C1 WrlLe a noLe on Lhe funcLlons of managemenL?

Ans Management has been described as a social process involving responsibility for
economical and effective planning & regulation of operation of an enterprise in the fulfillment
of given purposes. t is a dynamic process consisting of various elements and activities.
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Coordinating
5. Controlling
PIanning
t is the basic function of management. t deals with chalking out a future course of action &
deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-
determined goals. According to KOONTZ, "Planning is deciding in advance - what to do,
when to do & how to do. t bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be. A
plan is a future course of actions. t is an exercise in problem solving & decision making.
Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a
systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals.
Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. t is all
pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties,
risks, wastages etc.
7ganizing
t is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing
productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to
Henry Fayol, "To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning
i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel's. To organize a business involves
determining & providing human and non-human resources to the organizational structure.
Organizing as a process involves:
O dentification of activities.
O Classification of grouping of activities.
O Assignment of duties.
O Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
O Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.
$9affing
t is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has
assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology,
increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing
is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round
holes. According to Kootz & O'Donell, "Managerial function of staffing involves manning the
organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of
personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure. Staffing involves:
O Man powering (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person
and giving the right place).
O Recruitment, selection & placement.
O Training & development.
O Remuneration.
O Performance appraisal.
O Promotions & transfer.
coordinating
t is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work
efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. t is considered life-spark of the
enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and
staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect
of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-
ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:
O Supervision
O Motivation
O Leadership
O Communication
$:507;ision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. t is the act of
watching & directing work & workers.
Mo9i;a9ion- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work.
Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.
L0ad07shi5- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the
work of subordinates in desired direction.
Comm:nica9ions- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one
person to another. t is a bridge of understanding.

t implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation

if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure
that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps
to predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, "Controlling is
the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the
objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation. According to Koontz
& O'Donell "Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of
subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain
them as being accomplished. Therefore controlling has following steps:
a. Establishment of standard performance.
b. Measurement of actual performance.
c. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if
any.
d. Corrective action.





; lscuss any Lwo learnlng Lheorles ln deLall?
Ans:Classical conditioning is a school oI thought in psychology based on the
assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions oI
this theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as
thoughts, Ieelings and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.
One oI the best-known aspects oI behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning. Discovered by
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through
associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal beIore a naturally
occurring reIlex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound oI a tone
and the naturally occurring reIlex was salivating in response to Iood. By associating the neutral
stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the presentation oI Iood), the sound oI the tone alone could
produce the salivation response.
In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is important to be Iamiliar
with the basic principles oI the process.
The Unconditioned Stimulus
The Unconditioned Stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a
response. For example, when you smell one oI your Iavorite Ioods, you may immediately Ieel very
hungry. In this example, the smell oI the Iood is the unconditioned stimulus.
The Unconditioned Response
The Unconditioned Response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the Ieeling oI hunger in response to the smell oI Iood is the
unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, aIter becoming associated with the
unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example,
suppose that when you smelled your Iavorite Iood, you also heard the sound oI a whistle. While the
whistle is unrelated to the smell oI the Iood, iI the sound oI the whistle was paired multiple times with
the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound oI the
whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
The Conditioned Response
The Conditioned Response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our
example, the conditioned response would be Ieeling hungry when you heard the sound oI the whistle.

CperanL CondlLlonlng B. F. Skinner's system is based on operant
conditioning. The organism, while going about it's everyday activities, is in the
process of "operating on the environment. In the course of its activities, the
organism encounters a special kind of stimulus, called a reinforcingstimulus, or
simply a reinforcer. This special stimulus has the effect of increasing the the
behavior occurring just before the reinforcer. This is operant conditioning: "the
behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies
the organism's tendency to repeat the behavior in the future. A behavior followed
by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior
occurring in the future.

