The University of Melbourne - Minerals

The University of Melbourne - Minerals Page 1 of 13
Geology (Engineering Course)

Minerals
This page includes the outline text from the classroom

PowerPoint presentation, together with selected
graphics from that presentation. The graphics will
appear when the title hotlink is activated.
A copy of the classroom presentation, in .pdf format,

can be downloaded from here.
MG Chapter 2.1 is a primary reference; W scatters mineral information through

several sections; also see basic Geology textbooks.
There are several Web sites related to mineralogy, including the Mineralogy
Museum at Ecole des Mines de Paris and the Clausthal Institute of Mineralogy .
Minerals in the general sense are basic inputs to modern society, and the
Mineral Council of Australia is concerned about the lack of science and
engineering graduates with interests in this general area - and is spending
money to do something about it.
Identification | Mineral Examples | Top
Earth - Chemical Composition (MG Chapter 2)
 Dominated by Fe, O, Si, Mg (93%)
mhtml:file://D:\Geology%20files\The%20University%20of%20Melbourne%20-%20Mine... 3/23/2007
but
 Crustal Chemistry differs
Earth - Crustal Composition
 Processes Creating Crust enrich it in lighter, larger cations
so
 Crust chemistry dominated by O, Si (74%)
Important Elements
Crust Composition
 Na, K, Ca (Alkaline elements) are enriched

 Enrichment by differentiation
 Fe, Mg relatively abundant in asthenosphere, and in oceanic crust
 O, Si are still (more) dominant, however
Minerals (MG 2.1.1)
 Elements occur in
"Distinct substances with definite atomic configuration and physico-

chemical properties"
minerals
Minerals
 minerals are
"Natural solids with a definite chemical composition and ordered atomic

arrangement"
 These solids are almost always crystals.
Example: Fluorite Crystals and the crystal structure
Silicates
 Most common minerals are compounds of
O with Si
and Al Fe Mg
Ca Na K
 Over 25% of ~2000 minerals are Silicates

 Over 90% of Earth's Crust is Silicate
Earth Materials
Rocks
 Rocks are collections of one or more minerals

 Behaviour of rock under stress depends on mineral composition
 Identification of rock requires identification of minerals
See examples in the UBC Image Gallery - enter rock names you might already
know.
(Unfortunately, this no longer seems to be an open site - June 2001.)
Rock-Forming Minerals
Clay
Quartz
Calcite
Olivine
Dolomite
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite, Muscovite Micas
Orthoclase, Plagioclase Feldspars
Other Minerals
 Most important are Oxides, as general class

 Carbonates are not restricted to calcite and dolomite
 Sulphides are often significant in, or as, ores
Alternative Division
 Essential minerals - necessary for classification of rock

 Accessory minerals - don't affect rock classification, but may be
important anyway. This term is more frequently used than "esential".
Definitions | Mineral Examples | Top
Mineral Identification (MG 2.1.1)
 mainly by physical properties, such as

 crystal shape
 colour, lustre, streak
 cleavage or fracture
 hardness
 crystal habit
 density
Mineral Identification
 Other techniques
 optical, using thin sections of rocks
 x-ray diffraction, to measure the crystal structures
 chemical analyses
used for detailed examination
Crystallography
 In unhindered growth, a mineral forms a crystal with a regular pattern of

faces, and angles between faces
 This form is characteristic of the mineral
 In most rocks growth not free - crystals may not exhibit all faces, but
 angles between faces are still characteristic
Mineral Identification Outline
 Mineral identification based on physical observations can be direct for

common minerals
 Decision trees published in many texts, monographs
 Example:
Barnes: Earth, Time and Life
Lustre (MG t2.2)
 Lustre is
 quality of light reflected from surface of mineral
 Division between metallic and non-metallic can help with diagnosis
of mineral
Lustre Table
Example in photographs, but looking at the real thing is vital;
Example of vitreous (quartz) and metallic (galena) lustres
First Step
(These steps show how the observations ascend through a decision

tree)
 Lustre is a simple primary observation: simplified to Metallic or

submetallic, or Nonmetallic
Hardness (MG t2.1)
 Important diagnostic property

 Resistance of smooth surface to scratching
 Relative hardness established by test of one mineral on another
 Moh's Scale is an arbitrary selection, now definitive
Moh's Scale
Hardness Mineral Name Chemical Composition

