Pergamon

A new stratigraphy for the islands of the Sumatran Forearc, Indonesia

M. A. Samuel,*t N. A. Ha-bury,* A. Bakri,: and L. Hartono$ F. T. Banner*

SE Asia Research Group. Research School of Geological and Geophysical Sciences. Birkbeck College and University College London. Cower Street. London, WCI E 6BT UK: $Simon Petroleum Technology. PT Robertson Utama Indonesia. PT Horizon Nusantara Eksplore. Building IOXC. Cilandak Commercial Estate. Jakarta. Indonesia

Abstract--The Sumatran Forearc of western Indonesia contains a number of islands whet-c extensive exposures of baement rocks and their sedimentary cover ma> be examined. The islands. such as Nias and the Batu Islands. are located along the outer-edge of the Sumatran Forearc. whilst others. including the Banyak Island Group and Pini Island. lie wnithin the forearc basin. Derailed sedimentological. palaeontological and palaeobathymetric data from the Tertiary strata from the forearc region require ;I new stratigraphy. as previous stratigraphic schemes have not explained the variations across the region adequately. This Ttratigraphy. developed initially from detailed data collected on Nias and the Banyak Islands, can fully account for the successions of sedimentary rocks on the Banyak and Batu Islands and Siberut and explains many of the apparent inconsistencies between previous stratigraphies. A basement complex and six new formations are formally defined in this paper: important sedimentological differences between these formations represent key stages in the evolution of the outer part of the Sumatran Forearc. Studies of the basement rocks across the forearc area suggest the basement is inhomogeneous: large intact sections of ophiolitic material occur in some areas. whilst there is evidence for both oceanic and continental basement in others. Such heterogeneity is to be expected in B long lived obliquely convergent margin. In Oligoceneeearliest Miocene times extension of the heterogeneous basement is inferred through indirect evidence. Palaeobuthymetric data from the Oyo Formation indicates that the initial deposition in the newly formed extensional sub-basins on Nias was, in most areas. deep marine. in analysts and structural and gcochronologicul many cases below the CCD. Detailed biostratigraphic studies indicate ;I mi!jor Early Miocene unconformity in the western (Lahewa Sub-basin) and parts of central Nias (MUJO~ Sub-basin). This unconformity was developed as ;I direct result of 21period of basin inversion that affected western parts of Nias. Whilst sub-aerial erosion occurred in parts of western Nias. conformable deposition of the Gawo and Olodano Formation continued in the Gomo and eastern parts of the Mujoi Sub-basins. The shallow marine sedimentary rocks of the Olodano Formation tended to accumulate on intra sub-basinal highs whose position was controlled by active faults that transected the sub-basin\. The sedimentary record reveals that the Lower and Middle Miocene phases of differential uplift and subsidence had ceased by the Late Miocene. A massive influx of Himalayan derived Bengal Fan sediments reached the Sunda Trench in the Sumatra area in the late Middle Miocene. Continued addition of Bengal Fan material to the accretionary wedge south-west of Nias resulted in steady plate detlection and subsidence through tlexural processes in forearc basin arcas. The flexural consequence of increased load added to the prism. and associated subsidence history is documented by the sedimentary record on Nias where the shallow marine Olodano Formation passes up into the neritic to upper bathyal Lahomie Formation. The Pliocene unconformity which is observed over all areas studied in the forearc is well constrained by structural. biostratigraphic and sedimentological studies. The unconformity represents the initiation of ;I major phase of uplift and deformation that continues to the present day. Rapid uplift of the outer arc ridge and deformation of the prism during the Pliocene Icd to increased subsidence landward of the deformation. The rapid subsidence of the forearc basin landwlard of the outer-arc ridge has contributed greatly to the apparent differences between the forearc basin and the outer-arc ridge at the present day: two areas with remarkably similar pre-Pliocene histories now have remarkably ditfercnt physiographies. ( 1997 Else\ier Science Ltd

Introduction
The Sumatran Forearc has been considerable geological interest for the over subject of a century.

Current address: British Gas Exploration and Production. 100 Thames Valley Park Drive, Reading. Berkshire RG6 I PT. UK. 339

Subsequent to the advent of plate tectonic theory the significance of islands, such as Nias, lying at the outer edge of the Sumatra Forearc, (Fig. I) has been realised (Moore and Karig 1980). These islands are commonly cited as type examples of uplifted accretionary complexes although recent work has shown that their geology may be interpreted in significantly different ways (Pubellier CI rrl. 1992; Samuel 1994: Samuel ( rrl. 1995). I

M A. Samuel

et al.

LEGEND

active volcanoes

90E

1OOE I

110E

120E I
Forearc Islands. Modified from

Fig. 1. Tectonic

map of the Sunda Arc with the locations of the Sumatran Moore et al. ( I980a) and Curray ( 1989).

The disparate models for the evolution of the Sumatran Forearc are based on differing stratigraphic schemes and there has been no modern synthesis of the stratigraphy of the forearc islands. The Sumatran Forearc forms part of the Sunda subduction system which runs for over 5000 km from Sumba in the east to Burma in the north (Fig. 1, Moore et al. 1980a; Curray 1989). In the Sumatran area the arc has a classic morphology of trench, accretionary prism, outer-arc ridge, forearc and volcanic chain (Karig et al. 1979). Simeulue, Nias, the Batu Islands, the Mentawai Islands (Siberut, Pagai and Sipora) and Enggano form the north-west to south-east sub-aerial expression of the Sumatran outer-arc ridge (Fig. 1). Sarangbaung and the Banyak Islands lie to the north of Nias, within the forearc basin. Nias is the largest of the forearc islands being 125 km long and about 40 km wide, with a land area of 4772 km . Inland areas of the larger forearc islands are typically rugged and mountainous with steep slopes and deeply incised river valleys. Prominent strike ridges have individual peaks commonly in excess of 500 m elevation with occasional peaks almost 900 m high. Relief decreases abruptly to coastal areas. Mangrove swamps

cover large areas of Siberut (Mentawai Islands), Simeulue, Tuangku (Banyak Islands) and parts of Nias. The smaller islands generally lack rivers and surface fresh water, and have minor relief with the exception of uplifted coral reefs. The Batu Islands lie on the equator and the climate experienced by all the forearc islands is typical of equatorial regions except that there is no marked difference between the more commonly dry (January to June) and wet (July to December) seasons. Rainfall is generally high throughout the year with an average total of 240 mm per month. As part of an integrated study of the Sumatran Forearc by the University of London Group for Geological Research in Southeast Asia two island groups have been the focus of detailed investigation. These are Nias and the Banyak Group (Fig. 1). They were chosen for their contrasting geographic positions with respect to the subduction system; Nias lies along the outer-edge of the forearc basin whilst the Banyak Islands lie within the central part of the basin. In addition reconnaissance studies have been carried out on the Batu Island Group and Siberut of the Mentawai Islands, along strike from Nias.

Stratigraphy

for the islands

of the Sumatran

Forearc

341

In this paper we provide an overview of previous research on the Sumatran Forearc and discuss the need for an integrated stratigraphic scheme. We illustrate the great stratigraphic similarities between Nias and the Banyak Islands, based on our extensive data set, and show how our new stratigraphic scheme may be applied to all the islands of the Sumatran Forearc. We conclude finally with a discussion on the main implications this new stratigraphy has for the geological evolution of the Sumatran Forearc and show how the sedimentary rocks exposed on the Sumatran Forearc Islands can provide important clues to the nature of the stratigraphic fill of basins within the present-day forearc basin.

Previous work on the Sumatran Forearc Islands

Nias forearc Island islands has been the most studied of all the as it is the largest and most accessible.

1850-1950 Early studies were carried out by Dutch workers (Verbeek 1876). Schroder (1917) a government official on Nias between 1905 and 19 11, was also an avid natural historian. He collected rock samples which were sent to Europe and studied by workers including Douville ( 19 12) who worked on foraminifera, Gerth (1925) who studied samples of modern and Neogene corals, lcke and Martin ( 1907) and van der Veen ( 19 13) who considered that Nias consisted of an igneous core overlain by a mantle of metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. van Bemmelen (1949) reports on the limited work carried out by Pontoppidan and De Jong on Enggano, by Terpstra on Sipora and Siberut of the Mentawai Islands and by Jansen who was a government official on Simeulue. These workers mainly identified Neogene sedimentary rocks although Terpstra discovered preTertiary and Paleogene rocks on Sipora. During the period 1939 to 1941 the forearc islands were the subject of considerable surveys by Dutch geologists of the Nederlandsche Pacific Petroleum Maatschappij (NPPM) and the Bataafsche Pacific Petroleum Maatschappij (BPPM). The NPPM geologist Den Hartog (1940a. b) produced stratigraphies for Siberut and Simeulue, whilst Hopper (1940) spent six months working on western and northern Nias (Fig. 2). Whilst head hunting and slavery were still a feature of Nian life, the original Dutch road system was more extensive than the present network and Hopper (1940) was able to erect a very detailed stratigraphy. Geologists of the BPPM included Elber (1939a) who completed fieldwork on the Batu Islands, eastern and southern Nias and the Banyak Islands and Paul ( 1941) who erected his own stratigraphy for Nias (Fig. 2). Elber (1939b) was able to study Den Hartog (1940a) report on Simeulue s and he produced a further stratigraphic scheme for the island (Fig. 2).

Work on the forearc islands in the late sixties and early seventies was again centred on Nias Island and mainly associated with petroleum exploration. In 1968 two Union Oil geologists, Burrough and Power (1968), spent a month on Nias and a few days on Pini, the most easterly of the Banyak Islands, as part of the survey of

their north-west Sumatra contract area. Burrough and Neilson (1969) continued the survey and examined outcrops on the Banyak Islands during three days and then spent a further three days in north-eastern Nias. The fieldwork was aimed at establishing the stratigraphy of the area (Fig. 2). A further trip in 1971 was carried out over a week by Bradley (I 973). Two traverses were completed in eastern Nias on the Gawo and Nalawo rivers and Bradley produced a stratigraphic column for Nias based on the geology exposed in these two rivers (Fig. 2). Verstappen (1973) carried out a geomorphological reconnaissance study of Sumatra and the forearc islands and deduced rapid Quaternary uplift. Between 1975 and 1978, Moore (1978) and Karig spent three years researching the structural geology and sedimentology of Nias for Moore s PhD research supervised by Karig. Karig and Moore field studies s were concentrated in the more accessible areas of Nias. The cross-island road was unnegotiable at this time and fieldwork was centred in an area from the east coast of the island near Gunungsitoli inland to the Mujoi area of central Nias (Fig. 3) with further traverses to the south and to the west. Whilst the work of Moore and Karig included sedimentological, palaeobathymetric (Moore et al. 1980b) petrographic and provenance studies (Moore 1979). the most influential aspects of the work were the structural observations and interpretations. They were able to produce a convincing model for the structural geology of Nias with its implications for subduction zone tectonics. Two main tectonostratigraphic units were defined (Fig. 2). Their lowest unit named the Oyo Complex. a melange, was reported as containing angular inclusions immersed in a sheared matrix. They estimated that 70 per cent of the inclusions were sandstones. shales and conglomerates. Other inclusions were mainly pillow basalts and cherts with subordinate mafic and ultramafic rocks. Moore and Karig (1980) suggested the Oyo Complex was the tectonic melange of an accretionary complex comprising deformed trench-fill turbidites and slices of oceanic crust and sediments accreted to the base of the inner trench slope. Neogene strata. termed the Nias Beds with an ., estimated thickness of just over 3000 m are documented overlying the Oyo Complex (Fig. 2 and Moore el N/. 1980b). The Nias Beds were interpreted as uplifted trench-slope basin deposits unconformably overlying the Oyo Complex. The Nias Beds were considered to have been imbricated into an accretionary wedge during continuous deformation and uplift (Moore and Karig 1980). During the 1980s field geologists of the Indonesian Geological Research and Development Centre (GRDC), Bandung mapped Enggano (Amin et (I/. 1986) Pagai and Sipora (Budhitrisna and Andi Mangga 1986: Budhitrisna 1989). Siberut (Andi Mangga and Burhan 1986). the Batu Islands (Nas and Supandjono 1991). Nias (Djamal rt ul. 1991) and Simeulue (Endharto and Sukido 1991). The GRDC group produced geological maps at a scale of 1:250,000 for all these islands and erected new stratigraphic schemes (Fig. 2). Correlation between the different island groups was not attempted and the Banyak Islands were not visited. Studies by the University of London Research Group together with LEMIGAS (the Indonesian Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas Technology.

342

M A. Samuel et al.

Nias

Age
Holocene Pleistocene Q z -I f 4 ale

Elber 1939b
_ Zappinglimeatone, tanda, silts 6 days

Burrough & Power 1966

Alluvium

Bradley 1973
unobewed Z-Z;; $5 1 $5 Q:

Moore et al. 1960b

----I
Djamal et al. 1991

Unfolded llmastonaa

Unlt 1 Sandstone, day

SlOfW,Sik3tOnS & mnglomaraie

Marls,tuffa, Sand~tonea, IimeStorwS

Niea beds Ma~alve SandStone, alltStone 8 Shale Blodastlc llmastone

1
0 E

Marls Urnsstones, CalcareouS aandStoneS, tuffS&daw Giaumnitlc sandCon lomerale Bca Am ac8oua sandstone NIaS Bedr a llaoeotm antior 21 ca CareouSMhlC& llthlc quartz aandstones, mudStones. cmglomeraiea. limestones & minor coals :zz: sandstone Serler Asfor Elber (1939b) Base and lower mita UnObseNSd Unit A Unit 4 Siltstone. SandStone8 mudstone Calcareous aandstone and sliMone

Unlt B wna~~g$~ a mudstones with minor limer4tones

Mad & thln turbldkea

Baaal$d;~Stone ?$d SandStcmes 8 slllcil%dclaystoner

I ojo Beds
Lithlc, micacewa. quartrose, noncalcereous aand~trmeg8 nonCalcareouSwith Some al!ckensidea Oyo Complex Stgagl l;zd oiy containing angular ZZ%! 1 Comprbxl Dphlolfte Bwdlna Complex of meta-

Pre-Mlocena Complex Sadlmantaryrods, ard cemented rey, 4 bz?%%Ts mkx, Shale and mndoineratea~. -7

kene foramlnifer

su rdlnate gb, lndusloiw of oceanic crust & Sediments 8 upper mantle: inta retedas tectonp melange c

mn lomeraie&

PrWTWtfSrY Of Sumaauma
Bedmdc

Sumall angular

atSuma-

uObSSNSd

%ea%$.= quattzites. oph4Olltee a rare llmeetmea

Fig. !(a).

