Developments in

Antibacterial Paper
by Dr Mahendra Patel
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Contents
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Published by Pira International Ltd
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Pira International 2009

Introduction and methodology 3

Defnitions 3
Antibacterial agents 4
MRSA bacteria 5
Antibacterial papers: an overview 6
Tissue paper-based antibacterial products 6
Paper with inorganic antibacterial agents 9
Antibacterial paper using minerals 11
Antibacterial paper using nanomaterials 12
Antibacterial products using photocatalysts 14
Legislation 17
Triclosan 17
Antibacterial products and antibiotic resistance 17
Inorganic antibacterial agent 17
MRSA infection 17
References 18

Tables
1 Key developments in antibacterial paper 6
2 Radii of some exchangeable metallic ions 11
3 Technical specifcations of silver nanometal 13
4 R&D efforts in antibacterial paper 15

Figures
1 Classifcation of products with conventional
antibacterial agents 3
2 Non-conventional antibacterial products 4
3 Super bugs 5
4 Germs on paper money 5
5 MRSA: damp towels provide a breeding ground 5
6 Antibacterial mechanism of silver ions 9
7 ZnO nanoparticles coated paper 12
8 Photocatalytic papers antibacterial performance
test on Staphylococcus aureus 14
9 Generation of the photocatalytic effect with
nano-titania 15
3
This insight provides an overview of
conventional antibacterial paper products
and highlights the various antibacterial
tissue papers in use, with mention of the
key players. The non-conventional products,
incorporating inorganic antibacterial
agents, are reviewed in greater detail. The
legislation and future course of actions
in arresting bacterial activity, especially
MRSA, are analysed in the light of currently
available reports.
Defnitions
Antibacterial
A product that kills or inhibits the growth
of bacteria, generally in food, on inanimate
surfaces or on hands.
Bacteria
Single-celled micro-organisms that can
affect humans, plants and animals; some
bacteria cause disease, some are benefcial.
Nanomaterials
Particles in the range of 1100nm.
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Introduction and methodology
FIGURE 1 Classification of products with conventional antibacterial agents
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Source: IntertechPira

*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Nanometre
A metric unit of length measurement =
1 10
9
metres.
Pathogen
An organism capable of producing disease
or infection. Most pathogens are killed by
high temperatures.
SEM
Scanning electron microscope. A non-
destructive microscopic method of analysis
of mineral, metal and other solid samples
using secondary electrons. It has resolution
of about 60
100
( is ngstrm, or 0.1nm),
and magnifcation of 100 to 150,000.
Virus
A term for a group of microbes that are
incapable of reproducing on their own,
and must invade a host cell in order to
use its genetic machinery for reproduction.
Viruses are smaller than bacteria, and
are responsible for the most common
human diseases, the common cold and fu
(infuenza). Viruses are also responsible
for more serious diseases such as AIDS,
hepatitis B and hepatitis C.
Antibacterial agents
Antibacterial agents are commonly used
to treat and/or prevent infections due to
pathogenic bacteria in humans and animals
(27). The antibacterial products may be
classifed broadly into two categories:
Conventional products including soap,
detergent and tissue products, containing
mostly organic antibacterial agent
(Figure 1);
Non-conventional products, incorporating
inorganic antibacterial agent (Figure 2).
Antibacterial soap kills only 12% more
bacteria than hand washing with ordinary
soap (32). Some antibacterial foam and
spray represent a breakthrough for fghting
infections, killing 99.9% of bacteria
and other harmful germs that can cause
infection and illness (33).
FIGURE Non-conventional antibacterial products
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/PODPOWFOUJPOBM
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Source: IntertechPira
5
The term bacteria was devised in the 19th
century by the German botanist Ferdinand
Cohn, and it is based on the Greek word
bakterion meaning a small rod. Bacteria
are single-celled micro-organisms devoid
of chlorophyll, and they multiply by simple
division, having round, rod-like, spiral or
flamentous single-celled or non-cellular
bodies often gathered into colonies.
Some bacteria may cause illness such as
strep throat, ear infections, pneumonia,
tuberculosis, etc.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) bacteria (or super bugs) are the
bacteria which are of most concern today
(Figure 3).The excessive use of antibacterial
household cleaners is said to help super
bugs survive (28). If bacteria are exposed
to repeated doses of antibiotics, they will
genetically mutate, resulting in super bugs.
Public Health offcials in the US have
indicated that the paper currency
circulating in North America contains
germs and viruses (29). Bacteria are lurking
everywhere. Figure 5 shows the bacteria
present on damp towels.
MRSA has been in hospitals since the
1960s, and in the 1990s the bacteria began
appearing in athletes, prisoners, military
personnel and intravenous drug users
outside hospitals. MRSA has been called
a worse health threat than SARS or bird
fu (30). Rates of infection within the UK
are the second highest in Europe and the
problem is rising year on year. MRSA can be
found in 40% of hospitals in the UK (31).
Antibacterial products provide the tool
to defend against the bacterial attacks.
