined by Falade (1975) as 0.185 percent. Inoculation with Spirillum lipoferum increased yield by 480 kg DM/ha without nitrogen and 1 021, 1 690 and 1 930 kg/ha with 20, 40 and 80 kg N/ha, respectively (Quesenberry et al., 1976). Phosphorus at 24 kg/ha and nitrogen at 137 kg/ha are required in north Queensland, but soil fertilizer experiments are required to diagnose needs on various soils. Hendrick concluded that at nitrogen levels above 45 kg/ha, phosphorus and potassium may become limiting to P. maximum in western Nigeria (Ademosun, 1973). It tolerates high aluminium (Spain, 1979). Compatibility with other grasses and legumes Guinea combines well with the legume centro (Centrosema pubescens) and this is a common pasture mixture for the wet tropics. In Brazil, 'Coloniao' Guinea, centro and siratro are used successfully. Guinea and Stylosanthes guianensis is a successful mixture. Puero and glycine also combine well. Genetics and reproduction The somatic chromosome numbers are 2n=18, 32, 48 (Fedorov, 1974). It is a facultative apomict in which both apospory and pseudogamy occur (Warmke, 1954, quoted by Javier, 1970). The amount of sexual reproduction varies from 1-5 percent depending on the variety. Seed production and harvesting Seed ripens unevenly, and is shed as it matures. Javier (1970), in the Philippines, found the highest seed yield (19 percent recovery) was obtained when the panicle had shed 40-60 percent of its spikelets, which occurred about 12 to 14 days from panicle emergence. Harvesting is usually done by direct heading. Animal production Cultivar Makueni and common Guinea grass are capable of giving live-weight gains of up to 0.8 kg per animal per day (Middleton & McCosker, 1975). The selection (cv. Riversdale) from common Guinea grass consistently gave in excess of 600 kg/ha annual live-weight gain in association with legumes in north Queensland (Middleton, 1977). In So Paulo State, south-central Brazil, with an annual rainfall of 1 154 mm, of which 80 percent occurs in summer, an annual live-weight gain from Nellore strain Zebu steers of 241 kg/ha was obtained from unfertilized 'Coloniao' Guinea grass, and a

mean of 586 kg/ha from a similar pasture fertilized with 200 kg N/ha annually over a seven-year period. Basic phosphorus and sulphur were applied. Application of nitrogen during the cool season gave earlier marketing to obtain a 15-30 percent higher price, but time of application had no overall advantage in live-weight gain. Richards (1965) in Jamaica recorded annual live-weight gains ranging from 816-1 262 kg/ha from irrigated Guinea grass fertilized with 158 kg N/ha per year. At Utchee Creek, near South Johnstone in north Queensland, at a stocking rate of 4.2 beasts per hectare, first year annual live-weight gain increased from 377.4 kg/ha on Guinea grass alone, to 464.4 kg/ha with the inclusion of the legume Centrosema pubescens. A further increase to 601.1 kg/ha was obtained by the addition of 169.5 kg/ha of nitrogen. In the second year the corresponding live-weight gains for pure Guinea grass, Guinea grass/ centro and Guinea grass with nitrogen were 315, 481 and 731 kg/ha respectively. Each kilogram of applied nitrogen produced an average of 3.96 kg of live-weight gain (Grof & Harding, 1970). In a comparison of cultivars at South Johnstone, the average annual live-weight gains per hectare were 756 kg for 'Common Guinea', 698 kg for 'Hamil' and 633 kg for 'Coloniao' over three years. Cultivar Embu pastures did not persist (Mellor, Hibberd & Grof, 1973a). An irrigated Guinea grass/centro pasture at Ayr, north Queensland, under 41 weeks' grazing with shorthorn beef cattle gave a daily live-weight gain of 0.68 kg per head. From January to March, gains fell due to high day temperatures and high humidity (Allen & Cowdry, 1961). In the Solomon Islands, Gutteridge and Whiteman (1978) obtained a yield of 11 700 kg/ha per year from a mixture of P. maximum cv. Hamil and Centrosema pubescens, under coconuts. p Dormancy The quality of the seed improves for some months after harvest. Value for erosion control Its great bulk aids in erosion control, but its generally tussocky growth (except for cv. Embu) makes it less valuable than other species. Tolerance to salinity It has little tolerance.

Panicum maximum

Guinea grass(Panicum maximum), Tengeru near Arusha in Tanzania.