10 Diamond Carbon
9 Corundum Alumina
8 Topaz Aluminium Silicate
7 Quartz Silica
6 Orthoclase Alkali Silicate
5 Apatite Calcium Phosphate
4 Fluorspar Calcium Fluoride
3 Calcite Calcium Carbonate
2 Gypsum Hydrated Calcium Sulphate
1 Talc Hydrated Magnesium Silicate
The mineral listed define the steps in the Moh's Scale.
Next Step
 Test Hardness
Streak
 Streak is
colour of finely-powdered minerals (use streak plate to

observe)
 Can be diagnostic, especially of ore minerals
Colour
 Result of light absorption

 may be affected by trace amounts of elements, especially
Fe, Mn, Cu, Cr, Co, Ni, V
 Poor absolute guide, but -

 division between "light-" and "dark-" coloured minerals is
important
See example of sapphires, from Understanding Earth
Near Completion
 Note Streak and Colour
The Result
 Note Streak and Colour
Pyrite | Magnetite | Hematite
Cleavage
 Minerals may cleave on specific planes related to atomic structure (often

parallel to crystal faces)
Presence/absence,
ease/difficulty,
number of cleavage directions,
can all be diagnostic of mineral
Cleavage sketches I
Cleavage sketches II
Muscovite (1 cleavage plane) and Anhydrite (3 cleavage planes)
Cleavage
 Breakage on non-cleavage direction is called fracture-may indicate glassy

material like obsidian, but may also occur in cryptocrystalline materials
 There is a second meaning, for planes formed in rock mass in response to

pressure.
Cleavage assists
Add Colour
The Decision
Talc | Muscovite | Biotite | Kaolinite
Habit (MG t2.3)
 Refers to particular shape of crystals

 More descriptive than diagnostic, but
 may indicate mode of formation, and so give clues for identification
 Description also gives clue to rock material behaviour, so crystal habit is
still useful
A few habits
Botroyoidal (malachite) | Foliated (mica) | Fibrous (gypsum) | Massive and

Granular (dolomite)
Asbestos
A group of silicates with fibrous habit is collectively known as

asbestos.
Humans exposed to the variety crocidolite have a high risk of

developing cancer (mesothelioma).
Crocidolite is an amphibole, which forms needle-like crystals with

pointed ends.
There does not seem to be significant risk associated with the

variety chrysotile, which has been far more commonly used. The
fibrous habit arises even though chrysotile is a sheet silicate,
because the silicate sheets curl up into tubes to form the fibres.
It may not be necessary to incur significant expense in removing

asbestos if the asbestos variety is chrysotile. (The variety mined at
Wittenoom in Western Australia, with disastrous human effects,
was crocidolite.)
Some forms of crocidolite are sought as semi-precious gems

("Tiger-eye") but not in fibrous habit form.
(Actinolite and tremolite are two other amphiboles which belong to

the asbestos group.)
Other Descriptors
May be useful in particular cases
 Density - where mineral is large enough

 Taste - halite (cinnabar?)
 Magnetics - especially magnetite
 Acid Test - effective for calcite, some sulphides
 Texture - (See MGp9)
Definitions | Identification | Top
Minerals
A survey of common examples, illustrated here by uncommon

specimens.
You can view interactive models of many mineral crystal

structures here.
Common Silicates (MG 2.1.2)
 Two major groups, based on chemistry