Antibacterial agents in products protect
against bacteria. According to the
Environmental Protection Agency in the US
(the EPA), the term antibacterial should
only apply to products designed to control
human pathogenic micro-organisms.
Antimicrobial agents are chemicals used
to kill or inhibit the growth of micro-
organisms whether they are bacteria, viruses
or fungi. They can be bactericidal, killing
the organism concerned, or bacteriostatic,
inhibiting the growth of the organisms
concerned thereby giving the hosts immune
system time to act.
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
MRSA bacteria
FIGURE 3 Super bugs
Source: Thomas Pat, www.theecologist.org
FIGURE Germs on paper money
Source: www.brainwashcafe.blogspot.com
FIGURE 5 MRSA: damp towels provide a
breeding ground
Source: www.hero.ac.uk
6
This section outlines the key technologies
and research and development in
antibacterial papers and considers different
types of antibacterial paper.
Table 1 outlines the key technological
developments in antibacterial papers.
Tissue paper-based antibacterial
products
Tissue papers are divided into four major
groups (34):
Sanitary tissues, which include facial and
toilet tissues, sanitary products and table
napkins;
Condenser tissue;
Towelling, comprising crped absorbent
paper, usually made from lightly refned
kraft with the addition of mechanical
pulp;
Wrapping tissue.
The general requirements are strength, good
formation and cleanliness. Grammage is
in the 1628gsm range. There is now an
enormous market for antibacterial tissue
products including sanitary paper, toilet
paper, pocket tissue, soft toilet tissue and
tissue paper for gift packaging (1422gsm
to 27gsm, having 1-ply, 2-ply and 3-ply).
Some of the commercial antibacterial
products that are currently available in the
market are discussed below.
Paper wipes
There are a variety of paper wipes and soft
tissue papers with antibacterial properties
available. The antibacterial agents added
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Antibacterial papers: an overview
TABLE 1 Key developments in antibacterial paper
Application Organisation Key developments Impact on the future Year Reference
New antibacterial Domtar Paper, US Domtar has launched North Development of this paper presents an 2007 (1/18/2007)
office paper Americas first antimicrobial office opportunity to help reduce the www.tappi.org
paper, designed to protect paper proliferation of bacteria in office
against the growth of bacteria, environments
odours, fungus, mould and mildew
Photocatalytic Nippon Paper Crecia Nippon Paper has developed the An antibacterial effect against allergy- 2007 9 February
technology for tissue Co., Ltd (core first air-cleaning tissue box causing bacteria. The size of the 2007
paper member of the released in the tissue paper deodorising market has been growing
Nippon Paper industry, with photocatalytic steadily in recent years. Crecia Fabree
Group), Japan function. The new concept is has been developed to respond to
to make a box that cleanses market demands, and is most suitable
the air. The tissue box uses for babies, rooms, living rooms with
cast coated paper that pets, inside vehicles and many other places
employs a technology
called photocatalysis
7
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TABLE 1 Key developments in antibacterial paper (continued)
Application Organisation Key developments Impact on the future Year Reference
Antibacterial coating Coattec Industries, US Coattec plans to market Could be a future antibacterial product 2005 14 November
antibacterial coatings and nano 2005,
silver antibacterial powder www.root-
cn.com
Medical packaging paper Neenah Paper A paper structure that does not Possesses great strength and other 2007
give microbial bacteria the direct antibacterial properties
path they need for package
penetration
Absorbent hand towel Mets Tissue Highly absorbent hand towel Efficient product for future 2007 Metsa tissue
products products that can easily remove
moisture and the bacteria that
can lead to infection
Photocatalysts Fushimi, Inc., Japan Titernal is a photocatalyst solution Excellent antibacterial power (99.99% 2007 www.senko.
that kills germs and odours in the sterilisation). There are many new areas com/consulting
presence of UV light, improving in which photocatalysts have significant
indoor hygiene and air quality potential uses. One of these is hospital
facilities, where photocatalysts are
increasingly used to combat unpleasant
odours and prevent in-hospital
contamination
Inorganic laminar silver Shanghai A kind of novel antibacterial It can be widely used as an additive to 2007 www.snpc.org.cn
nano-antibacterial Nanotechnology material was produced using fibre, plastic, dope, ceramic glaze, paper,
agents Promotion Centre the ion exchange method etc., and can add new anti-bacterial function
Air purifying products Mitsubishi Paper Mills There has been research on a Successful product web.infoweb.
light catalyst sheet which activates ne.jp/
an antibacterial deodorant
Nano silver inorganic Biocera Applications include wallpaper and www.biocera.
antibacterial agent medical chart paper co.kr
Paper with excellent 2007 Daiwa Chemical
antibacterial or Industries Co.,
antimould properties Ltd, ogcorp.co.jp
8
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
to these tissue papers are invariably organic
chemicals, but often inorganic agents are
also added. They can be used to clean skin,
tools, fruit and vegetables.
Antibacterial safety cleaning wipes for
offce equipment are ideal for cleaning
telephones, keyboards and other offce
equipment. Antibacterial moist towelettes
have a mild antibacterial cleansing
solution that kills germs and bacteria while
moisturising the skin with ingredients like
lanolin.