Nias
iatbury & ubellier et al. Gallagher 199 992
Reefs 8
coastal deposits

Banvak Islands
Elber 1939b

I
I

Batu Islands
Elber 1939b

dayetone / henlstone
lb Pometlon ----. MT Tertiary limestcnes Reciyslalliid mefalllfnestme (7 Necgsne) ReczFed limeelone Hard. whiteto Tuengku Beda

Tuff.

w 2cz2cz izs?ir aInph&s

mall
wwlboutdels

e. mica

lake

!$!z==%

0~0 Comp*x Blocks cl micacews sandstone, congkxnerate. gm acke, v&an K ,bfmalt, ched; matrix rarely obsewed in the field

Coame dasiks, m!!S

3ase uripedfied

Fig. 2(b). Fig. 3. Summary of past stratigraphic schemes for Nias, the Banyak lines represent uncertainties in the stratigraphic 343 and Batu Islands and Siberut. position of units. Dashed

M A. Samuel

et al.

Fig. 3. Map of Nias showing the location of major roads, river and towns including locations referred to in the text. Roads are denoted by double lines and river names are given in abbreviated Nian language (e.g. I. Gawo = Gawo river). The unfilled circles represent the location of towns and villages. The thick grey lines
identify the locations of traverses completed on the island. The inset shows the positions of the three sub-basins and the basement high on the island. The sub-basins are separated by major faults.

Jakarta) commenced in the Sumatran Forearc in 1986 with a brief expedition to the island of Simeulue (Situmorang et al. 1987). The following year a more extensive expedition to Nias, Sarangbaung, Simeulue and the Banyak Islands was undertaken (Fig. 2, Kallagher 1989, Harbury and Kallagher 1991). Harbury and Kallagher (1991) published the results of the geological studies of the University of London Research

Group at the time. Their paper raised questions regarding the validity of the model of Moore and Karig (1980) because they interpreted much of the Miocene successions exposed on the island as shallow marine in origin (Harbury and Kallagher 1991). In 1991 a group of French geologists examined sections on Nias during a three week trip (Pubellier et al. 1992). Their account of the geology of Nias implies a

Stratigraphy

for the islands of the Sumatran Forearc

345

.l N

LEGEND
Faults Recent Alluvium Gunungsitoli Formation

Sircmb~

pg!J

Tetehosi Formation

Olodano Fomation rrwlw hor!zor~ I Comlomerate Undii~y;~~~l)yo Oyo Formation Sediment and Melange Complex Bangkaru Ophiilite Complex 8 Gawo I -1 Lagundi

N
t

0
97 E =30 km

25

17 E

Fig. 4. Geological map of Nias compiled from field traverse data, aerial photographs, SAR and LANDSAT images. The map is simplified as detailed structural data cannot be shown at this scale. Sediment and Melange Complex refers to areas where the late Paleogene and Neogene sedimentary successions are intimately deformed with melanges. The contacts between the melanges and the deformed sedimentary sections are intrusive and have complex geometries (Samuel et 01. 1995). For this reason it is not possible to differentiate the melanges and the deformed sedimentary sections at the scale of this map.

Stratigraphy

for the islands of the Sumatran Forearc

Aim

347

structural and stratigraphic evolution remarkably different to that deduced from any previous research (Fig. 2) as they observed:
belt affected by polyphase tectonics; during the Eocene and the Middle Miocene. Sedimentary series are shelf elastics and limestone. The classical Nias Melange also appears to be composed of extremely thin myionites and olistostromic scaly clay localised at several decollement levels.

ofstudies

a complex

They suggest that an alternative hypothesis for the structure of the forearc islands may be:
the reactivation of an Eocene Tethys zone within the crustal blocks of the Sunda margin.

Recently oil companies have again had interests in the area. PT Caltex Pacific Indonesia have recently acquired a block that includes the on-shore eastern area of Nias, with acreage off-shore to the east.

The studies summarised in Fig. 2 were devised for a variety of different reasons. The early studies (1939 to 1973) were aimed primarily at elucidating stratigraphy. Later studies (e.g. Moore ct al. 1980b; Pubellier et al. 1992) were less concerned with the pure stratigraphic aspects of the studies and more concerned with the tectonic implications of the geology. Moore et al. (1980b) for instance state that they were happy to subdivide the stratigraphy of Nias into two main units (the Oyo Complex and the Nias Beds) which originated in two very different tectonic settings. The studies by GRDC were designed with the major aim of producing geological maps for the islands; geographic coverage was therefore extensive and formations were chosen with characteristics that were the most easily mappable.

Problems in correlation of previous stratigraphic schemes

There are substantial difficulties in correlating the different schemes (Fig. 2) and reasons for this are suggested below:
Litho.strrrtigrapl~~~ ~~ersus hiostratigraphj~

Studies such as those of Elber (1939b) and Hopper (1940) are based on large amounts of field data with good palaeontological support and the stratigraphies were devised with minimal interpretation. Other studies have been more superficial.

A new stratigraphy

Burrough and Power (1968) point out that the earliest stratigraphic schemes were based primarily on palaeontological evidence. The biostratigraphic units often cross-cut lithological boundaries. All schemes including and post-dating Burrough and Power (1968) have been based. however. on lithostratigraphy.

for Nias and the Banyak Islands

van Bemmelen (1949) remarked on the problem of correlating the stratigraphy of Nias according to the NPPM (Hopper 1940) and BPPM schemes (Elber 1939b, see Fig. 2). Both of these schemes were based on field-programmes covering different geographic areas of Nias. The NPPM held a concession consisting of the north-western region of Nias whilst the BPPM operated in the south and east of Nias. A reasonable explanation therefore, for the discrepancies between the two schemes. could be that the stratigraphy in different areas of the islands is different. Conversely Elber (1939b) was able to produce stratigraphies for three of the island groups (Nias. Banyak and Batu Groups) that are easily comparable whereas many other research teams have tended to erect new stratigraphic schemes for each of the island groups (e.g. fieldwork during the 1980s by geologists from GRDC).

As Rock (1989) pointed out, the mapping of the late 1930s and early 1940s was carried out before the advent of plate tectonic theory. Since this time geological concepts of units such as melanges have greatly advanced and stratigraphers have been able in some instances to recognise and separate tectonostratigraphic units from purely lithostratigraphic units (e.g. Andi Mangga and Burhan 1986, see Fig. 2).

Nias and the Banyak Islands have been mapped in detail as part of the study documented here (Figs 4 and 5). Field mapping was conducted for several field seasons with the total time spent in the field exceeding six months. LANDSAT and SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) images have been used in conjunction with the field data to produce the maps, as characteristically areas between river courses offer only low levels of exposure due to the thick tropical vegetation. The mapping exercise highlighted the need to produce a new stratigraphy for the islands as past schemes were found to be either poorly defined. offered insufficient details or proved unusable. Preliminary mapping revealed that three main sub-basins could be identified on Nias; these are named from north-east to south-west the Gomo. Mujoi and Lahewa sub-basins (Samuel 1994, Samuel et 01. 1995, Fig. 3). Seismic lines across the easternmost bulge of Nias showed it to be a long-lived basement high with a relatively thin ( z 2 km thick) sedimentary cover (Samuel and Harbury. in press). Four distinct areas are therefore identified on Nias. This is largely reflected in the new stratigraphic scheme for the island (Fig. 6). The stratigraphy deduced for the Banyak Island Group corresponds very closely to that of the Gomo Sub-basin (Fig. 6). The new stratigraphy is exceptionally well-controlled by biostratigraphic data. Over 350 samples have been dated. The biostratigraphic zonation scheme used for the nannofossil and foraminiferal separations was that of Bolli et al. (1985). Some fauna. particularly larger benthic foraminifera, were identified in thinsection. Age determinations were made for these foraminifera according to the Far Eastern Foraminifera Zonation Scheme. The latter stages follow) the IndoWest Pacific stages of Adams (I 984).

348

M A. Samuel

et al.

Palambak

Gawo Fm.

TflL

0 -

5 -

10 km

15 -

25 -

30 1

_!!-

Bedding

66

Overturned

NNll Age

rust & reverse faults

/ , Strike-slip fault

Recent alluvium

Lahomie Formation OYO Formation Sediment & melange complex

Olodano Formation Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex

.:.,::. . Gawo , , El : : ; Formation

Fig. 5. Geological

map of the Banyak Islands compiled

largely from field traverse data and aerial photographs.

Six formations and a basement complex have been identified on Nias and the Banyak Islands (Fig. 6). In this paper we formally define these and provide brief sedimentary interpretations. The relation of the newly defined formations to units identified by other workers is discussed and the stratigraphic subdivisions have been classified according to the guidelines of Whittaker et al. (199 1). For complete descriptions and interpretations the reader is referred to Samuel (1994).

The Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex

Introduction and .yynonyn?J

The majority of previous researchers have reported the existence of basic igneous and sedimentary rocks of ophiolitic affinity on the forearc islands (Fig. 2). These rocks can be grouped into a unit named here the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex. The sequences have been

Stratigraphy

for the islands

of the Sumatran

Forearc

349

placed in two main stratigraphic positions by these workers: these are either as part of pre-Tertiary complexes which are dominated or wholly composed of ophiolitic material, or as part of melange complexes (Fig. 2). In both instances the complexes containing these rocks have been interpreted as forming the basement to the younger stratigraphic successions. although no form of stratigraphic or structural contact with these successions has been observed by the previous workers. Litldogjud ocu.mwm~

Seven main groups of rocks have been identified within the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex (Table 1). Some

of the rock types, such as basaltic rocks, are commonly found wherever the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex is exposed, whilst other lithologies, such as epidote-actinolite schists form only a subordinate component of the complex (Table 1). The proportions of the different rock types comprising the complex vary between different areas and exposures. Detailed mapping and examination of outcrops reveals that there is no consistent pattern to these changes in abundance. Rocks of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex are exposed on Nias. and the Banyak Islands. in two discrete structural settings: as intact sections and as blocks and clasts in melanges. The intact sections are mapped as Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex, whereas the melanges are mapped as such (Figs 4 and 5).

Nias-Gomo

Nias-Mola Basement Hiah

Structural events

I
t-

(4) Earli,Eocene

-____

(3) Extension of basement & development of basins under transtension

of basement (1) Formation & hydrothermal alteration of oceanic crust and mantle

, asement

in eastern N& ~

f lo 1 NP14/ ,, ., , 1 = Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex, II = I. Me Group; - IIa = Oyo Formation; - IIb = Gawo Formation, III = Moi Member, IS : Gawo Formation conglomerate marker horizon, V = Olodano Formation, VI = Olodano Formation cc >nglomerate marke lorizon, VII = Lahomie Formation, VIII = Lahomie Formation tuff marker horizon, IX = Lahomie Fyorrnation limestone narker horizon, X = Tetehosi Formation, XI = Gunungsitoli Formation Limestone Marker Horizon, XII = Gunungsitol ormation.

Fig. 6. New stratigraphic scheme for Nias. the Banyak and Batu Islands and Siberut. N and P denote planktic foraminiferal zones, NN and NPdenote nannofossil zones and T denotes far eastern benthic foraminiferal letter stages. The Roman numerals refer to the relevant formations and marker horizons. Key structural events are indicated in the right-hand column. For details of the structural evolution of the outer Sumatran arc the reader is referred to Samuel (1994) and Samuel rt u/. (1995).

350
Table 1. Relative abundance Rock Group Peridotites Plutonic rocks

M A. Samuel et al.
of the main lithologies comprising the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex Abundance Common Relatively common Common Relatively common Very rare* Common Common Relatively rare Very common Relatively common Rare Very rare Rare Relatively common Relatively common Rare Rare Very rare

Lithologies Light green-yellow coloured soft serpentinites Dark coloured hard harzburgites Meta-gabbros (prehnite-actinolite facies (Liou et al. 1984) to greenschist) Gabbro pegmatites Diorites and plagiogranites* Sub-ophitic dolerites, prehnite-actinolite facies metamorphism Pillow basalts Peperites Heterolithologic pillow fragment breccias Isolated-pillow breccias and hyaloclastites Garnet amphibolite (Moore and Karig 1980) Epidote-actinolite schist Palagonite Planktic foraminiferal packstones Banded cherts Ochres Metagreywackes Quartz, pyrite and barroisite schists are more commonly recorded on the Batu Islands.