 Mafic minerals are iron and magnesium silicates, and are dark-
coloured
 Light-coloured Felsic minerals contain quartz and/or aluminium
silicates
 Aluminium silicates may contain K, Na, or Ca, and are
known as Feldspars
 Colour aids identification!
Silicate Structure 1
 Basic component of all silicate minerals is SiO4(4-) group, forming

tetrahedron
 Classification reflects polymerisation.
Silicate Structure Overview
 Structure based on polymerisation

 Island Structures
 Single-Chain Structures
 Double-Chain Structures
 Sheet Silicates
 Framework Silicates
 Properties reflect structure
Island Silicates
 4 negative charges might be neutralized by positive cations alone

 Mg2[SiO4] - Olivine is an example.
Both Olivine and Garnet (another silicate in which the tetrahedron

charges are satisfied by cations) form stubby or equidimensional
crystals which are relatively hard.
Silicate Polymers
 Tetrahedra may form "polymers" by sharing Oxygen ions at

 2 corners, forming a single chain (pyroxenes)
 5 of 8 O atoms in 2 tetrahedra, forming a double chain
(amphiboles)
 3 corners, forming sheets (micas and clays)

 all 4 corners, forming networks (quartz and feldspars)
Pyroxenes
 Single-chain silicates
 SiO3(2-) unit bonds with Mg, Fe, Ca
Augite is a common example, but readily alters (why?)
Pyroxenes
 Cations also bond adjacent chains (more weakly)

 Cleavage develops on 2 planes parallel to chains
 Habit typically prismatic
Augite Cleavage
Amphiboles
 Double (linked) chain silicate

 Si4O11 "unit" bonds with many cations; detailed formula vague
example: Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2 (Actinolite)
 Cleavage on 2 planes, at ~ 120°, parallel to chains
Hornblende Cleavage
Tremolite example
Micas
 Sheet silicate
 Substitution of Al for Si common
 Examples
Muscovite (light) - KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

Biotite (dark) - K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Micas
 Sheet silicate
 Excellent cleavage into sheets
 Habit typically foliated (micaceous!)
Biotite Structure
 Mg, Fe link two sheets, forming unit

 K bonds units (weakly)
Biotite Habit
 One perfect cleavage, parallel to the basal face

 Muscovite is another mica, with the same habit, but light coloured - why?
Chlorite
 Another sheet silicate, with (Fe, Mg) cations

 Greenish colour, brittle, similar to other micas
 Rarely primary mineral in igneous rocks, but result of some kind of
alteration of primary minerals
 Typically metamorphic mineral, but may also be found as joint-filling
mineral in weathering rocks
 Perfect cleavage can provide slip plane to reduce friction in joints.
Clays
 Also sheet silicates

 Typical "unit" contains one or two sheets of SiO4 tetrahedra, as in micas.
 Unit also contains "octahedral" layer built of Al or Mg and six (OH)-
anions
Clays
 Clay variety depends on bonding:

 1 sheet of SiO4 tetrahedra - Kaolinite
 2 sheets of tetrahedra - Montmorillonite
 Usually products of alteration from original silicates
Clay Minerals
 Crystals typically submicroscopic, so few visible crystal samples

available
 Layers bonded by secondary forces/atoms (not covalent bonding)
 Structure therefore depends on ambient conditions
Feldspars (MG p16)
 Widely-occurring, light-coloured
 Framework silicate structure
 Plagioclase feldspars most common mineral in igneous rocks
NaAlSi3O8 (albite) to CaAl2Si2O8 (anorthite)
 Hard, stubby crystals, often gray with two good cleavages, distinguished
from Orthoclase (K-feldspar) by frequent observation of twinning on
cleavage face.
Feldspars 2
 K-feldspar or Orthoclase feldspar common in Si-rich rocks

 Habit stubby, slightly less hard than quartz, may be pink in colour, two
good cleavages at right angles
 Feldspars weather relatively easily, directly to clay minerals
Quartz!
 Also framework silicate