The need for antibacterial products
is increasing very fast. For example,
supermarkets have started to supply
antibacterial paper dispensers at their
entrances so that customers can wipe
off the trolley handles before entering
the store (35).
Key players in the tissue business
Kimberly-Clark is the worlds largest tissue
maker, followed by Georgia-Pacifc and
then SCA. In Europe, SCA is number one,
followed by Georgia-Pacifc and Kimberly-
Clark (36).
Kimberly-Clark introduced (37) Kleenex
tissues in 1924 as a handy way for women
to remove cold cream from their face. In the
1930s, it touted Kleenex as a disposable
TABLE 1 Key developments in antibacterial paper (continued)
Application Organisation Key developments Impact on the future Year Reference
Antimicrobial Nanovations Pty Ltd, Nanovations has introduced A promising future product 2007 http://
nanotechnology-based Sydney, Australia Bioni Hygienic, the first nano-
wall coating for antibacterial and antimicrobial architecture.net
hospitals nanotechnology-based wall
coating for hospitals, which
can even destroy antibiotic-
resistant super bugs like
Staphylococcus aureus
Antibacterial paper Korea Testing & Cleanhit is made from natural, Department of Food and Microbiology, 2007
Research Institute for fragrant material extracted from Laboratory of Seoul National University,
Chemical Industry five plants, which ensures its safe has reported that its antibacterial
use. Foodstuffs wrapped in this performance is 99.9% effective
antibacterial paper remain fresh
for up to seven days, effectively
preventing mould or other
microbe growth
Antibacterial pulp Ein, Japan First in the world, Ein has This technology enables the production 2006 www.ein.co.jp/
developed the technology to of excellent photocatalytic paper. en/paper/
adhere the materials to pulp Paper with antibacterial properties was explain.html
using small amounts of anatase- produced in the mill by adding 1015%
type titanium oxide instead of of antibacterial pulp (pre-treated with
coating or adhesive a photocatalyst) to the pulp during the
manufacturing process
Source: IntertechPira

*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
handkerchief. In 1981 Kleenex pioneered
the frst perfumed tissue, with a light foral
scent.
Kleenex Antiviral now looms as an
important weapon. In 2004 marketers
gave Kleenex a new mission as the killer
of germs. Priced about 40% more than
standard Kleenex tissues, the product
was launched in late 2004. The antiviral
now holds 4% of the US market and has
generated more than $140 million (104
million) in global sales since its launch.
Sales of Kimberly-Clarks industrial wipes
(38) have been boosted because they
come with a dispenser system. Tissue sales
suffered their sharpest decline in the fve
years between 2001 and 2006, with unit
sales down 6.1% in 2006.
Mets Tissue is a leading European
manufacturer of high-quality tissue paper
products (39). It manufactures highly
absorbent hand towel products that can
remove moisture and the bacteria that can
lead to infection.
Georgia-Pacifc Corp.s Quilted Northern
brand has unveiled (40) a new entry in the
personal moist wipe category that combines
convenience with germ-fghting qualities.
New Quilted Northern Fresh and Moist
Wipes, the frst antibacterial moist wipes
developed for personal use, are designed to
supplement dry bathroom tissue.
SCA has been producing tissue paper
for a long time and it has signed (41) an
agreement with Apperatex to produce
antibacterial products along with Eka
Chemicals.
Nippon Paper released the frst air-cleaning
tissue box in the tissue paper industry,
with added photocatalytic functions (42).
The new concept is to make a box that
cleans the air. The tissue box uses cast
coated paper that employs a technology
called photocatalysis. White cast coated
paperboard is a thick-coated duplex board
with a high-quality fnish. Nippon Paper
Industries has developed a new technology
for blending titanium oxide into the coating,
which in turn has led to the development
of this product. This is the worlds frst
application of photocatalytic technology,
which has an air-cleaning effect, in tissue
cartons.
Biosignal is going to develop antibacterial
products with Swiss-based Ciba Specialty
Chemicals (43). Biosignal has developed
antibacterial bio-flm for application in
paper products as well as in plastics,
coatings, paints and fbres.
Paper with inorganic antibacterial
agents
The current non-conventional antibacterial
products have been produced on a
commercial scale or in laboratory stages
using inorganic antibacterial agents (see
Figure 2).
Organic and inorganic
antibacterial agents
Organic antibacterial agents have mainly
been used until recently. The disadvantages
of organic agents are low melting and
boiling points, their tendency to volatise or
decompose, and toxicity.
Inorganic antibacterial material is usually in
the form of a composite. This is considered
as highly safe (non-volatile) and heat-
resistant compared to organic materials.
Metallic ions having antibacterial and
antifungal capabilities, such as silver, copper
and zinc, are impregnated in a mineral or
blended with a carrier to form the composite
or applied as a coating. Appropriate release
of antibacterial metallic ions from the
composite can effectively inhibit the birth
and growth of harmful microbes. As silver
ions are taken into microbes, they react and
bond to the cellular enzyme microbes. This
inhibits enzyme activity and multiplication
of microbes, thus killing the microbes
(Figure 6).