Dolerites Basaltic rocks

All generally
metamorphosed to prehnite-actinolite facies

Tuffs Sedimentary

rocks

Metasedimentary

rocks

*Diorites and plagiogranites

Intact sections One of the largest and best exposed outcrops of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex occurs on Bangkaru Island, the westernmost of the Banyak Islands (Fig. 5). There an extensive sequence of basic igneous rocks are thrust over Oligocene and Lower Miocene sedimentary successions. Similar, but less well exposed bodies occur on Nias, along the west coast and on the north-eastern coast, at Sifahandro (Figs 3 and 4). The sequences of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex exhibit marked internal deformation, lithologies are often faulted and sheared together. Blocks and clasts in melanges

igneous rocks and include intersheared bastite serpentinites, gabbros, dolerites and a range of basaltic rocks. A readily accessible section on Nias, where a wide range of Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex lithologies are exposed as blocks in a melange, occurs in the Moi river between the cross-island road and the confluence downstream with the Oyo river (Fig. 3).
Thickness and age range

Clay-matrix melanges are well exposed on Nias and on Bangkaru Island and some of the melanges contain inclusions (ranging in size from small clasts to large blocks) of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex (Fig. 7a). An understanding of these melanges is crucial to any account of the geology of these islands. Table 2 documents the main features of the melanges; further details can be found in Samuel (1994) Samuel et al. (1995) and Samuel and Harbury, in press. These works have shown that the melanges formed and incorporated rocks from parts of the Complex, after thick sequences of sediments were unconformably deposited above the Complex. The melanges do not therefore form basement successions described in following to the sedimentary
sections of this paper. The melange exposures do, however, provide an excellent opportunity to study the range of rock types of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex. Type ureus

It is not possible to determine the maximum thickness of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex as its base is never exposed. Prior to this study pelagic sedimentary rocks from the Complex remained undated. The age of formation of some of the basement complexes as defined by earlier workers (e.g. Hopper 1940 and Moore et al. 1980b) is constrained solely by the presence of reworked shallow marine limestone clasts in siliciclastic conglomerates that these workers associated with the complexes. Such clasts from conglomerates in south-west Nias were dated by Douville (1912) as Eocene, since they contained several species of Nummulites. Igneous material on Nias and the Banyak Islands is too altered to yield reliable (and sensibly interpretable) K-Ar ages (S. Baker pers. comm. 1993) however, reliable biostratigraphic ages have been obtained from two sedimentary rocks of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex collected during this study: a pelagic limestone from the Moi river of central Nias is dated as Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) on the basis of Spiroplecta spp, Globotruncanita cfstuartiformis, Contusotruncana fornicata, hedbergellids and globotruncanids.

The type area for the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex is the south-west coast of Bangkaru Island (Fig. 5). This represents the largest intact sequence of the Complex exposed on either Nias or the Banyak Group. The lithologies exposed in the area are predominantly basic

Seven samples of chert (Fig. 7b) and pelagic limestone were analysed for radiolaria and one dark brown chert sample from Soma Soma on the west coast of Nias contained a good Middle Eocene assemblage including

Lithochytris vespertilio, Dictyoprora, Theocotylissa jcus and Podocyrtis spp. (Y. Ling pers. comm. 1992). The

Middle Eocene date constrains the lower age of emplacement of the Complex as Middle Eocene (Fig. 6).

Fif. 7. (a) Outcrop of pillow hasalts of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex 111the Moi river on Nia$ (Fig. 3) 4 km downstream of the cross-island road. Detailed mapping in the area shows that in this case the outcrop forms part of ;I large block within a diapiric melange. (b) Banded red chert of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex outcropping by the Moi river. central Nias. the oldest possible age of emplacement of This chert did not yield any identifiable radiolaria as it is heavily recrystallised. however. age dating from similar lithologics have constrained the Banpkaru Ophiulitc Complex. (c) Thinning-up cycle of Oyo Formation micaceous qandstoncs outcropping in the Me river. central Nias. These sandstones were deposited in a deep :::::rine en\irnnment Thr tInit in clearly i~r ti/rr and is not a block In a melange. (d) Intel-bedded Gauo Formation Facics (;.I sandstones and Fncies G.V silty claystoney well exposed in

the

Mallneo

riber.

sourh-eas(ern

iutah.

i ilr >ctiid,ioiiii

.A<iC ii,, :I., L_il\,,LLLb .:

Lur?ci?!.; .;.!:d I! :fc:y?

IIV

tii:;l

ILX:;.

Stratigraphy
Table 2. Main features of the melanges

for the islands

of the Sumatran

Forearc

353

of Nias and the Banyak (in press)

Islands modified after Samuel and Harhury

Distribution: Extensive development in Mujoi Sub-basin. parts of Lahewa and Gomo Sub-basins. P. Bangkaru. Banyak Islands. Inclusions: At least 50% and commonly 90% Oligocene and Lower Miocene sedimentary material. Other components recorded in some, but not all. of the melanges include basement clasts and Middle Miocene to Pleistocene sediments. Deformation of inclusions: Deformation styles of melange blocks and clasts are the same as those recorded in the deformed sedimentary successions at the margins of the melanges. Some sedimentary inclusions exhibit brecciation, pinch and swell and web structure (as seen also at the melange margins). Matrix: Mudrock. This mudrock has the same composition and thermal history as the Oligocene and Lower Miocene mudrocks. In some sections it contains microfossils which are identical to those in the sections into which the melanges have intruded. Deformation of matrix: Scaly foliation is pervasively developed throughout the melanges. The fabric is generally sub-vertical, although in places it is folded and aligned parallel to the margins of the melanges. Melange-deformed sedimentary section contacts: Contacts are always intrusive with the melanges intruding sections from the Oligocene up to the youngest formations of the study area. Intrusions propagate along bedding planes and extensional fractures developed in the deformed sedimentary sections at the margins 01 the melanges. The melanges map out as irregular intrusions. Timing of formation: The major, and probably sole. phase of melange formation initiated during the Pliocene. Melange formation is continuing to the present day in the form of mud volcanoes.

the

Late

Paleogene

and

Neogene

sequences

accumu-

lated. The rocks of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex are typical of oceanic rocks studied on land in ophiolites and ophiolitic melanges, and recovered from the oceans by drilling and dredging. A spectrum of ophiolitic rocks from mantle lithologies to crustal and pelagic rocks are represented. It is the co-association of these rocks that has led to the naming of the Complex as an ophiolite complex. The vast majority of the rocks experienced hydrothermal alteration with prehnite-actinolite and greenschist facies metamorphism but there are rare examples of higher grade metamorphism (epidote actinolite schists, garnet amphibolites and barroisite schists). It is difficult to fit the spectrum of rocks from the Complex into one palaeogeographic setting; the information available suggests that the rocks may have been derived from MORB-like crust, from oceanic islands and seamounts, from oceanic fracture zones and from supra-subduction zone settings. Structural relationships between the different rock types are complex and exposures are generally too limited to gain a comprehensive understanding of the structural history of the Complex. The Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex is interpreted as comprising a set of amalgamated fragments. The amalgamation of distinct terranes is not uncommon at convergent plate boundaries (e.g. Hawkins et rrl. 1985; Blake ct trl. 1985). Continued subduction produces the opportunity for accretion and amalgamation of crustal and mantle fragments from different tectonic settings. Oblique subduction and transcurrent faulting can lead to the lateral displacement and amalgamation of diverse fragments. Oceanic islands. seamounts, island arcs, transform fault zones and ridges are examples of topographic highs that have a high chance of being incorporated into forearc areas as opposed to being subducted. The Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex appears to have formed the basement, at least in most central and western areas of Nias and on Bangkaru Island. on which

The Idano Me Group (Oyo and Gawo formations)

Two formations of the new stratigraphic scheme (Fig. 6), the Oyo and Gawo Formations have been grouped together as the ldano Me Group. This has specifically been done to highlight the important fact that the two formations form part of a single, stratigraphically continuous succession (Fig. 8). Of previous researchers in the area, only Elber (1939b) and Paul (1941) believed this to be the case (Fig. 2): their Basal Sandstone Series is equivalent to the Oyo Formation and it is shown passing conformably up into their Tuff-Marl Series which is largely equivalent to the Gawo Formation (Fig. 2). Pubellier et ul. (1992) also show a continuous sequence lacking an unconformity between the Oligocene and Miocence. Their stratigraphic scheme is however markedly different to any other, as sedimentary units that most workers have placed in the Oligocene or Miocene are denoted as Eocene (Fig. 2). However, Douville (1912) and the present study have shown that many of the Oligocene and Lower Miocene sedimentary rocks on Nias contain reworked Eocene foraminifera. sometimes in great abundance. All other researchers placed an unconformity between the Oligocene (Unit A) and the Miocene (Unit B) and provided two different sets of reasons which arc discussed separately below: I. Researchers such as Burrough and Power (196X). Burrough and Neilson (1969) and Harbury and Kallagher (for the Banyak Islands, 1991) followed Hopper (1940) original hypothesis that: s un important angular unconformity separates Units A and B _. .evidences of its presence are: (a) the slight metamorphism

354

M A. Samuel rt al.

of Unit A, as shown by phyllitic shales and distorted ripplemarks and the complete lack of metamorphism in Unit B and younger units; (b) the presence of intrusive bodies in Unit A, and the lack of them in Unit B and younger units: (c) the greater coarseness of the basal parts of unit B than the higher parts, believed to indicate a transgressive overlap of Unit B on Unit A. These workers never actually observed a contact between the two units, whereas the contact, where observed during this study, is always seen to be gradational and conformable (for example in the Me river section, Fig. 8). It is true that the rocks of the Oyo Formation (Hopper 1940 Unit A) have generally been s more deeply buried than those of the Gawo Formation (Unit B), but this does not necessarily imply the presence of an unconformity (Samuel 1994). The evidence of (c) also does not imply an unconformity and furthermore the change in lithological character described above can be related to a number of factors, including changes in eustatic sea-level, which led to changes in provenance. The description of the intrusive bodies mentioned by Hopper (1940) fits observations made during this study of the melanges. It is the varied recognition and interpretation of these melanges that has led to the second set of stratigraphic interpretations discussed below. 2. Djamal et al. (1991), Harbury and Kallagher (for Nias 1991) and Pubellier et al. (1992) followed Moore and Karig (1980) in placing rocks equivalent to the Oyo Formation solely in melanges and complexes at the base of the stratigraphy. These complexes are shown unconformably overlain by Miocene sedimentary rocks which can be correlated with the Gawo Formation. Whilst the rocks of the Oyo Formation form an important component of the melanges on the islands, coherent Oyo Formation sections are exposed in a number of localities (as originally reported by Elber 1939b). Furthermore rocks of the Gawo Formation (and all younger formations) are in cases intruded by, and/or incorporated into, the melanges. It is for this reason that the melanges do not appear in the new stratigraphic scheme (Fig. 6).

The name for the Oyo Formation has been adapted from the Ojo Beds of Burrough and Power (1968). A type section was not strictly defined by these workers but the name implies that the Oyo river was the type section. This is a fairly suitable choice but, because the Oyo Formation does not occur along all parts of the river, it is suggested that the type section be limited to the stretch of the Oyo river between the cross-island road and the confluence with the Moi river (Fig. 3). Interbedded micaceous sandstones and mudstones and large melange blocks of massive micaceous sandstones and conglomerates are well exposed along this portion of the river. The name for the Idano Me Group was taken from the Me river of central Nias where the Oyo Formation has been mapped passing conformably up into the Gawo Formation (Fig. 3, Samuel et a/. 1995). The type area for the Gawo Formation has been chosen as the upper and middle reaches of the Gawo river (Fig. 10). The river exposes one of the most complete and least deformed sections of the Gawo Formation. Further excellent exposures occur also in upstream tributaries to the Gawo (Fig. 10). Two distinctive marker horizons have been recognised within the Idano Me Group. The lower horizon occurs towards the top of the Oyo Formation and comprises a set of volcanic-rich conglomerates, pebbly and epiclastic sandstones (Fig. 8). The horizon is well exposed in the Moi river, 50-150 m downstream of the cross-island road and is therefore called the Moi Member. Although the section is folded and intruded by melanges (Figs 3, 4 and 9) its maximum thickness can be determined as 15m. The second marker horizon, termed the Gawo Formation Conglomerate Marker Horizon, occurs towards the top of the Gawo Formation and comprises broadly similar lithologies to the Moi Member. The horizon can be mapped along much of eastern Nias (Figs 4 and 10) and consistently yields a Lower Miocene age (Tfl lower, Fig. 6).
Thickness and uge range

Lithology

and occurrence It is impossible to determine the thickness of the Oyo Formation by direct methods because of the structural disruption of the rocks and the paucity of fauna within them. Of 27 samples analysed for microfossils only eight yielded age information. Ages obtained range from NP21 lower (Early Oligocene) to Te5 (Early Miocene). Reworked fauna are apparent in some of the samples; a sample from the Moi river, Nias, with an age of P21-N4 (Mid-Oligocene to Early Miocene) and a sample from Bangkaru Island, Banyak Islands, with an age of N4-N6 (Early Miocene) contained reworked fauna of NP15NP20 age (Mid-Eocene to Late Eocene). It is possible also that the Lower Oligocene fauna recorded in the oldest sample may also be reworked. The earliest age for the deposition of the Oyo Formation cannot be categorically determined from the dates obtained during this study and unfortunately previous researchers did not record any dates from mudrocks. The formation cannot however be older than Mid-Eocene for two reasons: firstly conglomerates from the formation contain limestone clasts with Eocene

The facies and subfacies of the Oyo and Gawo Formations are listed in Table 3. The two formations can be distinguished in terms of age and can in most cases be separated in the field; whilst thin bedded facies of the Oyo and Gawo Formations are not always easily distinguishable, massive micaceous sandstones only occur within the Oyo Formation (Fig. 7c and Fig. 9). Rocks of the Oyo and Gawo Formations have been mapped over large areas of Nias and the Banyak Islands (Figs 4 and 5). Coherent sequences of the two formations occur also within many areas portrayed as sediment and melange complex on Figures 4 and 5. Exposures throughout the islands are generally very good (Fig. 7d). All successions have however been subject to deformation and care must be taken in reconstructing the original stratigraphy within the formations. As with the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex rocks, lithological information can be obtained by studying the blocks and clasts of the Oyo and Gawo Formations preserved within the melanges.

Stratigraphy

for the islands of the Sumatran Forearc

355

Nummulites (Douville 1912) and secondly the underlying Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex contains material of Mid-Eocene age.