 No cleavage, no cations, so relatively stable
 Only mineral found widely in igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic rocks
 Crystallizes at late stage, so sheets, veins, geodes also found
Non-Silicate Minerals
 Two important carbonates

 Calcite CaCO3
 White, H=3, Perfect cleavage
 Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
 White, H=3, Perfect cleavage
 Oxides, particularly of Iron
 Magnetite, Hematite, Limonite
Other samples of Hematite and Magnetite are reminders that minerals do not always (usually!)
exist as cabinet crystal specimens.
Alteration (MG p19) and Weathering (MG p60)
 Related, not equivalent terms

 Primary minerals may change due to changed ambient conditions
 Recognition of alteration, weathering necessary to understand changes in
rocks
Alteration and Weathering
 Many minerals formed at high P, T

 Earth interior also reducing environment
 May be unstable under changed (P,T,water) conditions, so will alter
 Olivine > Serpentinite (MGp19)
 FeMg Minerals > Chlorite > Clays
 If minerals change, so will rocks

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The University of Melbourne - Minerals Page 1 of 13

Geology (Engineering Course)

This page includes the outline text from the classroom

A copy of the classroom presentation, in .pdf format,

MG Chapter 2.1 is a primary reference; W scatters mineral information through

Identification | Mineral Examples | Top

Earth - Chemical Composition (MG Chapter 2)

 Dominated by Fe, O, Si, Mg (93%)

 Crustal Chemistry differs

Earth - Crustal Composition

 Processes Creating Crust enrich it in lighter, larger cations

 Crust chemistry dominated by O, Si (74%)

 Na, K, Ca (Alkaline elements) are enriched

Minerals (MG 2.1.1)

"Distinct substances with definite atomic configuration and physico-

"Natural solids with a definite chemical composition and ordered atomic

 These solids are almost always crystals.

Example: Fluorite Crystals and the crystal structure

 Most common minerals are compounds of

 Over 25% of ~2000 minerals are Silicates

 Rocks are collections of one or more minerals

 Most important are Oxides, as general class

 Essential minerals - necessary for classification of rock

Definitions | Mineral Examples | Top

Mineral Identification (MG 2.1.1)

 mainly by physical properties, such as

used for detailed examination

 In unhindered growth, a mineral forms a crystal with a regular pattern of

Mineral Identification Outline

 Mineral identification based on physical observations can be direct for

Barnes: Earth, Time and Life

Lustre (MG t2.2)

Example in photographs, but looking at the real thing is vital;

Example of vitreous (quartz) and metallic (galena) lustres

(These steps show how the observations ascend through a decision

 Lustre is a simple primary observation: simplified to Metallic or

Hardness (MG t2.1)

 Important diagnostic property

 Moh's Scale is an arbitrary selection, now definitive

Hardness Mineral Name Chemical Composition

The mineral listed define the steps in the Moh's Scale.

colour of finely-powdered minerals (use streak plate to

 Can be diagnostic, especially of ore minerals

 Result of light absorption

Fe, Mn, Cu, Cr, Co, Ni, V

 Poor absolute guide, but -

See example of sapphires, from Understanding Earth

 Note Streak and Colour

 Note Streak and Colour

Pyrite | Magnetite | Hematite

 Minerals may cleave on specific planes related to atomic structure (often

can all be diagnostic of mineral

Muscovite (1 cleavage plane) and Anhydrite (3 cleavage planes)

 Breakage on non-cleavage direction is called fracture-may indicate glassy

 There is a second meaning, for planes formed in rock mass in response to

Talc | Muscovite | Biotite | Kaolinite

Habit (MG t2.3)

 Refers to particular shape of crystals

Botroyoidal (malachite) | Foliated (mica) | Fibrous (gypsum) | Massive and

A group of silicates with fibrous habit is collectively known as

Humans exposed to the variety crocidolite have a high risk of

Crocidolite is an amphibole, which forms needle-like crystals with

There does not seem to be significant risk associated with the