Silver ions are thought to inhibit bacterial
enzymes and bind to DNA. These have been
used effectively against different bacteria,
fungi and viruses. Silver has a broad
spectrum of antibacterial activity, while
exhibiting low toxicity towards mammalian
cells (44).
FIGURE 6 Antibacterial mechanism of
silver ions
Source: Material Science Forum
10
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Antibacterial papers and boards for
hospitals
Garnett has developed (1) an antibacterial
paper which will help fght the MRSA
super bug in UK hospitals. According to a
research fnding from University College of
London hospitals NHS trust, patients notes
and medical records are helping to spread
the bug. Garnett has replaced its leading
Filemaster brand with the new Filemaster
antibacterial range which will reduce the
danger of cross-contamination as a result of
handling medical records.
Special antibacterial products, which have
been incorporated into the materials used
to make record cards, will help to stop
the spread of bacterial infections such
as MRSA. This is the frst step towards
developing a range of products for the
healthcare industry that will help counter
the effects of disease transmission through
paper products. Garnetts new Filemaster
Antibacterial was launched early in 2006
to medical record companies. This was the
frst of a range of antibacterial papers and
boards.
Antibacterial paper towel for hospitals
A new invention is reported by Zone
Innovation at Coventry University (45)
where the product a paper towel has
been redesigned to incorporate a high-tech
antibacterial coating. The surface of the
paper contains micro-capsules which release
a sterilising agent when the towel is used.
According to its developers, the new towel
would drastically improve hand hygiene in
hospitals, thus helping to prevent outbreaks
of MRSA.
Antibacterial offce paper
Montreal-based company Domtar, one of
the largest paper mills in North America,
has begun producing paper containing a
silver compound to guard against bacteria,
odours and the growth of fungus, mould
and mildew. Independent laboratory
tests on the new product demonstrate a
99% reduction of Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus and K. pneumoniae.
The paper maintains its antimicrobial
features throughout its shelf life and
even after printing and varnishing. The
development of this paper presents an
opportunity to help reduce the proliferation
of bacteria in offce environments. It is
claimed that the product can make a
perfectly sterile offce environment.
The antimicrobial offce paper, produced
by Domtar (24) is environmentally safe as
the antibacterial compound, silver, is half as
toxic as table salt. It has received approval
from the Environmental Protection Agency
and the US Food and Drug Administration.
Although conceived for general offce use,
the papers unique characteristics make
it ideal for the healthcare, laboratory,
hospitality, education and government
sectors.
The paper is expected to fnd immediate
use in hospitals and doctors offces
before fnding its way into the general
offce environment. It is currently being
manufactured at a mill in the US, and the
paper is subject to a licensing agreement
with Silver Co., a New York operation run
by engineer and inventor Fred Klimpl. Silver
Co.s patented technology has already been
licensed to other US-based companies:
Smead Manufacturing Company
in Hastings, Minnesota, produces
antimicrobial fle folders;
Brooklyn Park Minnesota-based Medical
Arts Press makes medical forms;
Quality Park, with its headquarters in
Englewood, Colorado, produces silver-
imbedded envelopes.
According to company offcials, the cost of
the new papers will fall between the price
of standard paper and inkjet or premium
paper (5).
Antibacterial wallpaper
A variety of wallpapers with antibacterial
properties are available (46). Along with
the other features, the antibacterial action
is >97% in these products. The wallpapers
can be used in living rooms, bedrooms,
commercial areas, study rooms, etc. (8).
Antibacterial kraft paper
An antimicrobial additive is incorporated
(25) into the binding agent of a heavy-duty,
kraft-type paper having the characteristics
of high density, air impermeability and
improved printability. The antimicrobial
additive migrates from within the binding
agent onto the paper fbres to substantially
eliminate the growth of micro-organisms
thereon.
Antibacterial cellulose fbre pulp
One antibacterial and antimicrobial sheet
that has been developed (4750) uses
11
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
a unique antibacterial and antimicrobial
agent which is crystallised by causing metal
ions such as silver and copper ions to react
with the antimicrobial agent nitrogen-
sulphur in fne cellulose fbre (pulp).
Antibacterial paper using minerals
Micro-organisms can grow easily on soft,
moist organic masses. As mineral particles
are endowed with a hard surface and
are inorganic in nature, the possibility of
microbial growth on mineral surfaces is
negated. In fact, mineral-based fllers and
coating pigments are likely to play an
antibacterial role. Cellulosic raw materials
and other additives like starch, on the other
hand, may be favourable environments for
the bacteria to grow.
Vermiculite exchanged with Ag- and
Cu- antibacterial ions
The structure of vermiculite clay consists of
tetrahedral-octahedral combined layers (51).
Between these layers there is an interlayer
space where, depending upon the clay
and other conditions, 03 layers of water
molecules along with metal ions can exist
(52). In montmorillonite (53), chlorite (54)
and vermiculite (55), many metal ions, such
as Na, K, Ag, Ni, Ca, Co, Cu, Pt, Pd, Ce or
their mixtures, can be exchanged.