The succession exposed in the Gawo river comprises the thickest section through the Gawo Formation measured in the study area: 3.3 km of latest Oligocene

The ldano Me Group ,+,,+, 6.6

I I
I G.II
G.IV %I G.VII G,.VIII km -1

1 Middle Miocene
Gawo Formation conglomerate marker horizon !3 2 : 3

G.III

I G.I
G.V

Csform&le @ta&$acQnou&x!e~e area (latest Oligocene to earliest Miocene)

_Mk&Oj&ceneI ?Latest Ecocene

- !3nn%E~n~2~:~~~~ saristones (group A below) 8

** - Volcanic-rich conglomerates, pe.bbl and epiclastic sands L nes (group E below) Rounded quartz, vein quartz, polycrystalline quartz, metamorphics (schist, gneiss, slate), chert, chalcedony and granite.

Angular to sub-angular metamorphics

Rounded to Contemporaneous kli abraded shallow 0 marine b&lasts and carbonaceous materia

lphiolite and andesite

0
c Pulsed input of rounded to sub-rounded andesite and minor dacite Tuffs. cuspate g *y;Z;t

Contemporanoeus planktic 8 bath al era benthic foramini Y and radiolaria

Rounded Eocene limestone lithoclasts and reworked Eocene bioclasts

Fig. 8. Schematic stratigraphy and provenance groups of the ldano Me Group. The thickness on the lithologic column is the maximum as deduced from direct measurements and structural reconstructions (Samuel and Harbury in press). Detailed field and petrographic studies of sections on Nias. the Banyak and Batu Islands and Siberut have led to the identification of a total of nine distinct provenance groups for the ldano Me Group.

356

M A. Samuel et al.
Table 3. Facies and subfacies of the Idano Me Group
FACIES Gawo Formation SUBFACIES

G.I-Stratified non-tuffaceous clast-supported conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones G.II-Massive calcareous sandstones G.II-Pebbly sandstones and epiclastic sandstones and volcanic-rich conglomerates G.IV-Tuffaceous sandstones, siltstones and claystones G.V-Silty claystones G.VI-Biogenic claystones G.VII.I-Detached strata G.VII Contorted/disturbed/chaotic strata G.VII.2-Coherent folded strata G.VII.3-Brecciated and balled strata G.VII.4-Matrix-supported conglomerates G.VIII-Very coarse breccia Oyo Formation 0.1. I-Massive tnicaceous sandstones and siltstones O.I-Very thickly bedded micaceous O.I.2-Stratified very thickly bedded micaceous sandstones and siltstones sandstones and siltstones O.II-Thickly to thinly bedded micaceous sandstones and siltstones O.III-Silty claystones O.IV-Pebbly sandstones, conglomerates and epiclastic sandstones

and Early Miocene sedimentary rocks are monoclinally tilted to the north-east. The maximum thickness of the formation must be greater still as the base of the section is missing; from reconstruction of structural cross-sections the maximum thickness is estimated as 3.8 km (Samuel and Harbury in press). A large number of mudstone and sandstone samples from the Gawo Formation have been analysed for planktic and benthic foraminifera and for nannofossils. Many of the samples have yielded reliable and tightly defined ages and excellent biostratigraphic control through the Formation has been obtained over the study area. The contact of the Gawo Formation with the Oyo Formation is diachronous. In eastern Nias a sample from the lowest parts of the exposed Gawo Formation section yielded a data of Tel-4 upper whilst in other areas of Nias and in the Banyak Islands dating of over 50 samples reveals the base as within the earliest Early Miocene (N4 lower). The youngest Gawo Formation rocks are of Mid-Miocene age (Fig. 6).
Palaeobathymetty

A large number of mudrocks sampled during this study from the Oyo and particularly the Gawo Formations have been rigorously analysed for palaeobathymetric information. Caution is necessary when using microfossil palaeobathymetric analysis especially for deep marine redeposited sedimentary rocks. During this study the hemipelagic upper e divisions of turbidites were preferentially sampled (Facies G.VI-biogenic claystones) however in many cases it was not possible to distinguish such divisions from lower e divisions (Facies G.V-silty claystones). In many cases the mudrocks sampled yielded both indicative deep marine benthic foraminifera and in addition shallower (sublittoral) fauna. Many of the Gawo Formation sandstones on Nias, whilst clearly turbiditic and probably deep marine, contain redeposited shallow marine fauna and it is therefore a reasonable assumption that shallow faunas have been redeposited downslope in both sandstones and

mudrocks. In all analyses therefore the palaeodepth has been estimated from identification of the deepest benthic foraminifera preserved. A similar strategy was used by Billman (Moore et al. 1980b) for a previous palaeobathymetric study of the sedimentary rocks on Nias. It must be noted, however, that samples may not necessarily have contained or preserved the deepest marine fauna. A further problem is that many of the taxa used for depth determinations are not age diagnostic and therefore older reworked benthic foraminifera may bias the data. Reworking of foraminifera has been identified in some Gawo Formation mudrocks from analyses of planktic foraminifera. Whilst most workers use the same indicative fauna in their depth zonation schemes (Pflum and Frerichs 1976) different depths are assigned to the same assemblages depending on geographic location (Fig. 11). The depths used in this study are as for Simon Petroleums Indonesian Scheme based on Murray (1973) and are broadly similar to the Union Oil Indonesian scheme used by Billman for Nias (Moore et al. 1980b, Fig. 11). The base for the lower bathyal zone is taken as 4000 m according to the level of the CCD estimated for the area during the Early Miocene (Berger and Winterer 1974; Van Andel 1975: Moore et al. 1980b). Moore et al. (1980b) suggest that the basal sedimentary rocks of their Nias Beds were deposited below the CCD as they lack fauna. The extensive study presented here largely adds support to this interpretation as many samples placed, from stratigraphic mapping, at the base of the Gawo Formation (equivalent to the lower Nias beds) were barren. Furthermore, the majority of Oyo Formation sedimentary samples (shown in this study to be overlain conformably by the Gawo Formation) are barren. Two samples (Localities Moi 3, Ba 6, Fig. 12) of the Oyo Formation however contained both age diagnostic nannofossils and planktic foraminifera and also depth diagnostic benthic foraminifera. The depths indicated are lower bathyal (Fig. 12). Moore et al. (1980b) state that the sedimentary rocks in the East Nias Basin record a shallowing in of deposition from lower bathyal environment

A. Toloso 1

Fig. Y).Sedimentarv i lops of 4~ted O!o t ormation sections to illustrate wme of the features of Facies <>.I. 0.11. 0.11. and O.IV (Table 3). Note the logs are not all drawn at the same scale. The locations of the river sections from \vhIch rhe logs were measured are shuun on Fig. 3. Beds are labelled tiith their facies types. The full extent of the exposed sections for logs A. D and E is shohn. Lops B and D are representative parts of larger sections. Note log E was measured through part of the Moi Member characterised by Facies O.IV**-volcanic-rich conglomerates. pebbly and epiclastic sandstones.

358

M A. Samuel rt al.

:;:,. -Ill I Ill ll::-

.,
.

..
.,

..
.;._I.; ; :.I .
.(

..

..

_:.j .?I . ..;..

.

111 II ni

Stratigraphy

for the islands of the Sumatran

Forearc

360

M A. Samuel et al. However, Fig. 12 shows that many Lower Miocene Gawo Formation rocks appear to have been deposited in middle upper bathyal water depths. and The two samp!es from !oca!ities I?_ 8 and S 2, ! 6, plotting in the sublittoral zone, were both stratigraphitally at the top of the Gawo Formation and record the transition from deep marine to shallow marine deposition (Fig. 12). When the data are plotted as a whole, trends are obscured (Fig. 12). It is shown below that shallow marine rocks were being deposited on Nias at the same time as deep marine lower bathyal sedimentation was occurring elsewhere on the island. The palaeobathymetric data for the Gawo Formation indicate that deep marine sedimentation under widely varying water depths occurred during the Early Miocene.

throughout the Lower Miocene to middle bathyal in the Upper Miocene and upper bathyal to shelfal in the youngest slope sediments (also Upper
MiWPtlPI ,*.V ..v,. HnwlW6v __ .._,_.

. m

n?a?ly s~JccessiQ!E 0

Niac _ . ..._)

Gawo Formation rocks are conformably overlain by Olodano Formation sedimentary rocks (Fig. 6). It is shown below that the rocks of the Olodano Formation may be confidently interpreted as shallow marine, despite the deep marine interpretation of Moore et al. (1980b). The palaeobathymetric trend therefore is one of shallowing up through the Gawo Formation but with shallow marine conditions reached by the time of Olodano Formation deposition (diachronous Lower to Middle Miocene, Fig. 6). Such a progression is clearly supported when suites of samples from discrete stratigraphic successions are plotted as shown for rocks from the Gawo river (Fig. 12).

GENERAL BATHYMETRIC ZONAIION (Tipeword ef 81. 1966 8 Van Hinte 1978) .---_-----Nerllk ------

COSMOPOLITAN LATE CENOZOIC ZONATION

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIAN BORDERLAND

ANDAMAN SEA

SUNDASHELF

NIAS ISLAND PREVIOUS

NIAS THIS STUDY (Simon Petroleum I Murray 1973) mer 20 -, OO!s!? 2ule&#t+

et al. 1986)

(Ingle 1980)

(Frerichs 1970)

(B&as

1978)

(Moore et 1980b)

a/.

Upper Bathyal +0*

Upper Bathyal

Upper Bathyal UpperBathyal ::::::::::::::#

Upper Bathyal

Middle Bathyal

Middle Bathyal Upper Middle Bathyal

_._+j,o__j.:.:.:.:.:.:.:{ ........ ....... ........ .......

........ ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ........ .......

.... .. ........< . . . . . . . .

n
Upper Bathyal

lOOO_

----1ooW-

........ .......
........ ....... ........

Middle Bathyal

1500_

Lower Bathyal

Lower Bathyal

MiddleBathyal

s:*:m:s:*:.:*:s

Lower Middle Bathyal 2000 -

....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... . . -1 . . . . . . .. . . : : : : .boS&ti . :

Middle Bathyal

---eOO~

+000-

2500 _

Upper Abyssal

AbySSal

Lower Bathyal

....... ....... ...... _1: i :::::*-: .......

....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ........
Lower Bathyal LowerBathyal .:~:.:.:.:.:.:~

. . ....... . . ....... ........ ....... ...... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......

..*.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .

. . .

oo+

Lower Bathyal

3000 -

Lower Abyssal

3500

........ ....... ........ ....... .............. ........ ....... ........ ....... ........ ....... ........ .......
schemes.

Fig. I I. Comparison

of the palaeobathymetric scheme used in this study with the main published The diagram is modified from Roberts (1993).

Stratigraphy
Interprctrrtion

for the islands

of the Sumatran

Forearc

361

A variety of facies are defined for the Idano Me Group. All these facies can be readily interpreted as deep marine (e.g. Pickering er ul. 1989). The thick successions of sedimentary rocks record a history of deep marine deposition from in many cases initial palaeodepths probably below the CCD. Separate successions generally show a shallowing-up progression through the Lower Miocene and in some areas the Middle Miocene and many of the successions are overlain conformably by rocks of the Olodano Formation which are described below.

schemes, such as that of Elber (1939b), whose work on Nias was restricted to eastern and southern regions (Fig. 2). The work of this study has shown that the limestones discovered by previous workers to the north and east of Tuangku Island, Banyak Islands should be assigned to the Gunungsitoli Formation (Fig. 5). True Olodano Formation limestones have however been discovered on the west coast of Tuangku Island (Banyak Islands) during this study (Fig. 5).

The Olodano Formation

The majority of previous researchers working on Nias have recognised the presence of limestones within the Neogene succession but generally these have not been defined as formations or members (Fig. 2). Paul (1941) recognised lithological and age differences between two limestone horizons exposed in the Gawo river of eastern Nias, whilst some other workers (e.g. Burrough and Power 1968) wrongly believed the two limestone horizons were the same section structurally repeated (Fig. 2). The youngest set of limestones recognised on Nias are of Late Pliocene to Recent age and many workers have included these limestones in their stratigraphic schemes (Fig. 2). Three distinct limestone-dominated successions have been differentiated and mapped in the field during this study (Fig. 6): I. The youngest limestones form the Gunungsitoli Formation. 2. The second limestone succession occurs as a prominent member within the Lahomie Formation. 3. The oldest limestone dominated-succession comprises the Olodano Formation. All workers on Nias, with the exception of Hopper (1940) whose area of study was restricted to north-western areas of the island, have identified limestones which can be correlated with the Olodano Formation.

The type section for the Olodano Formation is chosen as the part of the Gawo river in the vicinity of Olodano village (Fig. 3 ). The section is easily accessible and although the river is subject to extremely rapid and dangerous flooding, exposure is good and structural complications are minimal; the rocks dip steeply to the north-east. Two main facies associations can be determined for different areas of Nias and the Banyak Islands (Table 4). The section near Olodano village provides a good example of one of these facies associations (Fig. 14). A good and readily accessed example of the second facies association can be found in a road cut near the village of Sihareo, west of Gunungsitoli (Figs 3 and 15A).