Photo by S. Reynolds.

Embu guinea grass (Panicum maximum) under coconuts in Vanuatu Photo by H. M. Shelton

Panicum maximum seed being collected by hand in Northeast Thailand Photo by H. M. Shelton

Photo by Max Shelton

Cattle grazing Guinea grass under coconuts, Samoa. Photo by S. Reynolds

Panicum maximum cv Tanzania in grazing trials at Southeast EMBRAPA Cattle, Brazil Photo by S. Reynolds

Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) and centro (Centrosema pubescens) in Vanuatu Photo by H. M. Shelton

Panicum maximum cv. Tanzania grown for haylage, Brazil Photo by S. Reynolds

Panicum maximum, South Africa Photo by J.E. Victor

Scientific name
Panicum maximum Jacq.

Synonyms
Megathyrsus maximus (Jacq.) B.K. Simon & S.W.L. Jacobs Urochloa maxima (Jacq.) R.D.Webster Panicum hirsutissimum Steud. Panicum maximum Jacq. var. hirsutissimum (Steud.) Oliv. Megathyrsus maximus var. coloratus (C.T. White) B.K. Simon & S.W.L. Jacobs Panicum maximum var. coloratum C.T. White Megathyrsus maximus var. pubiglumis (K. Schum.) B.K. Simon & S.W.L. Jacobs Panicum maximum Jacq. var. pubiglume K. Schum. Panicum maximum Jacq. var. trichoglume Robyns Urochloa maxima var. trichoglumis (Robyns) R.D. Webster

Family/tribe
Family: Poaceae (alt. Gramineae) subfamily: Panicoideae tribe: Paniceae.

Common names
General: Guinea grass, Tanganyika grass , buffalograss (English speaking countries); hhash el gn (Arab countries); pasto guinea, mijo de guinea (Argentina); capim guine, capim-colonio, capim de Angola, capim de feixe, erva da Guine' (Brazil); ratatana, giniopilli (Ceylon); da shu, yang cao (China); talapi, tinikarati (Cook Islands); suur hirss (Estonia); capime guin, fataque, herbe de guine, panic lev (French speaking countries); guineagras (German speaking countries), giiniigaas, gini ghaus gini hullu (India); rumput banggala, rumput gajah, suket londo (Indonesia); erba di guinea (Italian speaking countries); ginea kibi (Japan); rebha luh-buluhan, rumput benggala, rumput sarang sesak (Malaysia), gini ghans (Nepalese); zaina, pasto guinea (Peru); gramalote (Puerto Rico); gewone buffelsgras (South Africa); ya-kinni (Thailand); saafa (Tonga), gyana otu (Turkey); vao kini (Samoa); hierba de india

(Venezuela); co k to (Vietnam). Short types: Panic, green panic, (Australia), slender guinea grass (Kenya); castilla (Peru).

Morphological description
An extremely variable species, loosely to densely tufted, shortly rhizomatous, erect or geniculately ascending, rooting at the lower nodes. Leaf blades linear to narrowly lanceolate. Panicle open, oblong or pyramidal, with secondary branches well developed and flexuous. Spikelets oblong, blunt or acute , rounded on the back. Because of the morphological and agronomic variability, the species will be treated here as 2 broad types: Tall/medium (TM) type - tussock , mostly >1.5 m in flower. Short (S) type - tussock , mostly <1.5 m in flower. TM types: robust perennials (sometimes annuals or short-lived perennials), 1.5-3.5 m tall, with stems to about 10 mm diameter. Leaves glabrous to hairy, 40-100 cm long, 1-3.5 (rarely -5) cm wide, tapering to fine point. Panicle , 12-45 (-60) cm long, and 1225 (-30) cm wide, spikelets 2.5-3 (-5) mm long; 700,000-2 million seeds/kg. S types: lower growing perennials, of less robust appearance than the TM types, usually 0.5-1.5 (occasionally -1.8) m tall and with stems to about 5 mm diameter. Leaves glabrous to hairy, to 1.4 cm wide. Panicle 18-20 cm long and 15-18 cm wide, spikelets 2.5-3.5 mm long; 1.5 million seeds/kg.

Distribution
Native to: Africa: Angola, Benin, Botswana, Cameroon, Cote D'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Indian Ocean : Madagascar, Mauritius. Asia: Yemen. Widely naturalised in the tropics. Grows naturally in open grasslands, usually under or near trees and shrubs, and along riverbanks.

