On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems – Technical issues

UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

On-site wastewater treatment systems - a brief

overview of technical issues

Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

Department of Municipal Infrastructure, UNESCO-IHE, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The

Netherlands

February 2005

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 On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems – Technical issues
UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Definition of Terms _____________________________________________________ 4

2. Evaluation and Classification of Disposal Sites _______________________________ 5
3. Processes for Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems _____________________ 6
3.1. Anaerobic Treatment Processes_______________________________________ 6
3.1.1. Septic Tanks ___________________________________________________ 6
3.1.2. Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB) ____________________ 7
3.2. Ponds ____________________________________________________________ 7
3.3. Upgrading Pre-Treated Wastewater ___________________________________ 8
3.3.1. Intermittent Sand Filter ___________________________________________ 8
3.3.2. Rock Filters ____________________________________________________ 8
3.4. Aerobic Suspended Growth Systems___________________________________ 9
3.4.1. Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) ___________________________________ 9
3.4.2. Extended Aeration_______________________________________________ 9
3.4.3. Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) _____________________________________ 10
3.5. Aerobic Fixed Film Systems _________________________________________ 11
3.5.1. Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC) ______________________________ 11
3.5.2. Submerged Aerated Filter (SAF) __________________________________ 11
3.5.3. Moving Bed Bioreactor (MBBR) __________________________________ 11
3.6. Constructed Wetlands______________________________________________ 12
3.7. Other Issues ______________________________________________________ 12
3.7.1. Nutrient Removal ______________________________________________ 12
3.7.2. Sludge Management ____________________________________________ 13
3.7.3. Odour________________________________________________________ 13
3.8. Comparison of Processes ___________________________________________ 13
4. Final Disposal Methods _________________________________________________ 16
4.1. Final Disposal Methods for Normal Site Conditions _____________________ 16
4.2. Final Disposal Methods for Difficult Site Conditions ____________________ 16
4.3. Final Disposal Methods for Adverse Site Conditions ____________________ 16
5. Wastewater Collection, Treatment and Disposal for Sewered Areas ______________ 17
5.1. Collection Systems_________________________________________________ 17
5.2. Treatment Systems ________________________________________________ 17
5.2.1. Pre-engineered Package Plants ____________________________________ 17
5.2.2. Individually Designed and Constructed Systems ______________________ 18
5.3. Disposal and Reuse Systems _________________________________________ 18
6. References____________________________________________________________ 18

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 On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems – Technical issues
UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

1. DEFINITION OF TERMS

On-site Treatment

The term on-site treatment is usually used to refer to “small” wastewater treatment plants with
local effluent disposal (most often subsurface disposal). It usually involves a very basic
sewerage system to convey wastewater to the treatment process. The treated effluent pipes are
usually very short, because the aim is to locate the treatment process and the disposal site in
close proximity to each other.

Small Treatment Plants

The International Water Association Specialist Group on Small WWTP has defined a small
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) as being one for less than 2000 person equivalents (pe)
or a daily flow of 200 m3/d. In comparison, the Norwegian classification system calls a
treatment plant “small” if it treats the effluent of 35-500 persons. Indeed, there is no clear-cut
definition of what size exactly is “small” for WWTPs.

WWTPs that have the capacity to treat effluent from < 35 persons (i.e. scattered dwellings of
< 7 houses) are called mini-treatment plants (or on-site plants) in Norway. These plants are
only used in cases where soil infiltration cannot be used due to impermeable soils.

Mini-treatment plants normally treat all the wastewater from the house (grey as well as black
water), and they normally use pre-treatment in a septic tank followed by a unit based on
biological or chemical processes or combinations of the two.

Decentralised Wastewater Management

There is no generally accepted definition of what “decentralised” wastewater management

means. It is usually used to imply something “small” and “compact”.

Decentralised wastewater management employs collection, treatment, and disposal/reuse of

wastewater from individual homes, clusters of homes, isolated communities, industries or
institutional facilities, as well as from portions of existing communities at or near the point of
waste generation. Decentralised systems maintain both the solid and liquid fractions of the
wastewater near their point of origin, although the liquid portion and any residual solids can
be transported to a centralised point for further treatment and reuse (Crites and
Tchobanoglous, 1998).