Table 2 shows the ionic radius of various
elements based on Goldschmidts
calculation. In natural vermiculite, the
interlayer space contains mostly Mg
ions surrounded by water molecules.
Mg-vermiculite does not possess any
antibacterial property, but when ions like
Cu+2 are exchanged with Mg, the product
develops antibacterial properties. The ionic
radius is very important for facilitating the
exchange mechanism. Ions with higher ionic
radius than shown in Table 1 cannot be
exchanged with Mg-vermiculite.
On drying to different temperatures, the
interlayer space can be reduced from three
layers at room temperature to zero layers
at around 300C in vermiculite, and the d-
value (i.e. the total thickness of the lattice)
in X-ray diffraction is reduced from 14 to
910. The antibacterial agent, such as
Ag+ or Cu++, can be exchanged into these
interlayer spaces of specially prepared clay
minerals and can be added to paper to
produce antibacterial paper.
The average particle size of the milled
vermiculite is about 4.1. More than 90%
of the particles are smaller than 10.
By impregnating copper ions into the
nanometre openings between the layers
of vermiculite, it is possible to render the
composite with antibacterial functions if the
copper ions can be released gradually from
the composite.
The minimum concentration of silver ions to
inhibit Escherichia coli is as low as 0.78g/
ml. Silver-loaded inorganic antibacterial
materials, such as Ag-zeolite, Ag-glass,
Ag-zirconium phosphate, Ag-phosphorite
and AgTiO
2
, have been developed. These
products generally show high antibacterial
activity and low toxicity. However, the
high reactivity of silver was found to be
a problem (56). Examples include the
reduction of silver ions to elemental silver,
causing the loss of antibacterial ability, and
the change to dark colour after ultraviolet
irradiation or heating of the composite.
In addition, silver is not very effective
on fungus. Since copper ion has a lower
cost, better antifungal ability and higher
chemical stability than silver, copper-
based antibacterial materials can be ideal
substitutes.
Antibacterial property of kaolin
Kaolin has some antibacterial properties
and is used to absorb toxins and bacteria
like the other clays. New multifunctional
materials possessing antibacterial and
antifungal properties have been derived
from clay minerals and other inorganic
materials by using cation exchange reaction
and surface modifcation (11).
TABLE Radii of some exchangeable metallic ions (nm)
Cations H+ Na+ Mg+ Al3+ K+ Ca+ Mn+ Fe+ Cu+ Zn+ Ag+
Radium 2.03 0.098 0.075 0.055 0.133 0.105 0.091 0.083 0.072 0.083 0.133
Source: Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering (2002)
1
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Montmorillonite and saponite
Silver chelate complexes have been
intercalated in montmorillonite to impart
antibacterial and antifungal properties. The
diameter of silver particles was 2040nm,
and did not change with increases in
temperature up to 400C.
In a layer-by-layer assembly (14) of a
biomimetic nanostructured composite from
Na
+
montmorillonite clay nano sheets and
poly diallyl methyl ammonium chloride,
antibacterial activity can be introduced by
alternating clay layers with starch-stabilised
silver nanoparticles.
Five antimicrobial ammonium cations
were intercalated into saponite and
montmorillonite by using ion-exchange
reaction (15). The resulting complexes
exhibited antimicrobial activity against both
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
Another work (16) provides an antifungal
phyllosilicate comprising triazole-type
antifungal organic compound and an
inorganic antibacterial agent between the
layers.
Other minerals with antibacterial
function
The extensive use of antibiotics has led to
an increase in antibiotic resistance in many
pathogenic and clinically relevant bacteria
(17). Recent documentation (18) showed
natural French clays heal Buruli ulcer, a
skin infection caused by Mycobacterium
ulcerans. Certain clay minerals have been
shown to inhibit the growth of some
bacterial pathogens (19). Goethite also has
antibacterial properties (20).
Antibacterial paper using
nanomaterials
Nanotechnology has allowed paper
technologists to produce multifunctional
paper products. Silver, zinc, copper, gallium,
etc. have been produced with particle size
in the nanometre range, i.e.1100nm;
these are known as nanometals. When
nanometals like silver are incorporated
into the paper matrix, the paper becomes
antibacterial.
Wallpaper with ZnO, using ultrasound
technique
Antibacterial wallpaper has been produced
(6, 7) through nanotechnology using zinc
oxide (Figure 7). A simple approach of
ultrasound-assisted coating of paper with
ZnO nanoparticles (
~
20nm) without the aid
of binder is reported.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles have been coated
onto paper, giving it an antibacterial surface
suitable for use as wallpaper in hospitals.
The paper could be used on hospital walls,
in particular operating theatres, as well as
residential complexes, which would reduce
the possibility of infections.
The ZnO nanoparticles coated paper has
antibacterial properties against E. coli.
It is well known that H
2
O
2
is harmful to
the cells of living organisms and is the
major contributor of antibacterial activity.