Uses/applications
Long term pasture if fertility maintained. Ideal for cut-and-carry, although bristly types may cause discomfort to forage collector. Suited

to agroforestry due to shade tolerance. Reasonably palatable when mature, providing good roughage for use in conjunction with urea molasses licks. Has been used successfully for making silage and hay .

Ecology
Soil requirements
P. maximum grows in most soil types providing they are well-drained, moist and fertile, although some varieties are tolerant of lower fertility and poorer drainage. Tolerance of low soil pH and high Al+++ saturation is also variable. 'Vencedor' and 'Centenrio' were bred for these tolerances; other varieties require liming on acid ultisols and oxisols for best results. The species is generally intolerant of waterlogging or salinity.

Moisture
TM varieties are mostly grown in areas with annual rainfall above 1,000 mm, while S varieties are planted in areas with 800 mm or less. Drought tolerance varies among cultivars, although generally they do not tolerate dry periods longer than 4 or 5 months. Tolerant of short term flooding by moving water.

T o p

Temperature
Occurs from sea level to >2,000 m. Temperature response varies with genotype. S varieties are generally less affected by cooler temperatures than are many of the TM varieties, producing good early season growth. TM varieties generally produce most growth in the middle of the warm season, and although this varies somewhat with accession /cultivar, this type is not recommended for the subtropics or high altitude tropics.

Light
Grows well in full sunlight but has been recorded as growing better at 30% shade, although yields are reduced by half at 50% shade. Some varieties recognised for ability to grow in shaded conditions, e.g. 'Embu', 'Petrie'.

Reproductive development
Flowering triggers apparently vary with provenance or cultivar, some producing a single flush of flowering ('Mombaa', 'Tanzania', 'Tobiat') while others ('Centauro', 'Vencedor') may produce 2-3 flushes. 'Makueni' and 'Riversdale' are indeterminate , while 'Hamil'

and 'Colonio' are short day plants. 'Petrie' and 'Gatton' are largely insensitive to daylength, and flower from early summer to late autumn in the subtropics.

Defoliation
Susceptible to frequent low cutting. For long-term maintenance of stand, TM varieties should not be cut or grazed below about 30 cm, and should be cut or grazed at about 4-weekly intervals to obtain best balance between quality and quantity. S varieties can be grazed lower, but still are better under a rotational regime.

Fire
Fire does not cause long-term damage.

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Agronomy
Guidelines for the establishment and management of sown pastures.

Establishment
Germination should be tested, since seed of some genotypes may not reach maximum germination until up to 18 months after harvest, while others may take only a few months. Dormancy can be overcome by removal of glumes from fresh seed. Seed can be drilled or broadcast at 2-3 kg/ha, and being a small seed, should be planted at no more than 1 cm deep. Rolling after sowing improves germination and establishment. P. maximum can also be established from rooted tillers (or cuttings with thick stemmed varieties) planted on the contour every 0.5-0.6 m in rows 1.25-1.5 m apart, or as close as 40 cm in a triangular pattern if a faster cover is required.

Fertiliser
Establishment fertiliser is necessary on infertile soils, using 20-40 kg/ha P, and about 50 kg/ha N if limited cultivation prior to planting. Maintenance fertiliser is needed for pure grass swards especially in cut-and-carry systems. Inadequate N will lead to weakening of the stand and invasion by less desirable species. Maintenance dressings of 200-400 kg/ha/yr N are required to promote healthy, productive stands on less fertile soils. Soils with a pH <5 require addition of lime to raise pH to 5.5-6.

Compatibility (with other species)

Combines well with twining legumes under light grazing. As these legumes are generally less tolerant of grazing than the grass, the

legume component declines and weeds increase under heavier grazing. P. maximum should not be planted with less palatable grasses. This leads to selection and decline of the P. maximum . It can be grown successfully under open forest or plantation due to shade tolerance.

Companion species
Grasses: Chloris gayana . Legumes: Centrosema pubescens , Pueraria phaseoloides , Macroptilium atropurpureum , Neonotonia wightii , Stylosanthes guianensis , S. capitata, S. macrocephala , Leucaena leucocephala . S varieties, which are often grown on less acid soils in lower rainfall subtropical environments, may be grown with Clitoria ternatea , Desmanthus leptophyllus , D. virgatus , and Medicago sativa .