Decentralised WWTPs will normally (but not always) receive a more concentrated
wastewater than centralised plants, and flow and variations in composition are greater.
Generally speaking, the smaller the system, the larger the variations in flow and composition
will be.

Other Wastewater Treatment Terms

The conditions present in a biological treatment system are commonly classed into the
following three categories:

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UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

An aerobic state is characterised by the presence of oxygen (may or may not contain
nitrate).
An anaerobic state is characterised by the absence of oxygen or nitrate.
An anoxic state is characterised by the absence of oxygen, but presence of nitrate.
This latter distinction between anaerobic and anoxic is only important for discussing
biological nutrient removal concepts.

Person equivalent or p.e. (the amount of wastewater discharged per person; usually taken to
mean 200 L/d/person and 60 g BOD/d/person).

BOD: BOD stands for “biological oxygen demand” and is a measure for the strength of the
wastewater with regard to organic matter. It is expressed as mg/l or kg/d.

Effluent: The water flow leaving a wastewater treatment system.

2. EVALUATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF DISPOSAL SITES

Table 1 below summarises the characteristics of so-called “normal”, “difficult” and “adverse”
site conditions. The type of site condition is an important factor in choosing the effluent
disposal method.

Table 1. Classification of site conditions (after Qasim, 1999)

Normal site Difficult site Adverse site
conditions conditions conditions
Subsoil type Suitable for Low permeability Impervious
percolation
Water table depth Deep High Very high
Bedrock Unfractured High and fractured High and fractured
Ground surface slope Favourable Unfavourable Steep
Flooding None Occasional Frequent
Distance from water Far away Quite close Close
supply wells,
buildings,
escarpments
Lot size Large Small Small
Disposal methods for Gravity flow over a Further treatment Drastic change in
septic tank effluent conventional needed (aerobic water conservation,
(see also Section 3) percolation trench or processes or treatment and
bed. intermittent sand recycling.
filters). Periodic
dosing of a disposal
field by pump or
dosing syphon.

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 On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems – Technical issues
UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

Bouma (1979) makes the following recommendations regarding soil classification:

The separation between “suitable” and "unsuitable” soils has a somewhat arbitrary
character, if only because of the wide variety of soil and site factors considered and their
different relative significance. The factors of high ground water or bedrock, for example,
create different problems and call for a different analysis than the factor of slow permeability
or steep slope.

The following broad definition for acceptable performance of any on-site soil system is
proposed: “Acceptable on-site disposal and treatment of domestic liquid waste implies
complete infiltration in the seepage system at all times, followed by transformations during
soil percolation to the effect that neither the ground water aquifer nor surface waters are
contaminated at any time to a degree that is unacceptable in terms of human health or
environmental quality”.

3. PROCESSES FOR DECENTRALISED WASTEWATER TREATMENT

SYSTEMS

The wastewater treatment processes used for decentralised wastewater systems are in
principle the same as used for larger centralised wastewater systems, i.e. physical, chemical
and biological processes as well as combinations of these. Certain processes are better suited
for the small-scale application than others, and these are described in detail in this chapter. An
overview and comparison of the processes described below is provided at the end of this
chapter.

3.1. Anaerobic Treatment Processes

3.1.1. Septic Tanks
A septic tank has the following functions:
Settling chamber for solids;
Storage for sludge and scum; and
Anaerobic digestion and breaking down of the waste solids

Anaerobic bacteria (organisms that live without oxygen) feed on the sludge, reducing its
volume. Soluble organic matter is released from the sludge into the effluent. Methane and
carbon dioxide are also produced and vented from the tank through the house vent. Only
about 40% of the sludge volume is reduced in this manner, however, and the accumulated
solids must be pumped from the tank once very 2 to 3 years. Septic sludge (so-called
“septage”) has to be treated and disposed by one of several available methods (see Section
3.7.2).

If solids are not pumped out, the tank will fill, re-suspend the accumulated solids, and wash
them into the absorption fields where they quickly clog the soil pores. The liquid effluent
from the septic tank is discharged to a distribution box and then to a drainfield.