The facies and subfdcies of the Olodano Formation are shown on Fig. 13. The Olodano Formation successions are characterised by the occurrence of limestones and can be readily differentiated in the field from the underlying Gawo Formation and the overlying Lahomie Formation. Rocks of the Olodano Formation form a prominent ridge running along the eastern coast of Nias (Gomo Sub-basin, Figs 3 and 4). A distinctive conglomerate unit, of identical age (Tfl lower) to the Gawo Formation conglomerate marker horizon, is apparent towards the base of some Olodano Formation sections (Fig. 6, e.g. in the Gido river). Olodano Formation rocks also occur in central parts of Nias (Mujoi Sub-basin, Figs 4 and 6) but are lacking in north-western areas (Lahewa Sub-basin). It is not surprising therefore that the stratigraphic schemes of workers, such as Hopper (1940) for north-western Nias. cannot be correlated with

Over 100 Olodano Formation samples, collected during this study, have been accurately dated. The majority of the samples have been dated by identifications of benthic foraminifera in limestone thin sections. Ages have been independently confirmed from nannofossil and planktic foraminiferal analyses of weakly cemented interbedded lithologies. The comprehensive age dating has revealed the complex nature of the temporal and spatial distribution of the Olodano Formation, particularly on Nias (Fig. 6). In all sections examined stratigraphic contacts between the Gawo and Olodano Formations are conformable; the age of this contact however varies (Fig. 6). The thickness of different Olodano Formation sections on Nias varies considerably. The only section directly measured is that of the type section at Olodano (250 m, Fig. 14). A greater thickness, in some other areas of Nias, is determined from structural reconstructions. with the thickest section discovered occurring at Sisobahilli (500 m). In many cases however it is not possible to accurately ascertain the true stratigraphic thickness due to structural complexities. The Olodano formation conglomerate marker horizon, where present. attains a maximum thickness of about 20 m.
Pulueohrith~~metr~~ urzd interprrtcrtion

All workers apart from Moore et d. (1980b) have suggested that the limestones corresponding to those of the Olodano Formation are shallow marine in origin. Moore rt ul. (1980b) do not distinguish the Lower and Middle Miocene limestones in their stratigraphy of Nias. They do, however acknowledge the existence of the well defined limestone marker horizon B of Paul (1941 and Fig. 2). They suggest the limestone represents debris shed into the basin from a shallow area up-slope. To

d 4
E

4
LC

I Up. Bathyal
E

Middle Bathyal
E 8

Lower Bathyal
E

E g
0 8

Q
N

. ..^

,:

. p,

,.,>.

OL.III-Skeletal

& micritic limestones

OL.VI-Mangrove-rich

mudrocks

,.

_ ._~

364
Table 4. Relative abundance
Facies association

M A. Samuel et al.
of the facies comprising the two facies associations for the Olodano Formation differentiated over Nias and the Banyak Islands
I II

Occurrence

Much of Nias and the Banyak Islands

0L.I Povites-rich limestones OL.11 Algal-rich limestones OL.111 Skeletal and micritic limestones OL.IV Impure limestones 0L.V Hybrid wackestones OL.VI Mangrove-rich mudrocks

Very rare Very rare Common Common Common Unrecorded

The area of the Gomo Sub-basin to the west of Gunungsitoli and southern-central the region of the GomoSub-basin Common Common Common Common Common Common

support a deep marine environment of deposition they report palaeobathymetric data from foraminifera recovered both above and below the limestone sections. The presence of bathyal foraminifera in the overlying and underlying formations does not however in any way

imply that the Olodano Formation lithologies themselves should be interpreted as deep marine. Moore et al. (1980b) report that the limestone they studied in the Moawo contained deep water foraminifera within it. This is contrary to the results of previous studies by other workers. In addition a large number of limestone samples collected from Nias during this study have been examined and no deep water foraminifera have been observed. Porites-rich limestones and algal-rich limestones are not recorded in previous literature although they commonly occur over significant areas of Nias (Table 4 and Fig. 16). Detailed sedimentological examination of these and all the other facies of the Olodano Formation leaves little doubt that they were deposited in shallow marine, predominantly inner to middle shelf environments (Fig. 16 and Samuel 1994).

eastern Nias can be distinguished from those in western Nias (e.g. Fig. 17a). The successions are however largely time correlative and share important lithological characteristics that allow them to be treated as a distinct formation; it has therefore been decided to group these two successions as one formation, the Lahomie Formation, in the new stratigraphic scheme (Fig. 6).
Lithology and occurrence

The Lahomie Formation

Introduction and synonymy

The majority of workers studying the outer part of the forearc during the last twenty years did not subdivide the Miocene successions into separate formations. This is largely because the upper parts of the Miocene are poorly exposed and it is not easy to collect field and biostratigraphic data. Moore et al. (1980b) and Harbury and Kallagher (1991) recognised one continuous Miocene succession whilst other workers such as Bradley (1973) and Burrough and Power (1968) believed that Upper Miocene rocks were absent and placed an unconformity between the Middle Miocene and Pliocene successions (Fig. 2). Two early workers on Nias, Elber (1939b) and Hopper (1940) examined different areas of Nias in great detail and they were able to subdivide the Miocene. Correlation between their two stratigraphic schemes is difficult and has led to some
confusion in subsequent literature (e.g. van Bemmelen 1949). It has been found during this study that the

Table 5 lists the facies identified within the Lahomie Formation and outlines their relative abundance in western parts of Nias (Lahewa Sub-basin), eastern parts of Nias (Gomo Sub-basin) and the Banyak Islands. The sedimentary rocks exposed in the Mujoi Subbasin are generally of formations older than the Lahomie Formation (Fig. 4) and it has been difficult to fully determine the exact characteristics of the Lahomie Formation in this central part of Nias. In general however the pattern of facies is gradational between that recorded in eastern and western areas of the island. It has been possible to map the Lahomie Formation over Nias with confidence as the rocks have a distinct appearance on SAR images. They are distributed over large areas of eastern and north-western Nias (Fig. 4). Two marker units, the Lahomie Formation tuff and limestone marker horizons (Fig. 6) are apparent in eastern Nias where the resistant lithologies comprising these units form readily mappable ridges (Fig. 4). The Lahomie Formation has also been discovered on some of the easternmost of the Banyak Islands during this study (Fig. 5).
Type areas The type section for the Lahomie Formation extends 8 km inland from the west coast of Nias, along the Lahomie river (Fig. 3). This section is chosen largely because it provides one of the most accessible and reasonably exposed set of exposures through the Formation in western Nias. The lithologies exposed are tuffs and marls whilst diatomites occur in a small hill to

Middle

Miocene

to Lower

Pliocene

successions

in

the north. An easily accessible succession through the Lahomie Formation in eastern Nias occurs along the

Stratigraphy

for the islands of the Sumatran Forearc

Thickness and up range

365

Gawo river to the north-east of Olodano village (Fig. 3); thick succession of thin to thickly bedded litharenites, foraminiferal packstones and rare conglomerates is moderately well exposed.

The age range of the Lahomie Formation is very well constrained by a comprehensive biostratigraphic data

l&-upcl&
Platy corals Branching corals Solitary ad massive corals Rounded coral cliatr Rbodoliths A@?

8Sl x

i c m
Sand Grawi

Fg. 14. Sedimentary log of the Olodano Formation type section in the Gawo river. A complete section through the Formation is well exposed in the river. The Olodano Formation conformably overlies the Gawo Formation and is conformably overlain by the Lahomie Formation. The inset provides the key to this log and also those shown in Figs I5 and 18.

366

M A. Samuel et al. B. Sisobahilli A. Sihareo

End of exwwre

6.0 m

C. Onowaembo 1
60 m End of exposure -! --I7

At least30 m of beddedmudstones

Lahomie :

and floatstones

Fig. 15. (a) Sedimentary log through a well exposed fresh road cut near Onowaembo. There can be little doubt that these Olodano Formation limestones were deposited in a shallow marine environment. The abundance of Porites with platy morphologies, in particular, suggests deposition within carbonate mud banks. (b) Progression from the Olodano Formation to the Lahomie Formation well exposed at Sisobahilli. (c) Synchronous but contrasting Olodano-Lahomie Formation transition at Onowaembo, about 6 km to the north-east of Sisobahilli. The geographic location of the logged sections is shown in Fig 3. For the key to the logs see Fig. 14.

set. The sedimentary rocks range in age from NN5 lower (latest Early Miocene) to NN12 (Early Pliocene) in western Nias and parts of central Nias (Fig. 6). In eastern Nias and other parts of central Nias the

Formation ranges in age from N 13 (Mid-Miocene) to NN 12 (Early Pliocene) (Fig. 6). In most cases the basal contact of the Lahomie Formation can be readily identified and mapped in the

Fig. 16. (a) In situ Porites with a coralline algal packstone matrix recovered from Sisobahilli. This Olodano Formation bafflestone (Subfacies OL.I.3) was deposited in a shallow marine environment. Plane polarised light, horizontal field of view is 8 mm. (b) Field photograph of Olodano Formation rhodoliths (Subfacies 0L.III.4) supported in a calcarenite matrix from the Tumori river, eastern Nias. The sediment was deposited in a moderately high energy inner shelf environment. (c) Branching Porites coated with larger benthic encrusting benthic foraminifera and red algae in an Olodano Formation rudstone (Facies Class OL.I.IA) sampled at Sisobahilli, east-central Nias. Note also the smaller benthic foraminifera encrusted onto the Porites. Plane polarised light, horizontal field of view is 8 mm. (d) Olodano Formation benthic foraminiferal packstone (Facies Class OL.III.IA) from the Gawo river by Olodano village, eastern Nias. The larger foraminifera are predominantly Nephrolepidina oneatensis. The sediment was deposited as a shallow marine shoal. Plane polarised light, horizontal field of view is 8 mm.

Stratigraphy

for the islands of the Sum&an

Forearc

367

Stratigraphy
Table

for the islands

of the Sumatran
Formation

Forearc

369

5. Facies of the Lahomie Eastern NiiIS Rare Unrecorded Unrecorded Common Relati\;ely
common

FAClES L.I Tuffs L.11 Marls: calcilutites L.111 Diatomites L.IV Sandstones (litharenites) L. V Foraminiferal packstones L.VI Mudstones L.VII Conglomerates

Western Nias Common Common Rare Rare Unrecorded Rare Unrecorded

Banyak Islands Rare Unrecorded Unrecorded Common Relatively common

Rare Ver) rare

Rare Unrecorded

Table 6. Palaeobathymetric data for samples from A) eastern Nias and the Banyak Islands and B) western Nias. For each area the data are arranged in chronostratigraphic order. The locations of the sections from which the samples were taken are shown on Fig. 3. The zonation scheme used is as for the other formations: IN = inner neritic. ON = outer neritic, DMN = deep middle neritic. DON = deep outer ncritic. SUB = shallow upper bathyal. UB = upper bathyal and MB = Middle bathyal Locality (A) Facies Age NNl2-Nl5 NNl2:Nl8 NNlZ. NlX NIX NNII NIX-I9 NNIIU Nl7-NIX Nl6-NIY 20 NNII,Nl7 NNI I NNII NNI I Nl6-I7 NNII Nl6-I7 NNI I Nl6-I7 NNIO-I I Nl6-N17 NNIO Nl6-I9 NNIOU NN6-Y Nl3-I6 NN9 N 12-1X NI -Nl3 NOT N4 Age NNII N17 Nl7-NIY Nl7-IX NNSL NX-9 NN5L I alaeobathymetrq ON ON-LIB ON-UB ON IJ B ON ON ON-UB ON UB DON-UB DON-SUB DON-UB UB UB UB ON ON UB IN Palaeobathymetrq L: B UB DON-UB UB IN

P. Baguk I. Masio I. Ds.iauwa Lahusa Mas~o I. Gido

I. Gawo Bawogowasali I. G;,w, I, ~;a\vo I. sowu I. Dsjauwa I. Majaya P. Balai I. Dsjauwa Rd to Alasa Rd 10 Alasa I. Moru
Onowaembo Rd 10 Alasa Rd to Alasa Locality (B)

L.VI L.VI L.VI L.IV L.VI L.IV L.1 L.IV L.IV L.IV L.VI L.VI L.VI L.VI L.IV L.IV L.VI L.VI L.IV L.IV
Facies L.ll L.11 L.IV L.II L.III

Afulu I. Oyo I. Dumula I. Lahomie Lahomie

Table 7. Facies of the Tetehosi Tetehosi Formation

and Gunungsitoli

Formations

Facies T. I Mudstones and claystones Facie\ T. I I Quartz arenites with skeletal detritus and clast-supported conglomerates Facies T.111 Matrix-supported conglomerates and chaotic strata Facie\ T. IV Heterolithic quartz arenites and mudstone\ Facles T.V Organic-rich deposits Facles T.VI Tuffs -__ Gunungsitoli Formation Facies (3~1.1 Facies Gu.11 Facies Cu.111 Coral-rich limestones Mangrove-rich mudrocks Skeletal and micritic limestones

field. In western Nias, Lahomie Formation lithologies are readily distinguished from the Gawo Formation lithologies that they unconformably overlie and in eastern Nias and the Banyak and Batu Islands there is a clear change in facies between the limestone-dominated facies of the Olodano Formation and the conformabl> overlying Lahomie Formation lithologies. The Lahomic Formation is itself unconformably overlain by distinctive formations (Tetehosi and Gunungsitoli) throughout the study area. The full thickness of the Lahomie Formation can be ascertained as 1.5 km along the relatively undeformed section in the Gawo river. eastern Nias. Greater degrees of deformation in other parts of the study area make further accurate determinations of the thickness of the Formation impossible. The thickness of the Lahomic

M A. Samuel

et al.

Clasts

B = basalt T=tuff M = mudstone

45

/ \

Coarsens up,-_) detailed section : from top

\, ! 30

0 &snt Sand

I_
15

Gradually coarsens down, detail from base

,/ /

1.2m

)
r

Gradually coarsens up, _ detail from base

I

\
,I

Cla & 81

&d

Fig. 18. Sedimentary log through the Tetehosi Formation type section. rn?r~C.ninn_Alnw Ullll.. 5ll.P wrnoni WVU1.,, U I. II 11nitr Ylw I ~ x.A The w=dims=nta uyyuu +n hawe hwn 6 ~ ,Y. 1 L .,U.AL.A.UII.Y ~nn~ar L .&.&.I IIll storm-dominated shelfal environments.

Both
&nna;td .. yY.LY

coarsening-up
;n lull U.LUY 1.1 fcan_Adts<

and
anA U.S..

Formation tuff marker horizon is about 5 m whilst the Lahomie Formation limestone marker horizon ranges in thickness along strike from 50 m (Masio river) to 4 m (Gawo river) and less than 1 m (Sowu river).