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Pests and diseases

Ergot (Claviceps spp.), and other fungal diseases, Conidiospormyces ayresii, Fusarium roseum, and Tilletia sp., can reduce seed yields when conditions are favourable to the pathogen. Seed production has also been adversely affected by a smut (Ustilago sp.) in Colombia and bunt in the Rift Valley of Kenya. A leaf spot caused by Cercospora fusimaculosus has been recorded in Puerto Rico. Spittlebug (English), cigarrinha (Brazil), chicharrita (Argentina), salivazo (Colombia) (Notozulia entreriana, Deois flavopicta, D. incompleta, Mahanarva spp., Aeneolamia reducta, A. selecta (Homoptera, Cercopidae) affects some cultivars in tropical America. 'Colonio', 'Tobiat', 'Vencedor' and 'Gatton' are very susceptible to spittlebug attack.

Ability to spread
As guinea grass is reasonably palatable, spread is minimal or slow under grazed conditions. It is a very effective coloniser in ungrazed areas, particularly where some form of soil disturbance has occurred.

Weed potential
P. maximum spreads along water courses and ungrazed roadsides, and has been listed as a weed in many countries. It is a major weed in sugar-cane fields, due to its ability to grow under shaded conditions.

Feeding value
Nutritive value
IVDMD from 64% (2 week regrowth) to 50% (8 week regrowth). Crude
T o p

protein from 6-25% depending on age and N supply. Seasonally, CP values in 12 week old regrowth commonly range from 5-10%, P levels from 0.15-0.18%, Ca from 0.6-0.8% and Na from 0.07-0.12%.

Palatability/acceptability
P. maximum is well eaten by all classes of grazing livestock, with particularly high intakes of young leafy growth. It is also used for feeding fish in Vietnam.

Toxicity
In South Africa, it is suspected of causing "dikoor" in sheep, a photosensitisation disease, perhaps linked to smut infection. The plant is also said to cause fatal colic if eaten too wet or in excess. 'Petrie' has been implicated in hyperparathyroidism ('big head') in horses, and occasionally nephrosis or hypocalcaemia in ruminants, due to oxalate accumulation.

Production potential
Dry matter
Commonly (10-) 20-30 (-60) t/ha DM, depending on variety and growing conditions (particularly if high levels of N applied).

Animal production
Can achieve up to 0.8 kg/hd/day LWG and up to 1,200 kg/ha/yr LWG (commonly 300-500 kg/ha/yr LWG ) depending primarily on stocking rate and N fertiliser rate.

T o p

Genetics/breeding
2n = 18, 32, 36, 48. A facultative apomict in which both apospory and pseudogamy occur. The amount of sexual reproduction generally varies from 1-5 percent depending on the variety, although sexual lines have been identified.

Seed production
Best in environments with longer day lengths and distinct dry seasons. Seed ripens unevenly, and is shed as it matures. Highest seed yield (19 percent recovery) obtained when the panicle has shed 40-60 percent of its spikelets, which occurs about 12-14 days from panicle emergence. Direct heading is less efficient in terms of seed recovery than mowing, windrowing and sweating. Yields of 50-100 kg pure seed yield are common from machine harvest, and around 200

kg/ha from ground sweeping, although higher yields have been recorded.

Herbicide effects
Atrazine can be used for weed control in P. maximum at 4 L/ha. 'Gatton' can tolerate over 4.5 kg/ha AI of atrazine, whereas common weeds such as Nicandra physaloides, Raphanus raphanistrum, Argemone ochraleuca, Ageratum conyzoides, Sida cordifolia and Eleusine indica are killed at 0.9 kg/ha AI. Broadleaf weeds can be controlled using a pre-emergent spray (no wetting agent required) of 2,4-D sodium salt at 4.5 kg/ha of an 840 g/kg AI product using a minimum of 340 L/ha of water. P. maximum is susceptible to glyphosate and readily controlled by drizzle applications. Young plants are susceptible to selective grass -killers, and to diuron at 2.5 kg/ha of an 800 g/kg AI. Mature plants can also be killed using 2,2-DPA at 2.3 kg of a 740 g/kg AI product plus paraquat at 85 ml of a 200 g/litre AI product plus wetting agent at 250 ml per 200 litres of water, spraying to point of runoff.