Effluent coming from the septic tank is not of a high quality nor is it consistent, but this is not
necessary if a suitable soil type and area is used for final subsurface disposal. The tank does
remove up to 60% of the BOD and 70% of the suspended solids. Indicator microorganisms,
which are microorganisms that indicate the possible presence of disease-causing bacteria, are
not reduced to low levels.

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 On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems – Technical issues
UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

Modern conventionally designed septic systems are composed of four basic components:
Building sewer
Septic tank
Distribution box
Drainfield (or leach field)
Typically, septic tanks are made of concrete or fiberglass, although other materials such as
steel, redwood and polyethylene have been used. Regardless of the material of construction, a
septic tank must be watertight and structurally sound. The size of the septic tank system is
critical in terms of its performance. Several tanks, often arranged in series, are applied for
schools, summer camps, parks and motels.

3.1.2. Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB)

The UASB is a tank filled with anaerobic granular sludge with good settling properties.
Influent wastewater is distributed at the bottom of the UASB reactor and travels in an upflow
mode through the sludge blanket. The anaerobic degradation of organic substrates occurs in
this sludge blanket, where biogas is produced. The gases produced under anaerobic conditions
(methane and carbon dioxide) serve to mix the contents of the reactor as they rise to the
surface.

Critical elements of the UASB reactor design are:

Influent distribution system
Gas-solid separator
Effluent withdrawal design
Modifications to the basic UASB design include adding a settling tank or the use of packing
material at the top of the reactor. The presence of a settler on the top of the digestion zone
enables the system to maintain a large sludge mass in the UASB reactor, while an effluent
essentially free of suspended solids is discharged.

The UASB reactor has the potential to produce higher quality effluent than septic tanks, and
can do so in a smaller reactor volume. Whilst it is a well-established process for large-scale
industrial effluent treatment processes, its application to on-site domestic sewage is still
relatively new.

3.2. Ponds
Wastewater can be treated in ponds, which are also referred to as lagoons or waste
stabilisation ponds. These are shallow, man-made (earthen and/or lined) basins, which can be
provided with or without mechanical aerators or covers (for anaerobic ponds). They provide
BOD and pathogen removal, and can also provide nutrient removal. The stabilised sludge has
to be removed periodically. The approach to pond design has been largely empirical; it is
nowadays commonly based on volumetric and organic loading rates, hydraulic retention times
and temperature.

Ponds require a relatively large land area, which is a disadvantage if space is limited or
expensive. Their main advantage is that they are easy to maintain and operate. Ponds are
usually classified as follows:
Anaerobic ponds – usually 3-5 m deep; solids settling and anaerobic digestion occurs

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UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

Facultative ponds – 1 to 2.5 m deep; aerobic treatment in the top layer and anaerobic
degradation in the deeper layers (if mechanical aeration is provided, this type of pond
could be turned into an entirely aerobic pond)
Maturation ponds – 1 to 1.5 m deep, entirely aerobic; active algal biomass is maintained
throughout entire depth; pathogen removal; can be filled with floating macrophytes (e.g.
duck weed, water hyacinth)
A typical pond treatment system consists of three ponds in series, where the first pond is
anaerobic, the second facultative and the third a maturation pond.

3.3. Upgrading Pre-Treated Wastewater

Anaerobic treatment or pond treatment may not achieve the required effluent quality. In this
case, add-on technologies may be used. Examples of these include:
Intermittent sand filters (see below)
Rock filters (see below)
Microstrainers
Dissolved air flotation
Floating aquatic plants (as mentioned above in relation to maturation ponds)
Constructed wetlands (see Section 3.6)

3.3.1. Intermittent Sand Filter

Intermittent sand filters can upgrade the effluent quality from septic tanks, UASBs or ponds
to advanced secondary or even tertiary levels. The media grains of the sand filter provide a
large surface area for many different organisms to live on, which results in a stable process.
Clogging of the filter bed occurs gradually, allowing an operator time to respond to upcoming
process failure.

When properly designed and operated, a filter bed can operate for several years before
maintenance is required. When that time comes, the filter bed can be restored within a few
hours.