Palaeohathymetry

and interpretation

Thirty three samples from the Lahomie Formation were analysed for palaeobathymetry and all have yielded useful information. As with the analyses of the older

Fig. 17. (a) Gently folded interbedded tuffs (Facies L.1) and marls (Facics L.11) of the Lahomie Formation exposed in the Oyo river of central Nias. The tuffs commonly shows turbiditic features and were redeposited in upper bathyal water depths. (b) Tetehosi Formation conglomerate (Facies T.11) from the type section. The majority of the rounded clasts are Late Miocene mudstones and tuffs although clasts from all the older formations have been identified within deposits such as these. The rock also contains a significant component of bioclastic debris. (c) Elevated Gunungsitoli Formation reef (Facics Gu.1) on the west coast on Lidjung Batu Island. Banyak Island Group. The reef is composed primarily of coral framestone. (d) Part of rhe cxtrnLi\e esposurcs of G:.!Xc: t ~~r-n1:\t!on equrvaicnt c&-t-p m;rr irrc- \c-d;lllctiidirv r,:<kc:: ~~~*-~~~nh~rllnrr ._.. 4 wide range of fac~es have been logged on the island and the rocks .,...U..Z .. . ...= lcl:tnd show remarkable similarities to those ot the Gawo Formatton on tiras

Stratigraphy

for the islands of the Sumatran Forearc

373

formations, in all cases the depth has been estimated from identifications of the deepest benthic fauna preserved in the samples. Sedimentation in eastern Nias and the eastern Banyak Islands continued conformably through the Middle Miocene despite the change from deposition of Olodano Formation to Lahomie Formation facies. Two conformable but contrasting progressions from the Olodano Formation to the Lahomie Formation are well exposed at Onowaembo and Sisobahilli (Figs 15B and 15C). At Sisobahilli limestones of the Olodano Formation are overlain by litharenites and conglomerates of the

Lahomie Formation (Fig. 15b). At Onowaembo. however, the Olodano Formation shallow marine limestones are blanketed by a thick succession of mudstones (Fig. 1%) deposited in an outer neritic environment. The carbonate mud banks appear to have suffered a drowning event and this interpretation is strengthened by the recognition of a bored hardground at the Olodano Formation boundary (Fig. 1%). In other less well exposed sections such as in the Gawo, Gido and Majaya river sections the limestones of the Olodano Formation are blanketed bv several hundred metres ot fine litharenites and muds&es.

km

.Q 0 15

Folded Lahomie Fm. limestones NNll / N16-19-20 overlain b I; unungsitoli Fm. e Ievated ree fx a Q

marls,J. Wittnebel (pen comm. 1992)

D 0

Q-ternary ret+ (pers D

Lahomie Fm. marls,J. Wittnebel CO-. 1992)

Moi Member k Olodano Fm. limestones

GawoFm. / f0lliPd SandstnnPc and mudstones (Te5)

LahomiePm. laminated shales

;itoli Fm.

sitoli Fm. IQuatemary Gunungsitoli Fm. calcarenites and reef

Bojo

5 -. Recent beach rock

I-.ig. 19. Map 01lithologies

and structures

recorded

on the I3:1tu Islands

during

the reconnnissancc

trip

374

M A. Samuel

et al.

Indian Ocean

Trench

Accretionaty wedge

,- Nias 7

Forearc basin

Sumatran fault zone, Coyzytal mag;cv;r;rc &

11 I(B) Early Miocene (NN3j

,--Nias -,

Fig. 20. (Legend on ,f;7llowing page)

Stratigraphy

for the islands

of the Sumatran

Forearc

375

The reported rise in eustatic sea-level during the Early Miocene levelled out during the Mid-Miocene and the trend into the Late Miocene is one of decrease in eustatic sea-level (Haq rt (II. 1987). Haq rt ul. (1987) record a sharp drop in sea-level corresponding to a time shortly after the Olodano-Lahomie Formation boundary. There is little evidence for this event in the sedimentary rocks on Nias. The limestones of the Olodano Formation show no evidence of sub-aerial exposure and karstification. Furthermore, there is no evidence for an unconformity within the Lahomie Formation. Instead the sedimentary rocks record a progression to outer neritic: upper bathyal sedimentation (Table 6). The common factor in all the Olodano-Lahomie Formation transitions is a deepening in environment and a concomitant increase in siliciclastic input. This progression cannot be explained by reference to the sea-level curves. It can however be explained by a pattern of differential subsidence, with the greatest subsidence in basinal areas. Subsidence must have been sufficient, not only to counteract the effects of the eustatic drop in sea-level. but also to provide accommodation space for the relatively thick and conformable succession of Lahomie Formation sediments. There is very strong evidence from age dating to suggest that Lahomie Formation sedimentation began considerably earlier in western Nias and Siberut than in eastern Nias (Fig. 6). The oldest sedimentary rocks of the Lahomie Formation in western Nias and Siberut are very well dated as NN5 lower, whereas Olodano Formation sedimentation was occurring in eastern Nias at this time (Fig. 6). The Lahomie Formation unconformably overlies the older formations in western Nias (Fig. 6). The evidence for this unconformity is based on a number of lines of evidence including excellent biostratigraphic resolution, aerial photographic mapping. structural analysis and apatite fission track analysis (Samuel 1994; Samuel ct trl. 199.5). The diatomites of western Nias occur towards the base of the formation and their palaeobathymetry is indicated as inner neritic. As with the facies association of eastern Nias subsequent sedimentation seems to have occurred consistently in outer neritic to upper bathyal water depths (Table 6). The succession therefore records a transition from subaerial erosion to marine, outer neritic to upper bathyal deposition. The Lahomie Formation therefore appears to have been deposited during a period of regional subsidence. Regional uplift and erosion did not occur until the middle of the Pliocene followed by unconformable deposition of the Tetehosi and Gunungsitoli Formations described helow.

The Tetehosi and Gunungsitoli formations

tntroihtion rind s,wonj~mj

The sedimentary rocks comprising the Tetehosi and Gunungsitoli formations were deposited at the same time but they are easily distinguished in the field and are mapped separately. Tetehosi Formation lithologies are siliciclastic-dominated whilst the Gunungsitoli Formation is carbonate-dominated (Figs l7b and 17~). Both formations rest unconformably above the older successions on Nias and the Banyak Islands and are in turn overlain unconformably by modern sediments. Many, but by no means all of the previous workers have placed a major unconformity through the Pliocene on their stratigraphic columns (Fig. 2). A number of strong indications for this unconformity have been established by some of these workers and are supported by data collected during this study: I. The siliciclastic Upper Pliocene to sub-Recent successions are composed largely of material derived from the older formations. 2. The siliciclastic Upper Pliocene to sub-Recent successions contain many microfossils reworked from older formations. 3. The Upper Pliocene to sub-Recent successions are relatively undeformed (barring a few important exceptions) and rest with angular unconformity on the oldet successions. A variety of Upper Pliocene to sub-Recent lithologies have been recognised by past workers and in most cases they are readily correlated with the lithologies recognised during this study; for example on Nias: shallow marine clay and sand (Hopper 1940). tuffdceous and marly clays ( Burrough and Power 1968). sandstone. claystone, siltstone and conglomerate (Bradley I973), sandstones (Moore c rrl. 1980b). - t sandstone and clay (Djamal 01 trl. 1991) and coastal deposits (Pubellier ct (I/. 1992) are all correlatable with the Tetehosi Formation whilst the capping limestones (Hopper 1940). coral terraces (Moore VI ol. l980b) and reef (Djamal et cd. 1991 ) are corrclatable with the Gunungsitoli Formation. One stratigraphic anomaly is the apparent recognition of Upper Pliocene turbidites by Pubellier e/ I!/. (1992 and Fig. 2). Lithologies of this age and facies are not recorded by pre\ious workers and have not been observed during this study.

The Tetehosi Formation largely comprises siliciclastic rocks, and six facies have been identified. whilst three carbonate facies have been identified for the Gunungsitoli Formation (Table 7).

Fig. 20. Sequential diagrams illustrating the model constructed for the evolution of the Sumatran Forearc after Samuel (1994). The model has been developed by combining the new stratigraphic data presented in this paper with detailed sedimentological and structural observations. The key stages subsequent to the emplacement of the Bangkaru Ophiolite Complex are: (A) Oligocene-earliest Miocene regional extension affecting all areas of the Sumatran Forearc from the trench to the inner (arcward margin) of the forearc. (B) Early Miocene inversion recorded in western areas of Nias, (C) regional subsidence and (D) Pliocene inversion and uplift of the Sumatran outer arc ridge with associated subsidence of the present day forearc basin. The fault bounding the western edge of the Mola Basement High has been linked to the Mentawai fault zone by workers such as Diament ef al. (1992). The structural work on Nias (Samuel and Harbury 1996) indicates that the zone is largely a variably inverted extensional feature.

376

M A. Samuel

et ~1. of deposition continue to the present in the coastal and shelfal regions

Despite extremely low levels of exposure, the Tetehosi formation has been mapped over large areas of Nias (Fig. 4) using field data subsequently correlated with SAR and LANDSAT imagery. A limestone horizon, interbedded with Tetehosi Formation rocks, is readily apparent on these images and can be traced for a considerable distance along eastern Nias. The horizon, named here the Gunungsitoli Formation limestone marker horizon, is equivalent to the limestone marker A of Paul (Fig. 2 and 1941). Tetehosi Formation rocks have not been encountered on the Banyak Islands where levels of exposure are considerably less than on Nias. The Gunungsitoli Formation occurs over many parts of Nias and the Banyak Islands, particularly along coastal areas (Figs 4 and 5). Elevated reefs also occur inland often capping hills. Type areas The largest and most lithologically variable section of Tetehosi Formation rocks discovered on Nias occurs immediately downstream of the ford over the Gawo river on the northern bank by the village of Tetehosi (Figs 3 and 18). Ease of access to this section, which is chosen as the type section, varies with time depending on the course of the main stream of the river which switches periodically. The name for the Gunungsitoli Formation is taken from Djamal et al. (1991). Easily accessible elevated reef complexes with associated sedimentary rocks are well exposed in the vicinity of Gunungsitoli and this area is designated the type area for the formation. Thickness and age range qf the Tetehosi Formation The thickness of the Tetehosi Formation is greatest in eastern Nias where it reaches approximately 400 m. This figure is based on structural estimates and also from seismic data shot over the eastern bulge of Nias (Samuel and Harbury in press). Over I5 samples have been dated and the oldest possible age of the Formation is latest Pliocene whilst the majority of the rocks yield Pleistocene ages. The sediments of the Gunungsitoli Formation typically lack age diagnostic fauna. This is a common feature of Pleistocene and Quaternary limestones from many areas of the world. The oldest Gunungsitoli Formation rocks are tentatively dated as Pliocene (probable Late Pliocene) age whilst some elevated reef complexes are as young as 800 years old (C radiometric ages, Vita-Finzi and Situmorang 1989). The greatest thickness of the formation observed during this study occurs at Alaban on P. Tuangku (Fig. 5) in the form of a hill whose elevation just exceeds 300 m. The thickness of the Gunungsitoli Formation limestone marker horizon varies from about 4 m in sections such as in the Gawo river to over 50 m in rivers 30 km along strike to the south-east. Interpretation The Tetehosi Formation is dominated by siliciclastic sedimentary rocks which were deposited in fan delta and shelfal environments around eroding islands; these lithologies interfinger with the reefal and shelfal limestones of the Gunungsitoli Formation.

Similar patterns day as observed described below.

Present deposition
Present day uplift can be inferred for Nias since very recent coral reefs (less than 300 years old) are elevated above the level of high tide (Vita-Finzi and Situmorang 1989). Furthermore, a few kilometres to the south of Bawaganewa (Fig. 3) limestones with well developed uplifted solution notches (a couple of metres above the high tide mark) are exposed on the coast. The combination of this uplift, the exceptionally high rates of rainfall and the soft easily weathered nature of many of the lithologies through the study area ensures that erosion rates are high; without active uplift the islands would rapidly be eroded to sea-level. Many of the rivers on Nias are deeply incised with steep sided narrow river valleys. The largest river, the Oyo, is only 200 m above sea-level where it runs through the central part of the island where peaks rise to over 800 m. Large volumes of sediment are transported to the sea along these rivers. In some areas the sediment is trapped in the lower reaches of the rivers either in braided river plains (e.g. Gawo river) or the alluvial flood plains of meandering river systems (e.g. Oyo river). Nias and the Banyak Islands are fringed by modern coral reefs and the present day geography of the study area (especially areas such as the Banyak and Batu Islands) provide an excellent modern analogue for the depositional environments of the Tetehosi and Gunungsitoli Formation lithologies.

A new stratigraphy for the Sumatran Forearc islands

The stratigraphy of the Banyak Islands is readily correlatable with that of eastern areas of Nias (Gomo Sub-basin). This may at first appear surprising given their different positions with respect to the subduction system. The other islands of the Sumatran Forearc, with the exception of Pini, lie in along-strike positions of Nias (Fig. 1). Apart from the maps produced by geologists from GRDC there are only minor observations recorded in the literature on these islands (e.g. Fig. 2). In this section of the paper we combine the data for the Batu Islands, Siberut and Sarangbaung with reconnaissance data we collected from these islands to compare their stratigraphies with that of Nias and the Banyak Islands.