Strengths

Very leafy. High quality feed. High production potential . Readily eaten by all stock. Suited to grazing and cutting. Drought tolerant. Early season growth in some lines.
T o p

Limitations

Requires fertile soils. Intolerant of waterlogging . Intolerant of heavy grazing. Becomes stemmy if not cut or grazed frequently.

Other comments Selected references

Bogdan, A.V. (1977) Tropical Pasture and Fodder Plants (Grasses and Legumes). pp. 181-191. (Longman: London and

New York). Chen, C.P. and Hutton, E.M. (1992) Panicum maximum Jacq. InIn: 't Mannetje, L. and Jones, R.M. (eds) Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 4. Forages . pp. 172-174. (Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen, the Netherlands). Clayton, W.D. and Renvoize, S.A. (1982) Gramineae (Part 3). In: R.M. Polhill (ed.) Flora of tropical East Africa. A.A. Balkema on behalf of the East African Governments, Rotterdam, Netherlands. Gibbs Russell, G.E., Watson, L., Koekemoer, M., Smook, L., Barker, N.P., Anderson, H.M. and Dallwitz, M.J. (1990) `Grasses of Southern Africa.' Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa No. 58 . Botanical Research Institute: Pretoria. Grof, B. and Harding, W.A.T. (1970) Dry matter yields and animal production of guinea grass (Panicum maximum ) on the humid tropical coast of North Queensland. Tropical Grasslands, 4, 8595. Harty, R.L., Hopkinson, J.M., English, B.H. and Alder, J. (1983) Germination, dormancy and longevity in stored seeds of Panicum maximum . Seed Science & Technology, 11, 341351. Hutton, E.M. (1989) Breeding acid soil tolerant lines of the tropical grass Panicum maximum Jacq. Proceedings of the XVI International Grassland Congress, Nice, France. pp. 355-356. Mannetje, L.'t and Kersten, S.M.M. (1992) Panicum maximum Jacq. var. trichoglume Robyns. In: Mannetje, L. 't and Jones, R.M. (eds) Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 4. Forages. pp. 174-176. (Pudoc Scientific Publishers. Wageningen, the Netherlands). McCosker, T.H., and Teitzel, J.K. (1976) A review of guinea grass (Panicum maximum ) for the wet tropics of Australia. Tropical Grasslands, 9, 177-190. Middleton, C.H. and McCosker, T.H. (1975) Makueni, a new guinea grass for North Queensland. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 101, 351-355. Savidan, Y.H., Jank, L. and Costa, J.C.G. (1990) Registro de 25 acessos selecionados de Panicum maximum . (Register of 25

selected accessions of Panicum maximum ) Embrapa Gado de Corte, Documentos, 44, 68 p. il.

Internet links
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000278.htm http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=398&fr=1&sts http://www.boidecorte.com.br/scripts/informativo/pastagens/gramineas .asp http://www.pi.csiro.au/ahpc/grasses/pdf/riversdale.pdf http://www.pi.csiro.au/ahpc/grasses/pdf/hamil.pdf http://www.ovinosecia.com.br/Capim_Aruana.htm http://www.seedtest.org/upload/cms/user/Abstract780.pdf http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Panicum_maximum .html http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=398&fr=1&sts= Feeding value http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/AFRIS/Data/118.HTM http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/ctahr2001/InfoCenter/Forages/grasses/03 bNatsukaze_guinea.html

Cultivars
Cultivars Country/dat e released Details

TM types 'Aries' Brazil (Matsuda, 2003) Hybrid between LSC2 ('Centauro') as the seed parent and 'Aruana' (creeping type). 1.2-1.5 m tall. More tolerant of poor drainage and very low grazing (horses and sheep). Rapid regrowth after cutting/ grazing. Can produce >1 t/ha/yr seed in 3 harvests. Hybrid. Sexual types from 'Tobiat' crossed with K-68 from Ivory Coast. 1.5-2 m tall. Tolerant of high Al saturation, giving deeper

'Atlas'