Thus, the natural tendency of cellulose
fbres absorbing moisture and the ZnO
nanoparticles generating H
2
O
2
can be used
to advantage when forming antibacterial
wallpapers.
Non-impact spray-based coating techniques
are generally preferred as these avoid web
breaks and streak defects and have certain
advantages in terms of durability and
surface quality.
Wall coating for hospitals
Nanovations Pty Ltd, based in Sydney,
Australia (21), has introduced Bioni
Hygienic, the frst antibacterial and
antimicrobial nanotechnology-based
wall coating for hospitals, which can
destroy antibiotic-resistant super bugs like
Staphylococcus aureus.
Wallpaper, medical chart paper and
other papers
Biocera Co. Ltds product is a non-toxic
agent (57), which can be used in paper
and other products, namely in wallpaper;
antibiotic paper and medical chart paper. It
is composed of calcium phosphate, alumina
and silica as carrier, and silver ions, which
are harmless to the human body.
FIGURE 7 ZnO nanoparticles coated
paper
Ccllulosc fibrc
Ccllulosc fibrc
0ltrasonic
cavitation
0ltrasound
/n0 nanoparticlc
ll
4
-
ll
3
Lnvcloping of ccllulosc
fibrc with nanoparticlcs
npact of highspccd nicrojct
of bubblcs on ccllulosc fibrc
lcat
Source: Green Chemistry (2006)
13
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Biocera has developed (58) nanolevel
(0.02nm20nm) powders, colloids and
liquor products with Au, Ag, Pt and Cu, as
well as nanometal oxides such as SnO, TiO
2
,
indium tin oxide, and antimony tin oxide.
The nanosilver series antibacterial materials
have been widely applied in ceramics,
plastic, coating, textile, paper, cosmetics,
medicine and commodities.
Antibacterial wallpaper with
composite materials
Antibacterial wallpaper with nanocoatings
of composite materials has been
produced (59). The antibacterial activity
of nanoparticle-coated paper has been
established from tests against E. coli. The
paper could be used on hospital walls in
particular (60).
Nanometals for wallpaper, offce
paper, packaging, banknotes and
toilet paper
A versatile nanometre grade antibacterial
powder (61) containing silver ion and nano
SiO
2
has been developed. As the surface of
the powder has had special treatment, it
has better compatibility with various fbres
and even scattering. It is used as wallpaper
glue, banknotes, invoice books, toilet paper,
offce paper and packing paper, etc.
Method for producing antibacterial
fbre for paper
The method for producing antibacterial
fbre, to be used in production of knitting
fabric, nonwoven fabric and paper, has been
patented (26). The metal ion comprises
silver ion or a combination of silver ion with
either copper ion or zinc ion.
Antibacterial nanocomposite coatings
with gold and silver nanoparticles
Highly effcient antibacterial nanocomposite
coatings with gold and silver nanoparticles
have been reported (62). The potential
use of antimicrobial surface coatings
in food packaging is of interest to the
paper industry. Researchers in Germany
have developed a new method for
producing antibacterial metal/polymer
nanocomposite coatings, where silver and
gold nanoparticles are only incorporated
in a thin surface layer. Conventional ionic
silver preparations such as silver nitrate
are quickly inactivated in biological fuids
because different biologically inactive
complexes are formed. It is necessary
to optimise the antimicrobial coating
according to defned silver ion release
in a required time.
Antibacterial agent and fungicide for
antibacterial paper
Advanced chemical technology has enabled
Daiwa Chemical Industry to manufacture
paper with excellent antibacterial and anti-
mould properties (63). Antibacterial agent
and fungicide for antibacterial paper and
washing-resistant bacteria controlling agent,
etc. have been reported (64).
Silver-containing aluminium sulphate
for antibacterial paper
An antibacterial agent (65) comprising
silver and aluminium sulphate hydroxide
has been produced. Antibacterial-moulded
articles have been made using this product
by blending with a resin. Antibacterial
paper and cans of antibacterial deodorant
can also be prepared with this material.
Antibacterial products with nano ZnO,
TiO

and SiO

Nano-ZnO impregnated onto cotton textiles
showed excellent antibacterial activity
against two bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus
and Klebsiella pneumoniae, and gave
protection against UV radiation (66).
TiO
2
, SiO
2
and ZnO are common additives
(67) with improved applications at the
nanoscale. The antibacterial activity of
TiO
2
, which has important ecosystem health
implications, is understood. However, less
attention has been paid to the antibacterial
activity of SiO
2
and ZnO, although they also
produce reactive oxygen species.
TABLE 3 Technical specifications of silver nanometal
Property Sample 1 Sample Sample 3
Whiteness 90 90 90
Silver ion content (%) 3.6 6 9
Average granule diameter (m) 1.0 1.0 1.0
Real specific gravity 3.0 3.0 3.0
pH of suspending solution 6.57.5 6.57.5 6.57.5
Source: www.root-cn.com
1
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Research is continuing into the preparation,
characterisation and surface modifcation
of nanosized inorganic particles of various
compositions (22), which can be used in
the formulation of antibacterial agents.