Basement lithologies
Basement rocks are not directly exposed on Siberut (Andi Mangga and Burhan 1986). Melanges with circular outcrop patterns have however been mapped on the island by Andi Mangga and Burhan (1986). The descriptions of these melanges are very similar to the melanges on Nias and Bangkaru Island which can readily be interpreted as diapiric in origin (Samuel 1994; Samuel et al. 1995). As with the melanges on Nias these melanges contain inclusions derived both from basement terranes and the overlying sedimentary successions. Andi

Stratigraphy

for the islands

of the Sumatran

Forearc

377

Mangga and Burhan (1986) record blocks of serpentinite. basalt, amphibolite and greywacke within some of the melanges. These lithologies all occur also in the Bangkaru Qphiolite Complex. In addition to these ophiolitic lithologies, Andi Mangga and Burhan (1986) record some continental metamorphics in some of the melanges. There is an indication therefore that the basement beneath Siberut may be heterogeneous. Large basic igneous outcrops occur on some of the Batu Islands. In particular coarse gabbros and gabbro pegmatites cut by dykes outcrop along the south-eastern coast of Sigata Island (Fig. 19). It has not been possible however to determine whether the exposures represent intact basement or a large block in a melange. The lack of any gravity anomaly (Milsom 1993) suggests at least that the gabbro does not form part of a very large igneous body. Intact sections of ophiolitic basement unconformably overlain by Oligocene or Lower Miocene sedimentary breccias are however exposed on Barogang island (Fig. 19). In contrast Oligocene conglomerates on the neighbouring Makole Island contain coarse angular continental metamorphic clasts and may provide evidence for the presence of continental metamorphic basement material proximal to the area. There are therefore again strong indications that the basement of the outer part of the forearc is not homogeneous. Large gravity variations are recorded over the Sumatran Forearc and provide further strong evidence for the heterogeneous nature of the basement (Kieckhefer cr 01. 1981; Milsom ct t/l. 1990; Milsom 199.1).

Sedimentary cover

The stratigraphic scheme erected by Elber (1939b) for eastern areas of Nias is readily comparable with his scheme for the Banyak Islands (Fig. 2). Likewise the scheme erected by GRDC geologists for Nias (Djamal et trl. 1991) is readily comparable with that for the Batu Islands (Nas and Supandjono 1991) although separate formation names are defined (Fig. 2). It is immediately apparent therefore that the two island groups are likely to share a similar stratigraphy. During this study equivalent sedimentary rocks to those comprising each of the newly defined formations for Nias and the Banyak Islands were identified amongst the Batu Group with the exception of Tetehosi Formation equivalents (Fig. 19). The lack of Tetehosi Formation outcrops may readily be explained by the exceptionally soft. unlithihed and easily wleathered nature of the sediments. The data of both this. and previous studies. therefore indicate that the stratigraphy of the Batu Islands Group is comparable with that of eastern Nias.
.Si/wi,t

and acknowledged that he was unable to determine their stratigraphic position. Micropalaeontological analyses did not yield a tightly defined age (they were dated as Miocene) and Den Hartog chose to define the lithologies as a Lower Miocene formation. These rocks have however been sampled and tightly dated as MidMiocene and Late Miocene during this study. Den Hartog (1940a) and Andi Mangga and Burhan (1986) distinguished up to three units (Orbitoidal Marls, Saibi Formation and Marepan Formation; Fig. 2) that equate to the Lahomie Formation of this study. The characteristic lithologies of the three distinct units have been identified during this study interbedded through at least most of the Lahomie Formation and it is not therefore possible to subdivide the Formation into these units. What is clear is that these lithologies on Siberut share very similar characteristics to the Lahomie Formation of western Nias. Rocks equivalent to the Tetehosi Formation arc reportedly well exposed in western areas of Siberut (Kalea Formation, Den Hartog 1940a; Andi Mangga and Burhan 1986) and the stratigraphic position. as denoted by Andi Mangga and Burhan (1986) is correlatable with the well defined chronostratigraphic placement of the Tetehosi Formation on Nias from this study. Elevated reefs equivalent to those of the Gunungsitoli Formation are also reported occurring along parts of western Siberut (Andi Mangga and Burhan 1986). The eastern coast in contrast is characterised by modern mangrove swamps and appears to be drowning. There are indications that sedimentary rocks. equivalent to the Oyo, Gawo and Olodano Formations arc present on Siberut. buried below the Lahomic and Tetchosi Formation equivalents, In particular Andi Mangga and Burhan (1986) record the presence ol limestones of Upper Oligocene or Early Miocene age as inclusions within melanges on the island.

A stratigraphic thickness of 200 m of interbedded sandstones, mudstones and conglomerates are exposed on the west coast of Sarangbaung Island which lies 20 km to the north of Nias (Fig. I ). The rocks are Early Miocene in age (TeS-Tfl lower) and ;I wide variety of facies, directly correlatable with those of the Gawo Formation, can be recognised (e.g. Fig. 17d). Palaeobathymetric analysis confirms that the sediments are deep marine deposits, completely analogous to those of the Gawo Formation on Nias.

Discussion and conclusions

The new stratigraphy. developed initially from detailed data collected on Nias and the Banyak Islands, can fully account for the successions of sedimentary rocks on the Banyak and Batu Islands and Siberut. OUI studies of the basement rocks have revealed that basement across the forearc area is inhomogeneous: large intact sections of ophiolitic material occur in some areas such as P. Bangkaru (Batu Islands) whilst there is evidence for both oceanic and continental basement in other areas such as Siberut and the Banyak Islands. Such heterogeneity is to be expected in a long lived obliquely convergent margin.

The oldest in situ (as opposed to float or melange) sedimentary rocks discovered and reliably dated on Siberut are late Early Miocene in age. The data from this study can be reconciled with that of previous workers. For Instance Den Hartog (1940a) only discovered his orbitoi&l marls in two localities in eastern Siberut

378

M A. Samuel it (11.
al. (1992) suggested that there was an unconformity

At present we lack sufficient data for the other forearc islands (Enggano, Pagai, Sipora and Simeulue) to determine to what extent the new stratigraphy outlined in this paper, can be applied. We suggest however that it is likely that the stratigraphic scheme outlined here may be applicable to all the islands of the Sumatran Forearc. The scheme applies both to islands along-strike of Nias and also to islands actually within the present-day forearc basin (Banyak Islands and Pini). The Oligocene and Miocene evolution of the outer part of the Sumatran Forearc is more akin to that of the present-day forearc basin than the accretionary prism which is building up to the south-west of islands such as Nias (Fig. 20, Pubellier et al. 1992; Samuel 1994; Samuel rt al. 1995). We suggest that the forearc islands may provide an excellent insight into the stratigraphy of the sedimentary successions deposited in basins within the area of the present-day forearc basin. The stratigraphy presented in this paper has been subdivided into a number of formations. There are important sedimentological differences between these formations which represent key stages in the evolution of the outer part of the Sumatran Forearc (Fig. 6). When the new stratigraphy for Nias Island is combined with our extensive structural data set a new model for the evolution of the Nias area emerges (Fig. 20). Full details and critical arguments for this evolutionary progression are presented in Samuel (1994) and Samuel et al. (1995) and these are summarised below. In the first reconstruction (Fig. 20A) Oligocene-earliest Miocene extension of the heterogeneous basement is depicted. The dating of samples on Nias indicates that the ophiolitic components of the basement were emplaced after the Middle Eocene but prior to the Mid-Oligocene. Pubellier rt al. (1992) reported the presence of Eocene shallow marine deposits on Nias. We have not been able to verify this although many of the Idano Me rocks on Nias contain substantial amounts of reworked Eocene fauna. In addition our detailed provenance studies (Fig. 8; Groups F and G) indicate that such sediments must have been deposited and subsequently eroded in the near vicinity of Nias. These sediments include bioturbated sandstones, siltstones and andesites all of which must have been deposited prior to sedimentation of the I. Me Group. The palaeobathymetric data from the Oyo Formation indicates that the initial deposition in the newly formed extensional sub-basins on Nias was, in most areas, deep marine, in many cases below the CCD. It is possible that shallow marine and even continental elastics may have been deposited at the base of the section in the Gomo Sub-basin adjacent to the Mola Basement High. As the structural reconstructions show however such sediments are not exposed at the present erosion level.
The detailed biostratigraphic analyses presented in this study have led to the identification of a major Early

between the Lower Miocene deep marine siliciclasticdominated sedimentary rocks and the Middle Miocene carbonates on Nias. The contact between the Gawo and Olodano Formation has been examined at a large number of localities on Nias and whilst the age of the contact varies along the strike of the Gomo Sub-basin (Fig. 6) the contact is clearly always seen to be conformable. The shallow marine sedimentary rocks of the Olodano Formation tended to accumulate on intra sub-basinal highs whose position was controlled by active faults that transected the sub-basins (Samuel et ul. 1995). The sedimentary record reveals that the Lower and Middle Miocene phases of differential uplift and subsidence had ceased by the Late Miocene (Figs 6 and 20C). One model for the development of the Sumatran Forearc (Matson and Moore 1992) has predicted Mid-Miocene to earliest Pliocene subsidence of the forearc; a massive influx of Himalayan derived Bengal Fan sediments reached the Sunda Trench in the Sumatra area in the late Middle Miocene (Curray and Moore 1974). Steady addition of this Bengal Fan material to the accretionary wedge to the southwest of Nias would have resulted in steady plate deflection and subsidence in forearc basin areas (Matson and Moore 1992). This pattern of predicted subsidence is supported by the sedimentary record on Nias where the shallow marine Olodano Formation passes up into the neritic to upper bathyal Lahomie Formation. The Pliocene unconformity which is observed over all areas studied in the forearc is well constrained by structural, biostratigraphic and sedimentological studies. The unconformity represents the initiation of a major phase of uplift and deformation that continues to the present day (Fig. 20D). In addition to modelling the flexural consequences of the increased load of the accretionary prism from the Mid-Miocene into the Pliocene, the model of Matson and Moore (1992) also explores the effects of the rapid uplift of the outer arc ridge during the Pliocene (Fig. 20D). The model shows that the Pliocene deformation of the prism and outer arc ridge should lead to increased subsidence landward of the deformation. The rapid subsidence of the forearc basin landward of the outer-arc ridge has contributed greatly to the apparent differences between the forearc basin and the outer-arc ridge at the present day. Two areas with remarkably similar pre-Pliocene histories now have remarkably different physiographies.
A~kno~t,/clrt~~~~~nt.s--We would like to thank British Petroleum and the University of London Geological Research in Southeast Asia Consortium who generously sponsored this research. The fieldwork was carried out jointly with LEMIGAS and we are particularly grateful to Dr Bona Situmorang for his help. We received great assistance in the field from our counterparts Sudarman Sofyan and Sriwijaya whilst Syahrir, a Nian guide, is warmly thanked for his expert field guidance and organisational skills and his friendly good humour. Tony Barber, Posmar Aritonang and Michael De Smet accompanied MAS on the reconnaissance visits to the Batu Islands and Siberut and were instrumental in the work presented here. Alastair Robertson and Robert Hall are thanked for so generously taking time to examine the work on which this paper is based. Finally we would like to thank Tony Barber, David Macdonald, Greg Moore and Manuel Pubellier for their most constructive reviews.

Miocene unconformity in the Lahewa sub-basin and parts of the Mujoi Sub-basin (Fig. 6). This unconformity was developed as a direct result of a period of basin inversion that affected western parts of Nias. This event, which is identified both in the stratigraphic record and from structural and geochronological studies (Samuel et al. 1995) is depicted on Fig. 20B. Whilst sub-aerial erosion occurred in parts of western Nias deposition of the Gawo and Olodano Formation continued in the Gomo and much of the Mujoi Sub-basins. Pubellier et

Stratigraphy

for the islands

of the Surnatran
Sumatra. Centre. Frerichs W. Sekala Bandung. E.

Forearc
I :250.000. Geological

379
Research and Development and the ecology 147. des indischen of Sea. benthonic Cushn~trr~

REFERENCES
Adams C G. (1984) . Geological Tokyo Amin T. Lembar Geological Andi Manga Sibcrut. Bemmelen Events Neogene Larger Forammifera. of Datum Evolutionary Planes. University and of in the Context pp. 47 67. E. and Gafocr S. (1986) Sumatra. Centre, Laporan Laporan Sekala Geolopi Bandung. Lembur and Research Geolog I :250.000. Enganno. G. In Prrcrfrc,

(1970) in the

Distribution sediments of

foramimfera Gerth H. (1925)

Andaman

:Veo,qor~c, P/trrze.r (edited by Ikebe N. and Tsuchi T.). Press, Tokyo, C.. Rustandi Manna S. and Sumatra. Research

Fo,r/,t/trriorr of Fota,,~itri/i& Jungtertiare Arten. J. nebrteincr Archipel\ Uebersicht beknnnten Hardenbol

and

R~~.wc,rc~/, I93 21,

Korallcn

von Nias. Java und Borneo,

uber die au> dem Hanozikum

Dan

I,c?c/c#rc, (;co/ox, r&c* M~,rk,rk,e/in,~c,n I, Vail P.R. (IYX7) C hronology I I56 1167. Sunda ol

and Development Burhan Sekala (1986)

x7 -.
Haq B.I_i.. and Huctuatlng Hnrburl Ridge. Hawkins sea lccels since the Triassic. Kallagher. Sumatra. Moore G. Indonesia. F.. Villamor Scic,/,c(, 235,

I :750.000.Geological
(2nd edn)

Development

Centre.

Bandung. 771~ G c~o/c~g~ I~zc/or~c,.sirr. of (3 I,~tlo~~e.vitr trncl Atljm 0111 c;c,o/og~~ of Portfolio

N. A. Yorth J. W..

H. J. (I991 ) The .lolrr!~o/ rj/

Outer-Arc

R. W. van. (194) I (I &nc,rtrl

Sou/hc*tr.vr .4.sitr,r E. (lYX5)

I ) I (I/\ d

SC,( < 6, 463 476. ,I( .\ c and Wright . <;eolop! (edlted Hinte J. of the Composite Terranes by Howell E. ban. D. G). (197X) of East and Central Mindanao.

(rllt1p.s.c./ltr,.t.\.int/<~.Yc5 trfltt r~~~~~rufw.~). 2: Econon~ic~ I ?I/. Gcw/o,q~~. Government Printing Otfice.

Nijhotl The Hague . Berger W. H. and fluctuating .S/,?i& Biswar B. carbonate (2nd edition. E. L. 1970). 732~~. (1974) Plate stratigrdphy and (edited by Hsu K. Winterer

/l,c~lr,/ /tr~~. C I h: . ol.