Brazil (Matsuda, 2003)

root system and greater drought tolerance. Seed yields up to 600 kg/ha from a single harvest. 'Centenrio' Brazil (1986) Hybrid. Perennial to 2 m tall. Drought tolerant. Tolerant of high Al saturation. Resistant to spittlebug. IAC* apomictic hybrid between Zimbabwean 'Katerere' and the sexual line 40 (derived from PI 277944). 1.2 m tall, narrow, medium length, dark green leaves and a bluish stem, which, like the leaves, sheaths and ligules, is glabrous; good frost tolerance , moderate fertility soils. The oldest accession of P. maximum in Brazil, brought with the slaves in the sixteenth century. Perennial 2.0-2.5 (-3.0) m tall; glaucous stems to >1 cm diameter. Leaves greygreen, 80-90 cm long, 2.53 cm wide; leaf sheath glabrous, except for few short hairs near collar. Panicle 20-50 cm long, 15-30 cm wide. Drought tolerant. Susceptible to spittlebug. A giant form, 2.0-3.0 (-4) m tall, rooting freely from stem nodes in contact with

'Centauro'

Brazil (1988)

'Colonio' (BRA004723, BRA-003824, BRA-003841)

Brazil

'Hamil' (BRA004731,

Australia (1956)

ORSTOM G76)

moist soil; more robust and coarser in appearance than common types, comparable to 'Colonio' type but with dense, stiff hairs on the basal leafsheath. Leaf blades are softly hairy, and upright. Drought tolerant. Well accepted by cattle, even when mature. Late flowering, commencing flowering early to mid-April at 26S. Seed set is poor but is rather higher than in most other varieties. Seeds about 2.3-2.5 mm long, ellipsoidal, straw-coloured, 1,600,000 per kg. Paran, Brazil (1999) From Nairobi, Kenya, large tussocks to 1.65 m tall, leaves long, to 3.5 cm wide, with dense coarse short hairs on leaf blades and sheath. For wellfertilised, production intensive systems. A selection and purification to achieve the botanic "typus" of 'Colonio'; leaves: broad, dark green to blue, with a white wax on the upper surface. Similar to 'Hamil' in plant height and leaf width, but with glabrous leaf sheath. Recommended for the high-rainfall areas (1,000-1,270 mm) on the

'IPR 86 Milnio' (ORSTOM K249, BRA006998)

'IZ 1' (Acc. No 80)

Brazil

'Likoni' (K 5829, ORSTOM G26, BRA004375)

Kenya/Ugand a (1952)

Kenya coastal strip. Also used in Cuba. 'Makueni' Kenya (early 1960s) Australia (1973) From Makueni, Kenya (1 47'S, 37 37'E, 1,200 m asl, rainfall 910 mm). More robust than common types, but less robust and finer stemmed than giant cultivars, 'Hamil' and 'Colonio'; grows to 1.8-2.4 m in height and with occasional short stolons. Leaves to 80-100 cm long, 18-22 mm wide, less erect than in 'Hamil', 'Colonio' and common. Distinguished from these varieties by virtue of dense hairiness of leaf blade, sheath, exposed stem and spikelet. Inflorescence about the same size as that of 'Colonio', larger than common guinea and smaller than in 'Hamil'; outer glumes of the spikelet covered in short dense hairs' while those of other varieties are glabrous; spikelets 3.0-3.5 mm long. Annual dry matter yields are similar to those of other cultivars but higher (up to 25% of its total yield) in the cool season, compared with 20% for common and 15% for 'Colonio' and 'Hamil'. From near Korogwe, Tanzania (5.20S 38.50E, 290 m asl, rainfall 1,050 mm). Large tussocks to

'Mombaa' (IRD/ORSTO M K190A, BRA-006645,

Brazil (1993)

CIAT 6962)

1.65 m, stems tinged with purple. Leaves long, to 3 cm wide, with short hairs on the upper surface; leaf sheaths glabrous. Hand harvested clean seed yield ca 140 kg/ha (av.7yrs). High resistance to spittlebug. Good drought and cold tolerance. Dry matter yield 28% more than that of 'Tanzania-1'. Liveweight gains of 770 kg/ha/yr compared with 600, and 590 kg/ha/yr from 'Tanzania-1' and 'Tobiat'. South Africa Japan (1985) Origin northern Transvaal. Hybrid (tetraploid 2n = 32) from Kyushu National Agricultural Experiment Station, Kumamoto, Japan. Erect, leafy, annual/short-lived perennial to about 2 m tall; 85% apomictic. Selected for early growth vigour and high dry matter yield. High resistance to root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). Hybrid (tetraploid 2n = 32; apomict) from Kyushu National Agricultural Experiment Station, Kumamoto, Japan. Semierect, tufted perennial to ca 2 m, rooting freely from stem nodes when in contact with or in close proximity to moist

'Mutale' 'Natsukaze'