Skinner's observations can be divided into independent variables which can be
manipulated by the experimenter, and dependent variables, which can not be
manipulated by the experimenter and are thought to be affected by the independent
variables
- Acquisition rate: how rapidly an animal can be trained to a new operant
behavior as a function of reinforcement. Skinner typically deprived his lab animals of
food for 24 or more hours before beginning a schedule of reinforcement. This tended
to increase acquisition rate.

- Rate of response: this is a measure of learning that is very sensitive to different
schedules of reinforcement. In most cases, animals were given intermittent
schedules of reinforcement, so they were called upon to elicit the desired response
at other times as well. Rate of response is a measure of correct responses
throughout a testing schedule including the times when reinforcement is not
provided after a correct response. It appears as if test animals build expectations
when they are given rewards at predictable times (Animals which are fed at the
same time each day become active as that time approaches, and a dog whose
master comes home at the same time each day becomes more attentive around that
time of day.) Also, Skinner found that when fixed interval reinforcement was used,
the desired behavior would decrease or disappear just after a reinforcement, but
when it was almost time for the next reinforcement, the animal would resume the
desired responses.

- tinction rate: The rate at which an operant response disappears following the
withdrawal of reinforcement. Skinner found that continuous reinforcement schedules
produced a faster rate of learning in the early stages of a training program, and also
a more rapid extinction rate once the reinforcement was discontinued. A behavior no
longer followed by the reinforcing stimulus results in a decreased probability of that
behavior occurring in the future.

Q3 Explain the classification of personality given by Sheldon.
Ans: Sheldon classified personality according to body type into three
1. Endomorph
2. Mesomorph
3. Ectomorph
1 endomorph : according to Sheldon it is focused on the digestive system ,
particularly the stomach has the tendency towards plumpness,corresponds to
viscerotonia temperament tolerant , love of comfort and luxury, extravert .
O Endomorph body type:
1. soft body
2. underdeveloped mucles
3. round shaped
4. over developed digestive system
. associated personality traits:
1. Love of food
2. Tolerant
3. Evenness of emotion
4. Love of comfort
5. Sociable
6. Good humoured
7. Relaxed
8. Need for affection
2 mesomorph: focused on musculature and the circulatory system has the
tendency towards muscularity, corresponds to the somatotonia temperament
courageous energetic active dynamic assertive , aggressive , risk taker.
. mesomorphic body type:
1. Hard muscular body
2. Overly mature appearance
3. Rectangular shaped
4. Thick skin
5. Upright posture
. Associated personality traits:
1. Advenyure
2. Desire for power and dominance
3. Courageous
4. ndiffrence to what others think or want
5. Assertive , bold
6. Zest for physical activity
7. Competitive
8. Love of risk and chance
3. ectomorph focused on nervous system and brain the tendency towards
slightness , corresponds to cerebrtonia temperament artistic , sensitive ,
apprehensive,introvert.
. ectomorphic body type:
1. Thin
2. Flat chest
3. Delicate build
4. Young appearance
5. Tall
6. Lightly muscled
7. Stoop shouldered
8. Large brain
. Associated personality traits
1. Self conscious
2. Preference for privacy
3. ntroverted
4. nhibited
5. Socially anxious
6. Artistic
7. Mentally intense
8. Emotionally restrained








Q.8 WhaL are Lhe facLors lnfluenclng percepLlon?
Ans farLors lnfluenclng percepLlon are

1) In the perceiver
2) In the object or target being perceived or
3) In the context of the situation in which the perception is made

1. Characteristics of the perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver
can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts
to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily
influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The
major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are:

a) Attitudes: The perceivers attitudes affect perception. This attitude will
doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.

b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive
someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we
are depressed.

c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may
exert a strong influence on their perceptions.

d) Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the
perceivers self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends
to notice positive attributes in another person.

e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our
interests. Because our individual interest differs considerably, what one
person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive.

f) Cognitive Structure: Cognitive Structure, an individuals pattern of
thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to
perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearances more
readily.

g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that
you will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study
conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific
characteristics of the perceiver reveal