I II TV< rr~rrr~.\rrtr~,grc~pl~ic~ Terrr,rw\ of r/w ( irc,ur,r-Ptrc,ific, Rc~iot~

Cirartn-Ptrc,ifrc, < ou?lc,r/ for t nc,,:vj. rr~z/ Gcohistory ~cnalysis-application of m-

line. In Pc,/trgic, Sc&nents I I 4X. of on Holocene the Sunda

.%ric~.cI. 437 463. :\!i/,c,rtr/ Re.\or/rw.~ Etrrrh .S~~icv,c~c~

cropalacontology in exploration Geological geology. T/w Ar~lc,rrt,c~rr A.w~~w/iot~ reconnaissance in western and

J and Jenkyns (1976)

H. C).

Irztc,rrrtrtiontrl Scc/irf~c,trto/o~:r~~~/l A.t.socitr~lo~~ Foraminifera Shelf. and

Plfh/ic~trrio,I I, sea-level

Bathymetrq changes

of Pcrlo/c,m
Hopper R. H. northern

Gcw/o,~is/.r Bu/kt/n 62, 20 I 12.

(lY40) NPPM report (unpublished). Over tertialre en kwartaire vormmpen

Quaternary

Jour,~tr/ c//

f%rtr\i~iniferrrl Rc.sc,trrc,h6(2), Blake M. C.. Jr. Engebretson Tectonostratigraphic D. (i). Bolli H. Bouma Bradlc) Terranea

IO7m 131. in Southwest Oregon. In T~,ct~>~~~a-

Nias.

I>. C.. Jayko A. S. and Jones D. L. (19X5)

lcke H. and Martin

K. (1907)

van het eiland N ias. .Str,)~/url,~c,rt &IS ,~c,~~/o,~;,~c,/Ic,/~ Rcic,h.v,rru.\c,rrl,l.c ~1

rrtr/;,qrtrphir IC~I (III( of /lrc, c,irc,url~-Ptrc,i[, rc~~ion (edited by Howell .\ C irc~trrw Pucifrc, Cotrt~ci/ for Etwr~y trrltl M~IWN/ Rc.\ourw.s

l.c~ith 7, 304 257.

In& J. C (19X0) C enoToic paleohathymetrq and depositional continental htstor) of selected sequences within the Californian borderland.

Etrr//r .sc/rwc
M..

Seric~s I, 147 157.

J. 8. and Perch-Nielson Ilniversity K. (1985) P/&ror~ 599~~. Else\ ier. Survey Press. Cambridge.

Saunders

~ ,,v/,r,rrir~ I;o,rrzt/trriot~of Fortrr~~iur/c~rtrl R~~.~c~rrc~lr .S/~cc~itrl Puh/iur/io/r 19. 163 lY5. Kallaghcr H. J. (IYXY) The structural and stratigraphlc Indonesia. of London. S.. Moore region. 3x7~~. G. F. and Hehanussa of the Sunda P. t. (1970) m the Forearc evolution of the PhD Sunda borearc Basin. North Sumatra. Unpublished

.S/,rr~igrtr/&~~. Cambridge

( 1962)

Srt/irfic,rl/o/ofi~, (I/ .con~c F/~~.sc/z Dc/)asir IhXpp. Nias Island. 1971 Geological

Amsterdam.

K. (IY73) Geology ofS.E. of Indonesia (1989)

thehis. University Karig D. E.. Suparka Sumatra Structure

and relatlonship Oil Company Budhistrina Kepuluan Budhiylrina T.

of the Nias Section to offshore seismic data. Union (unpublished). di Pulau Pagai dan Pulau Sipora. Melange

and Cenozoic

evolution

Central

In (;c~o/o,~~c~c~/ (III(/ &~o/~/~~.vrccr/InrcsriJ. S.. Montadert P.). .Mer~~ol, o/ //to .4,?1c,r/c,r,rl A~.voc~io/wrr

Mentawai.

Bu//erir~ (;ro/ogic,tr/ Rm~rrc~/ztrntl Dr~~~dopr~rtv~~ S. (1986) Sumatra, Centre, Area. Report on the Geology of

,qlrriorl\ of Co~~~r,rc,,z/o/ .2lnrgr!r\ (edited by Watkins L. and Wood-Dickerson

~ NI/).~Btr/,c/Lrrl~13, 2-x. .
1 and Andi Mangga . and Development Pagal and Slpora Quadrangle. cal Research Burrough of North Indclnesia. Burrough of North Indoncsia. Curra) Curra) J. R. convergence. Scale I :250.000. Bandung. Part of Part of Union Oil Company Geologi-

o/ Pctrcdcwu Gdogi.\/.\ 29, 213 237

Kleckhctfer ( rustal Sumatra 7003 Liou J. (;.. R. M.. Moore structure from gravity Maruyama of M). G. F.. Emmel E J. and Sugiarta W. (1YXl) forearc regmn west 01 central 86, data. .lolr~r~rrl of (;c~o/I/~~~.\~c~cI/ Rww~/r Cho and M. (19X4) Very of the Sunda

H. C. and Neilson R. J. (196 Field Survey. Northern )) West Sumatra Reporl. RGE Contract 47 (unpublished). Contract Sunda G Area. A Union model Oil Company for oblique and

70 II!. S. and volcanic Blackie. low-grade volcaniclastlc rocks mineral

H. C. and Power P. E. (196X) Field Survey, Southern West Sumatra Report. (1989) RGE The 43 (unpublished). Arc:

metamorphism aaemblage Marie L J. (edited by Frey.

and mmeral facies. In I,on Landon. van. (198X) Bathymetric

Twrpcwrrwc~ h~c,rrrnlorphi,~,,r
dlstrlbution of Benthic Margin. on IxI

plate 140.

.~c~~~Ic~~/cI~Ic/.s Jorcrrurl of Scar Rrscwrch 24, I3 I Moore F. (1974) Fan Sedimentary Deep-Sea and geosyncline.

Foramlnifera Eastern Matson R. G.

on the Australian-lrian and Moore G. I-. (IYYZ)

Jaya Continental Structural

J. R. and

tectonic In 7&

Indonaia.

44Ma~itlc~ Mic~,o/Jt,/rcorllo/~~~l~ I 51. 13, 97

Influence3 fore-arc basm. M~woir.~

processe? in the Bengal C. l..). Sprinyer. Diament M.. Hariono T.. (;crard Indonesia. Den Den Hartog Hartog Sibcrut. Simalur. Djamal Geolopi Rcsearch Douvillc Elber Elber New

G ~,~~/o,ql~ Cor~li,~c,n/tr/ Mtr,:qiru (edited by Burk C. A. and Drake u/ York. K.. Deplus C.. Dahrin F.. Zen Jr. M. Mentawai of western on Pulau of Pulau Laporan Martin A. and Malod J. (lY92) H.. Karta

Ncogene subsidence m the central Sumatra Mllsom J S. (1993) Interpretations report. Aala.

Gro/o~,.\/.s 53, I57 of t/w 4,,lc,rrc~tul A.ssoc~itrrio,lof P~~rro/~~u/?l

of Nia\. Research Mll<om Reconnaissance Reconnaissance T. 0. (1991) J S yurveqt Moore G Llnpublished in Southeast

of gravity data from the vicinity

M.. Lassal 0..

I I9. Unlverqity of L.ondon Geological J. (IYYO) Gravity Ntrtims

fault lone oH Sumatra:

A new key to the geodynamics Geological Geological

(;z~&~g~~20, 259 262. L. 1~. W. (lY40a) Report, Report. W. Nias. (unpublished). (unpublished). and Simandjuntak Sumatera. Centre. Sekala

Dlpowirjo

S.. Sam B. and Sipahutar Sumatra Forearc. ( rritcd

111 the North F. (IY78) Indonesia:

( OP (
of NI;IS and

NPPM YPPM Lembar

T~d~r~i~r/ Bd/crrr, 21, X5 Y6.

Structural a study geology and sedimentology of subduction thesis. fone Ph.D. Cornell Island. tectonics

L. E. W. (1940b)

B.. Gunawan

sedimentation. 142pp. Moore

Unpublished

liniversity.

1:250.000.Geological
I&m. 9.

and Development Report Sumatra

Bandung. de I ilc de Nias. Geological Survey of Nias. Banjak Report,

G. F. (1Y7Y) Petrography Indonesia. Jourd implications

of subductlon of Sdinrcwror~~ lone

/one sandstones from Prtro/og~~ 49, 7 I X4. tectonic?. geology of Nias Island.

H. (I9 12) Les foramlnlferes Y.W. Niaa. Report,

Nias I&nd. Moore G Indonesia: Moore

R. (lY3Ya)

on a Regional 40102

F. and Karig D. E. (1980) Structural for subduction

Permlna Group. Endharto

(unpublished). BPPM

Amrrmt,

R. (1 )3Yb3) Geological Batu Group.

review of the islands Simalur. west coast of Sumatra. Laporan Geologi

.Jrmrrrtr/ of .%icvw 280, I93 223.

G. F.. Curray in J. R.. Moore structure D. G. and Karlg along the D. E. (19X0:1) Fore Arc. Variations geologic Sunda

XXX (unpublished). M. and Sukido. (IYYI) Lembar Sinabang.

northeastern

Indian Ocean. In T/w Tcc/onk

md Gco/o~ic~ Edurion

380
of

M A. Samuel et rd.
Samuel M. A. and Harbury, N. A. Basin Development and Uplift at an Oblique-slip Convergent Margin: Nias Island, Indonesia. Geological Society of Malaysia Special Publication, in press. Samuel M. A. and Harbury N. A. (1996) The Mentawai fault zone and deformation of the Sumatran forearc in the Nias area. In Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia (edited by Hall R. and Blundell D.). Geological Society of London Spec,ial Publication 106, 3377351. Schroder E. E. W. G. (1917) Ethnographische, Geographische en Historische aanteekeningen en studien. In N. V. Boekhandel en Drukkerij (edited by Brill E. J.). Leiden. Situmorang B., Harbury N. A. and Audley-Charles M. G. (1987) Tectonic inversions in the Sunda Forearc: evidence from Simeulue. Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association 16, 57-63. Situmorang B., Sriwijaya Husen M. and Yulihanto B. (1991) Analisis Struktur Geologi, Pulau Nias. Lembaran Puhlikasi Lemigas 1, 2&26. Tipsword H. L., Setzer F. M. and Smith F. L. (1966) Interpretation of depositional environment in Gulf Coast petroleum exploration from paleocology and related stratigraphy. Geological Societ?, Transaction of the Gulf Coast Association 19, 5299534. Van Andel T. H. (1975) Mesozoic/Cenozoic calcite compensation depth and the global distribution of calcareous sediments. Earth and Planetar>~ Sciences Letters 26, 187-I 94. Veen A. L. W .E. van der. (1913) Bijdrage tot de geologie van Nias. Idem, 9. Verbeek R. D. M. (1876) Geologische beschrijving van een gedeelte van het eiland Nias. Jaarboek van her Mijnlc~e:en in Nederland~sh Indie 1, 3-13. Verstappen H. T. (1973) A geomorphological reconnaissance of Sumatra and adjacent islands (Indonesia). Verhandelingen of the Royal Dutch Geological Society, 1, Walters-Noordhoff Publishing, Groringen, 182~~. Vita-Finzi C. and Situmorang B. (I 989) Holocene coastal deformation in Simeulue and Nias, Indonesia. Marine Geology 89, 153-161. Whittaker A., Cope J. C. W., Cowie J. W., Gibbons W., Hailwood E. A., House M. R., Jenkins D. G., Rawson P. F., Rushton A. W. A., Smith D. G., Thomas A. T. and Wimbledon W. A. (1991) A guide to stratigraphical procedure. Journal of the Geological Society. London 148, 8 133824.

Southeast Asian Seas and Islands (edited by Hayes, D. E). American Geophysical Union Monograph 23, 145-l 60. Moore G. F., Billman H. G., Hehanussa P. E. and Karig D. E. (1980b) Sedimentology and paleobathymetry of Neogene trenchslope deposits, Nias Island, Indonesia. Journal of Geology 88, 161&180. Morkhoven F. P. C. M. van., Berggren W. A. and Edwards A. S. (1986) Cenozoic deep-water Benthic Foraminifera. Bulletin des Centres des Rescherches Exploration-Production ElfAyuitaine 11, 1421. Murray J. W. (1973) Distribution and Palaeocology of Benthic Foraminifera. Heinemann, London, 288~~. Nas D. and Supandjono J. B. (1991) Laporan Geologi Lembar Tello, Sumatera Utara. Sekala I :250,000. Geological Research and Development Centre, Bandung. Paul P. (1941) Supplementary (Commitment) Survey, Nias. Permina N.W. Sumatra Report, 40103 (unpublished). Pflum C. E. and Frerichs W. E. (1976) Gulf of Mexico deep water Cushman Foundation of Foraminiferal Research foraminiferas. Special Publication 14, I-l 25. Pickering K. T., Hiscott R. N. and Hein F. J. (1989) Deep-marine Environments: Clastic Sedimentation and Tectonics. Unwin Hyman. London, 416~~. Pubellier M., Rangin C., Cadet J-P., Tjashuri I., Butterlin J. and Muller C. 1992. L de Nias, un edifice polyphase sur la bordure ile interne de la fosse de la Sonde (Archipel de Mentawai, Indonesie). Comptes Rendues de I Academie des sciences, Serie II 315, 1019-1026. Roberts S. J. (1993) The foraminiferal biostratigraphy and biofacies of the Neogene sediments of the Halmahera Basin, NE Indonesia. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 287~~. Rock N. M. S. (1987) Discussion of a paper by J. K. Leggett. Journal of the Geological Society, London 144, 751-752. Samuel M. A. (1994) The structural and stratigraphic evolution of islands at the active margin of the Sumatran Forearc, Indonesia. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 345~~. Samuel M. A., Harbury N. A., Jones M. E. and Matthews S. J. (1995) Inversion of an outer-arc ridge: the Sumatran Forearc, Indonesia. In Basin Inversion (edited by Buchanan J. H. & Buchanan P. G.) Geological Society of London Special Publication 88, 473492.