'Natsuyataka'

Japan (1988)

soil. Leaf sheaths largely glabrous. Similar in appearance to 'Gatton'. Selected for persistence and high dry matter yields. Good regrowth after cutting. Adapted to welldrained fertile or moderately fertile soils in humid subtropical and tropical environments. Best on acid soils (pH 4.86.7). Early growth is slower than in 'Natsukaze' but equal to that of 'Gatton' and 'Petrie'. 'N(t)chisi' Kenya, Malawi, Zambia Giant type, stems hairless, panicle distinctive dark brown colour. Used in Zambia and Malawi, often propagated vegetatively. Recommend ed for cut-and-carry systems. No information available. Tall, erect, tufted perennial with a few short creeping rhizomes. Selected from 'Common' to remove 'coarse guinea' contaminant. Leaves held more erect than those of 'Makueni'. Leaves about the same length as those of 'Hamil' (70-80 cm in mature plants) but shorter than those of 'Makueni' and 'Colonio'; 15-18 mm wide compared with those of 'Makueni' (18-22 mm),

'Reyan No.9' 'Riversdale'

China Australia (1975)

'Hamil' (24-26 mm) and 'Colonio' (25-30 mm); blades softly hairy on the adaxial surface and sheath moderately hairy. Best in frost-free areas receiving >1,300 mm annual rainfall . Less tolerant of poor drainage than 'Hamil' and with dry matter yields comparable to those of other cultivars, although yielding less in winter, and more in summer than 'Makueni'. 'Si Muang' (ORSTOM T58) Thailand See 'Tanznia1'. Commonly called "purple guinea". Readily established from rooted cuttings or seed. From near Korogwe, Tanzania (5.15S, 38.48E, 300 m asl, rainfall 1,050 mm). Perennial , 1-1.5 (>2) m tall, very leafy, purplish seedheads, moderate to high spittlebug resistance. Suitable for cut-and-carry or light grazing. Broader adaptation than many P. maximum TM types. Best adapted to areas with short or no dry season (but can survive long dry season). Moderate drought and cold tolerance. Leaf production 80% higher, seed production 30-40% higher, and live weight gain /ha/year, 37%, higher than common

'Tanznia-1' (ORSTOM T[SH1]58, BRA-007218, CIAT 16031, CPATU 132)

Brazil (1990)

guinea. Liveweight gain 720 g/hd/day during the wet and 240 g in the dry season; annual gains of 250 kg yearlings on 'Tanznia', 'Tobiat' and 'Colonio' of 520, 450 and 420 g/hd/day have been recorded. 'TD 58' (ORSTOM T58) 'Tobiat' (ORSTOM K187B, BRA001511, CIAT 6299, ILCA 7160, CNPGC 132/78, CPATU 130) (K 187 = CPI 89251 = CIAT 6960) Thailand See 'Si Muang'

Brazil (1982)

From near Mombo, Tanzania. A broad-leafed (to ca 5 cm), erect perennial to >2 m tall. Leaves pendulous. Stiff hairs on the leaf sheath may cause skin irritation in cut-andcarry system. Good drought tolerance, moderate cold tolerance. Reports of spittlebug resistance vary from high to very low. Early flowering (commencing early February at 26S). More persistent under summer grazing and flowers later than 'Sabi'. Could be suitable in tobacco rotations because not a host of Meloidogyne. Hybrid resulting from crosses made in Colombia between the best 8 Panicum maximum introductions and sexual 'Tift 49'. Initial selections

'Umtali' (G 438)

Zimbabwe

'Vencedor' (CIAT 26900, BRA008826)

Brazil (1990)

were made from plants grown on an oxisol with pH 4.7 and Al and Ca saturation of 85.5% and 8.6% respectively. Tussock to 1.6 m tall, and leaves to 1.9 cm wide, with no waxiness or pilosity. Adapted to medium to high fertility soils, growing well in soils of pH <5. Produces around >20 t/ha dry matter (CP 8-14% IVDMD 64%), and 150-200 kg/ha seed. Has good cold tolerance (temperatures down to 8C). Very shade tolerant, being one of the highest yielding tropical grasses at 55-80% light transmission. S type 'Gatton' (CPI 6563, ORSTOM G62, BRA004642) Australia (1964) Institutional collection from Zimbabwe, introduced as "brown buffel grass". Culms to about 1.5 m, almost glabrous, more robust than 'Petrie' with broader and longer leaves. Inflorescence 1820 cm long, 15-18 cm wide at the lowest primary branch, lower branches are usually whorled; spikelets 2.6-2.9 mm long; 1.4 million seeds/kg. Adapted to subtropical and tropical areas receiving between 760-1,000 mm of rain annually (similar to

