CHAPTER 15 : NERVOUS SYSTEM, Brain and Cranial Nerve Introduction

The brain is far more complex than the spinal cord; its complexity makes it adaptable but slower in response than spinal reflexes.

An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain

Embryology of the Brain

The brain forms from three swellings at the superior tip of the developing neural tube: the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon.

Major Regions and Landmarks

1. 2. 3. There are six regions in the adult brain: the cerebrum, the diencephalon, the mesencephalon, the pons, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata. Conscious thought, intellectual functions, memory, and complex motor patterns originate in the cerebrum. The roof of the diencephalon is the epithalamus; the walls are the thalami, which contain relay and processing centers for sensory data. The floor is the hypothalamus, which contains centers involved with emotions, autonomic function, and hormone production. The mesencephalon processes visual and auditory information and generates involuntary somatic motor responses. The pons connects the cerebellum to the brain stem and is involved with somatic and visceral motor control. The cerebellum adjusts voluntary andinvoluntary motor activities on the basis of sensory data and stored memories. The spinal cord connects to the brain at the medulla oblongata, which relays sensory information and regulates autonomic functions.

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Gray Matter and White Matter Organization

The brain contains extensive areas of neural cortex, a layer of gray matter on the surfaces of the cerebrum and cerebellum that covers underlying white matter.

The Ventricles of the Brain

The central passageway of the brain expands to form chambers called ventricles. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) continually circulates from the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord into the subarachnoid space of the meninges that surround the CNS.

Protection and Support of the Brain

The Cranial Meninges
The cranial meningesthe dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia materare continuous with the same spinal meninges that surround the spinal cord. However, they have anatomical and functional differences. Folds of dura mater stabilize the position of the brain within the cranium and include the falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, falx cerebelli, and diaphragm sellae.

The BloodBrain Barrier

The bloodbrain barrier isolates neural tissue from the general circulation. The bloodbrain barrier remains intact throughout the CNS except in portions of the hypothalamus, in the pineal gland, and at the choroid plexus in the membranous roof of the diencephalon and medulla.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (1) cushions delicate neural structures, (2) supports the brain, and (3) transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and waste products. The choroid plexus is the site of cerebrospinal fluid production. Cerebrospinal fluid reaches the subarachnoid space via the lateral apertures and a median aperture. Diffusion across the arachnoid granulations into the superior sagittal sinus returns CSF to the venous circulation.

The Blood Supply to the Brain

Arterial blood reaches the brain through the internal carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries. Venous blood leaves primarily in the internal jugular veins.

The Medulla Oblongata

The medulla oblongata connects the brain to the spinal cord. It contains the nucleus gracilis and the nucleus cuneatus, which are processing centers, and the olivary nuclei, which relay information from the spinal cord, cerebral cortex, and brain stem to the cerebellar cortex. Its reflex centers, including the cardiovascular centers and the respiratory rhythmicity centers, control or adjust the activities of peripheral systems.

The Pons
The pons contains: (1) sensory and motor nuclei for four cranial nerves; (2) nuclei concerned with involuntary control of respiration; (3) nuclei that process and relay cerebellar commands arriving over the middle cerebellar peduncles; and (4) ascending, descending, and transverse tracts.

The Mesencephalon
The tectum (roof) of the mesencephalon contains two pairs of nuclei, the corpora quadrigemina. On each side, the superior colliculus receives visual inputs from the thalamus, and the inferior colliculus receives auditory data from the medulla oblongata. The red nucleus integrates information from the cerebrum and issues involuntary motor commands related to muscle tone and limb position. The substantia nigra regulates the motor output of the basal nuclei. The cerebral peduncles contain ascending fibers headed for thalamic nuclei and descending fibers of the corticospinal pathway that carry voluntary motor commands from the primary motor cortex of each cerebral hemisphere.

The Diencephalon
The diencephalon provides the switching and relay centers necessary to integrate the sensory and motor pathways.

The Epithalamus
The epithalamus forms the roof of the diencephalon. It contains the hormonesecreting pineal gland.

The Thalamus
The thalamus is the principal and final relay point for ascending sensory information and coordinates voluntary and involuntary somatic motor activities.

The Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus contains important control and integrative centers. It can (1) control involuntary somatic motor activities; (2) control autonomic function; (3)coordinate activities of the nervous and endocrine systems; (4)

secrete hormones; (5) produce emotions and behavioral drives; (6) coordinate voluntary and autonomic functions; (7) regulate body temperature; and (8) control circadian cycles of activity.

The Cerebellum
The cerebellum oversees the bodys postural muscles and programs and tunes voluntary and involuntary movements. The cerebellar hemispheres consist of neural cortex formed into folds, or folia. The surface can be divided into the anterior and posterior lobes, the vermis, and the flocculonodular lobes.

The Cerebrum
The Cerebral Hemispheres
The cortical surface contains gyri (elevated ridges) separated by sulci (shallow depressions) or deeper grooves (fissures). The longitudinal fissure separates the two cerebral hemispheres. The central sulcus marks the boundary between the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe. Other sulci form theboundaries of the temporal lobe and the occipital lobe. Each cerebral hemisphere receives sensory information from and generate motor commands to the opposite side of the body. There are significant functional differences between the two; thus, the assignment of a specific function to a specific region of the cerebral cortex is imprecise. The primary motor cortex of the precentral gyrus directs voluntary movements. The primary sensory cortex of the postcentral gyrus receives somatic sensory information from touch, pressure, pain, taste, and temperature receptors. Association areas, such as the visual association area and somatic motor association area (premotor cortex), control our ability to understand sensory information. Higher-order integrative centers receive information from many different association areas and direct complex motor activities and analytical functions.