Understanding the principles (23) of
biomineralisation of calcium carbonate
polymorphs and other carbonates is very
important. Researchers at Iowa State
University, US, have used room-temperature
ionic liquids as a template for producing
mesoporous silica nanoparticles. In turn, the
nanoparticles acted as a controlled-release
agent for the antibacterial ionic liquids (24).
Antibacterial products using
photocatalysts
The antibacterial property of titanium
dioxide is well established (68) and is
attributed to its photocatalytic property
(69).
Antibacterial offce and other papers
with titanium oxide
Ein Tech. Ltd claims (9) to have developed
for the frst time the technology to
adhere the materials to pulp using a
small amount of anatase-type titanium
oxide instead of coating or adhesive. This
technology enables the production of
excellent photocatalytic paper by injecting
photocatalytic titania (1015% of the
whole volume of photocatalytic pulp) into
the materials during the paper-producing
process. The paper was produced in a
Japanese hand-made paper machine.
The photocatalytic paper completely kills
Staphylococcus aureus (Figure 8).
Titanium dioxide has become a popular
photocatalyst material (10) for both air and
water purifcation.
Light catalyst for nonwoven fabrics
and air flters
Mitsubishi Paper has produced (70) light
catalyst sheet which activates deodorising
and antibacterial properties by means
of titanium oxide, excited by ultraviolet
light. Technology has been developed
to fx the light catalyst in nonwoven
fabrics by combining it with an inorganic
absorbent. In addition, the light catalyst
is commercialised as air purifers and
deodorisers by processing it into air flter-
like honeycomb and corrugated patterns
(like corrugated cardboard).
Titernal photocatalyst
Nanosize particles of titanium dioxide in
ethanol produce a photocatalytic effect on
exposure to UV light. The effect decomposes
the organic matter to hydroxyl radicals,
imparting antibacterial properties. Fushimi
Inc. has commercialised the antibacterial
product, calling it Titernal Photocatalyst,
which can be applied on walls, ceilings and
paper products (71). The photocatalytic
effect is imparted by nano particles of
titania, having a particle size of 10nm. The
product is a suspension having a pH of
67.5.
The active ingredient in Titernal is titanium
dioxide, a photocatalyst with particles as
FIGURE 8 Photocatalytic papers antibacterial performance test on Staphylococcus aureus
0
S00
1,000
1,S00
2,000
2,S00
3,000
3,S00
4,000
24 12 0
Jinc h)
l
o
.

o
f

l
i
v
i
n
g

g
c
r
n
s
lhotocatalytic papcr lornal scrccn papcr
lornal condition without any papcr
Source: Ein Tech. Ltd
15
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
small as 10nm; the pH is 67.5 (water
suspension liquid pH is 67.5).
Table 4 summarises research and
development into antibacterial papers.
FIGURE Generation of the photocatalytic effect with nano-titania
67
FUIBOPM 1IPUPDBUBMZUJDFGGFDU
/BOP5J0

Source: Fushimi Inc.

TABLE R&D efforts in antibacterial paper
Subject Organisation Year Results Reference
Antibacterial activity of Department of Civil and 2006 Results highlight the need for caution during the use and Water Science &
SiO
2
and ZnO Environmental Engineering, disposal of such manufactured nanomaterials to prevent Technology, Vol. 54 No.
Rice University, Houston, unintended environmental impacts 1112 pp 327334
TX 77005, US IWA Publishing 2006.
www.iwaponline.com
Antibacterial technology Biosignal, Sydney, with 2006 18 month development targeting plastics, coatings, paints, www.biotechnology.nsw.
Swiss-based Ciba Specialty fibres and paper products; completed a joint development and gov.au
Chemicals licensing agreement; expected to go through further
development and scale-up before being submitted for
regulatory approval in the US, Europe and elsewhere
ZnO-coated paper with Honolulu, HI, and 2006 ZnO and other nanoparticle-coated papers and bandage 14 December 2006
antibacterial properties National Tsing Hua fabrics developed for application in hospitals, and even in
against E. coli University in Taiwan combatting bioterrorism; can easily be scaled-up for
industrial production
Paper towel, redesigned to Zone Innovation at According to its developers, the new towel will drastically www.hero.ac.uk
incorporate a high-tech Coventry University improve hand hygiene in hospitals, thus helping to prevent
antibacterial coating outbreaks of MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus) the bug is spread predominantly through poor
hand hygiene among hospital staff
16
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
TABLE R&D efforts in antibacterial paper (continued)
Subject Organisation Year Results Reference
Antibacterial vermiculite Michigan Technological 2002 The results showed that Cu-vermiculite had adequate Journal of Minerals &
nanomaterial University, US, and China antibacterial function, preventing the growth of bacteria. Materials
University of Geosciences, Heat treatment of Cu-vermiculite at up to 400C does not Characterization &
Beijing, China show significant changes in antibacterial activities Engineering, Vol. 1,
No. 1, pp 6168, 2002
Heterotrophic bacteria VTT Biotechnology, 2004 To isolate aerobic mesophilic bacilli and thermophilic bacteria Journal of Applied
occurring in paper mills Finland, Dept of Applied from different paper mill samples and to evaluate their Microbiology 97 (6),
and paper products Chemistry and potential harmfulness 12281235
Microbiology, University
of Helsinki, Finland
Gallium: a new University of Washington, 2007 Ga might be a promising new therapeutic for the treatment Journal of Clinical
antibacterial agent Seattle of infection with P. aeruginonsa Investigation, 16 March,
2007 www.sciencedaily.
com
Department of Fiber The polypropylene/silver nanocomposite fibres were Korea www.springerlink.