'Petrie'). Has a longer growing season and appears also to utilise soil nitrogen better than 'Petrie'. Seed yields about 100 kg/ha. 'Petrie' Australia (1966) Origin unknown. Formerly P. maximum var. trichoglume, often referred to as "green panic". Tufted, summergrowing perennial, mostly to 1 (occasionally to 1.8) m tall. Usually paler green and more conspicuously hairy than 'Gatton' and 'Sabi'. Spikelets 2.5-3.5 mm long, glumes covered with fine hairs; 1.5 million seeds (2.4 million caryopses)/kg. Adapted to areas with rainfall from 650-1,750 mm/yr (not as well suited to high rainfall as many taller varieties). More susceptible to frost than Chloris gayana . Has moderate to good drought tolerance, and responds quickly to rain. Best growth is made during early spring, better than Cenchrus ciliaris or Chloris gayana . Very shade tolerant. It will grow satisfactorily on soils from pH 5-8, but best on those with an acid or neutral reaction. Flowers from early summer to late autumn. Seed does not ripen evenly and shatters badly; has a long period of

dormancy, not reaching maximum viability until about 18 months after harvest. Does not tolerate heavy grazing. 'Natsukomaki' Japan Hybrid from Kyushu National Agricultural Experiment Station, Kumamoto, Japan. Low growing, fine stemmed, small leafed variety selected for treading resistance, drying rate and flexibility of culms for hay . From Bethlehem, Free State, South Africa (28.2S, 1,700 m asl, rainfall 800mm, temperature falls to -13C for 10-14 days/year). Selected by the Potchefstroom University. Morphologicall y similar to, but more productive than 'Gatton'. Observed to withstand winter without any cold injury under natural conditions. Less erect than 'Petrie', to 1.5 m, and with narrower, glabrous bluish green leaves and smaller spikelets. More tolerant of waterlogging than other varieties. Moderately drought tolerant. Good seed producer.

'PUK P8'

South Africa

'Sabi' (CPI 28275) (K5881)

Zimbabwe

*Instituto Agronomico de Campinas, SP, Brazil.

Promising accessions
Promising accessions Country Details

T o p

CIAT 668, 673, 690, 696.

Colombia

High dry season yields in highly acid, Al-rich soil, low in available P. Well adapted to acid soils (pH 4.8) with high Al+++ saturation (90%). High resistance to spittlebug (Aeneolamia reducta). Best selection for low fertility, acid savannah soils for intensive beef and dairy. Best adapted to environment of 36 P. maximum tested.

CIAT 6799, 6944, 16019, 16042

Colombia (Carimagua)

CIAT 6171, 6172, 6177, 6506, 6629, 6798, 6799, 16021, 16024, 16065 CIAT 36000

Colombia (Carimagua)

Colombia

CPAC-3017, 3024, 3003, 3013, 3012, 3059, 3016, 3067, 3025 and 3050 CIAT 673

Brazil (Ariquemes)

Vietnam

Broad-leafed variety used in cut-and-carry dairy systems around Ho Chi Minh City.

Comparison of Brazilian cultivars Col oni o Acid soil tolera Lo w Tanz nia Mediu m Mo mba a Low To bia t Lo w Cent enri o High Ven ced or Med ium

nce Tolera nce of low fertility Respo nse to fertilis er Forag e quality Spittle bug resist ance Ease of mana geme nt Tolera nce of cold and dry Silage produ ction Tolera nce of intensi ve grazin g Lo w Low Low Lo w Medi um Med ium

Hig h

High

Hig h

Hig h

Medi um

Med ium

Hig h

High

Hig h

Hig h

High

Hig h

Lo w

Mediu m/hig h

Med ium

Lo w

Low

Lo w

High

Low

Lo w

Medi um

Med ium

Hig h

Good

Ver y goo d Hig h

High

Height at stock entry (cm) Height at stock exit (cm) Seeds /kg

90100

70-75

90100

10 011 0

3040

25-30

3040

3545

780 ,00 0

960,0 00

770, 000

68 0,0 00