Unit 2

INVESTIGATION 3.5.1 continued

(e) Suggest some improvements to the Materials and Procedure. (f) How certain are you about the evidence obtained? Include possible sources of error or uncertainty.

Evaluation
(d) Are there any flaws or possible improvements in the Experimental Design? Describe briefly.

LAB EXERCISE 3.6.1

Quantitative Paramagnetism
In Investigation 3.5.1, you obtained some preliminary evidence for a possible connection between unpaired electrons (as determined by the electron configuration) and paramagnetism. The purpose of this lab exercise is to test this hypothesis with a quantitative experiment.

Inquiry Skills Questioning Hypothesizing Predicting Planning Conducting Recording Analyzing Evaluating Communicating

compounds containing different metal ions are individually tested using the same mass of each compound. (b) Identify the independent, dependent, and controlled variables.

Question
What effect does the number of unpaired electrons have on the strength of the paramagnetism of metal salts?

Evidence
Table 1: Change in Mass in a Strong Magnetic Field Ionic compound Mass reading, m (g) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.22 0.47 0.51 1.26 0.95
3.00 g

Prediction/Hypothesis
(a) Write a prediction and provide your reasoning based on electron configurations.

CaSO4(s) Al2(SO4)3(s) CuCl(s) CuSO4 5H2O(s) NiSO4 7H2O(s) CoCl2 6H2O(s) FeSO4 7H2O(s) MnSO4 H2O(s) FeCl3 6H2O(s)
mass of each compound in test tube

Experimental Design
A sensitive electronic balance is used to measure the attraction between a powerful magnet and a test tube containing a metal salt. The balance is tared (zeroed) before the test tube is lowered (Figure 4). The mass reading is taken just before contact of the test tube with the magnet. Several ionic
paper clamp test tube paramagnetic substance neodymium magnets wooden block electronic balance

Analysis
(c) What is the significance of a zero-mass reading for some substances and negative-mass readings for other substances?
Figure 4 A strong magnet or magnets (such as neodymium magnets) and a paramagnetic substance attract each other. This means that the magnet and block are slightly lifted toward the fixed test tube.

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LAB EXERCISE 3.6.1 continued (d) How does this change in mass relate to the paramagnetic strength of the substance? (Each of the compounds has a different molar mass and therefore a different amount in moles in the controlled mass of 3.00 g. In order to make a valid comparison, you need to know the change in mass per mole of the substance.) (e) Create a table with headings ionic compound, molar mass, number of moles. Create and complete another table with the following headings: metal ion, electron configuration, number of unpaired electrons, mass decrease per mole. (f) Plot a graph of the number of unpaired electrons (x-axis) and mass decrease per mole (y-axis). Draw a best-fit line.

(g) Answer the Question asked at the beginning of this investigation.

Evaluation
(h) Evaluate the Experimental Design. Are there any obvious flaws? Any improvements? (i) Suggest some improvements to the materials and procedure that would improve the quality and quantity of the evidence collected. (j) How confident are you with the experimental answer to the question? (k) Evaluate the Prediction (verified, falsified, or inconclusive). State your reasons. (l) Does the hypothesis appear to be acceptable based on your evaluation of the prediction?

ACTIVITY 3.7.1
Modelling Standing Electron Waves
A mechanical model of Schrdingers standing waves associated with electrons can be made using a thin, stiff, loop of wire which is vibrated with a variable frequency mechanical oscillator. The mechanical oscillator is like a heavy-duty speaker cone with a rod attached to its centre. As the cone and rod move up and down, whatever is attached to the rod oscillates up and down.Vibrating one point in the loop sets up waves in the wire. This is like holding the edge of a long spring, oscillating one end back and forth, and generating waves that move along the spring. When returning waves meet they interfere with each other, either constructively (increasing the amplitude) or destructively (decreasing the amplitude). Standing waves are a special case of wave interference that results in apparently stationary nodes (zero amplitude points) and antinodes (maximum amplitude points). Secure the oscillator on a sturdy stand. Attach the plug containing the loop of wire and adjust so that the plane of the loop is horizontal. Set the frequency to its lowest setting. Plug in the oscillator and turn it on. Slowly increase the frequency and observe the results. Continue increasing the frequency until no further observations are possible because the nodes and antinodes are no longer visible. Slowly decrease the frequency back down to its lowest setting and view the changes in reverse order. Repeat this procedure, if necessary, to complete your observations. (a) Describe, in general, the appearance of the nodes and antinodes. (b) Do all frequencies produce standing wave patterns? Discuss briefly. (c) List the number of antinodes from the lowest possible to as many as you were able to observe. (d) How does this physical model relate to the wave mechanics model of the atom? What are some limitations of this model?

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