& Polymer Engineering, prepared for the attainment of permanent antibacterial com/index
College of Engineering, activity to common synthetic textile
Hanyang University, Seoul
Triclosan Biochemistry department 1999 The accumulation of triclosan in the environment could lead 16 April 1999, Journal
at St Jude Childrens to the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria of Biological Chemistry
Research Hospital
Antibacterial effects of Laboratory of Wood and Lenita.Lindberg@abo.fi
knotwood extractives on Paper Chemistry, Abo
paper mill bacteria Akademi Process Chemistry
Centre, Porthansgatan 3,
20500 Turku/Abo, Finland
Development of high Okinawa Industrial The silver-based antibacterial agent is suitable in terms of
performance paper with Technology Center. TAIRA costs compared with with the chitosan. In addition, it was
mildewproofing and Hideharu Okinawa Industrial possible to manufacture antibacterial paper by coating the
mothproofing using Technology Center, research silver-based antibacterial agent 16g/cm
2
(coating thickness
Alpinia speiosa K. Scham and development section 0.016 mm) and it was possible to manufacture a
mildewporoof product by coating the silver-based
antibacterial agent, 32g/cm
2
and the galingale essential oil
microcapsule 70g/cm
Source: IntertechPira
17
No precise or rigid legislative procedure has
been laid down so far regarding the use of
antibacterial products.
Triclosan
Triclosan is a chlorinated aromatic
compound (73) with antibacterial,
antifungal and antiviral properties. The
companies that manufacture and use
triclosan claim it is safe. However, it is
registered as a pesticide with the US EPA.
According to one group (74), household
antibacterial products containing triclosan
produce chloroform (75). Environmental
compliance for antibacterial agents such
as triclosan should be made similar to the
dioxins generated in chlorine-free products
(76). There is a concern that volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) may be produced on
using the photocatalytic antibacterial agent
which can be stained on the antibacterial
wallpaper (77). It was found (78, 79) that
the use of antibacterial products may
actually make drug-resistant strains of
bacteria more prevalent.
Some studies have concluded that simply
washing thoroughly with plain soap is
suffcient to reduce bacteria, but other
studies have found that soaps containing
antimicrobial active ingredients remove
more bacteria than simply washing with
plain soap and water (80).
Antibacterial products and
antibiotic resistance
Various news reports have described
supposed threats that the use of
antibacterial products can lead to the
creation of antibiotic-resistant super
bugs in real-life settings. However, the
evidence shows otherwise (81). A paper
was presented to the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) Nonprescription
Drugs Advisory Committee on 20 October
2005. The paper summarises research
demonstrating that there is no real-
world evidence linking the use of topical
antimicrobial products to antibiotic
resistance. Research published in the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
journal Emerging Infectious Diseases
(October 2005) found that the use of
antibacterial cleaning products did not lead
to a signifcant increase in antimicrobial
drug resistance after one year, nor did it
have an effect on bacterial susceptibility to
triclosan (82).
Inorganic antibacterial agent
The EPA in the US has recommended (83)
that silver be used in drinking water. The
allowable levels of silver present in drinking
water should be set at 100 parts per billion,
and most companies systems are designed
to inject ionic silver well below that limit,
at a rate of 60ppb. A recent draft of a new
European Union Drinking Water Standard
has removed any upper limit for silver in
drinking water following the World Health
Organizations guidelines for drinking-water
quality.
A draft Standard Operating Procedure
(SOP), developed by the European
Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility
Testing, has been released for consultation
(84).
MRSA infection
Antibacterial compounds, active against
the life-threatening super bug MRSA,
have been made by UK scientists (85).
As MRSA becomes increasingly resistant
to commonly used antibiotics, the search
for new types of antibiotics to combat
the infection is ever more urgent (86).
A technique called diversity-oriented
synthesis is used to make a wide range of
structurally diverse compounds, some of
which have antibacterial activity against
MRSA. The UK has a three-year target to
halve MRSA infections by April 2008 (87)
but the process is slow and this may not be
achieved.
The number of coating systems on the
market claiming to exhibit antibacterial or
hygienic effects continues to increase (88).
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU
Legislation
18
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About Pira International
Established in 1930, Pira provides
market research, strategic and
technical consulting, testing,
publications and conferences to
help clients understand market
trends, identify opportunities,
evaluate performance and technical
developments, meet compliance
requirements and develop strategies
to grow their business.
*OEVTUSZ *OTJHIU