The typical sand filter is a concrete or PVC-lined box filled with a specific sand material. A
network of small-diameter pipes is placed in a gravel-filled bed on top of the sand. Septic tank
effluent is pumped under low pressure through the pipes in controlled doses to insure uniform
distribution (Qasim, 1999).

The effluent leaves the pipes, trickles downward through the gravel, and is treated as it filters
through the sand. A gravel under-drain collects and moves the treated wastewater to discharge
(pumped or gravity). The accumulation of solids occurs in a 50 to 80 mm layer that must be
removed periodically. The total filter area required for an intermittent sand filter is determined
by dividing the average flowrate by the design hydraulic loading rate. One spare filter should
be added to ensure continuous operation because it may take several days for a cleaning event
to be completed.

3.3.2. Rock Filters

Rock filters remove suspended solids by sedimentation as pond effluent flows through the
void spaces in the rocks. The accumulated algae are then degraded biologically. The
advantages of the rock filter are its simplicity of operation and its relatively low construction

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 On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems – Technical issues
UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

cost. Odour problems can occur, especially in wastewater containing significant

concentrations of sulfate (greater than 50 mg/L).

3.4. Aerobic Suspended Growth Systems

The conventional activated sludge process is the best-known suspended growth aerobic
system, and is the process most commonly used in large, centralised WWTPs. It can also be
used in small package plants.

Four process elements are common for all activated sludge systems (for a detailed description
of this system the reader is referred to Tchobanoglous et al. (2003)):
A flocculent, aerated slurry of microorganisms (which is called “mixed liquor suspended
solids” or MLSS) is utilised in a bioreactor to remove soluble and particulate organic
matter from the influent wastewater;
Quiescent settling is used to remove the MLSS from the process stream, producing an
effluent that is low in organic matter and suspended solids;
Settled solids are recycled as a concentrated slurry from the clarifier back to the bioreactor;
Excess MLSS (sludge or biosolids) is wasted from the bioreactor to control the solids
retention time to a desired value.

Air is provided to the bioreactor by mechanical surface aerators or diffused air aeration (using
blower and diffusers). In general, the inherent instability of the process means that it must be
controlled carefully – a much easier proposition in one central plant. Because the process
provides no physical barrier, poorly treated effluent is released immediately if problems,
accidents or equipment failures lead to a process breakdown. Once the process is disturbed it
can take hours and often days for it to re-establish itself.

There are many process variants to the basic activated sludge process, the main ones being
described briefly below.

3.4.1. Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)

The SBR process is a fill-and-draw-type reactor that acts as aeration basin and final clarifier.
Wastewater and biomass are mixed and allowed to react over several hours in the presence of
air. At a certain point in time, the aeration is turned off and the mixed liquor in the reactor is
allowed to settle, thereby removing the need for a separate settling tank.

After a short settling period, the clarified treated effluent is discharged via a specially
designed decanter. One design variant is that the decanter follows the liquid level down
enabling only the clear, treated effluent to be discharged, while the biomass continues to
settle. Once the treated effluent is discharged the reactor is available to treat a further batch of
wastewater. In this way, the process operates on a batch treatment principle, with the
operations being sequenced. Two or more SBRs are usually operated in parallel unless a
sewage storage tank is used.

3.4.2. Extended Aeration

The extended aeration process utilises a large aeration basin where a high population of
microorganisms is maintained (resulting in a long hydraulic and solids residence time
compared to the conventional activated sludge process). Many types of prefabricated package
plants utilise this process.

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UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

An oxidation ditch is a variation of the extended aeration process. It has a channel in the
shape of a race track. Mechanical aeration with rotors is usually used to supply oxygen and
maintain circulation.

3.4.3. Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)

The key component of the MBR technology is a membrane that separates the activated sludge
(or MLSS) from the effluent (instead of a final clarification stage). There are many different
suppliers of MBR systems on the market. As a representative example, I am describing here a
process using flat sheet membranes manufactured by the Japanese company Kubota. The
process was developed as a result of a Japanese Government initiative to produce high quality
effluent treatment plants. The discharge permeate can be reused for toilet cisterns, wash-
down, irrigation and more.

The permeate from the MBR process is typically:

< 5:5:5 mg/l BOD:SS:ammonia-N; and
free of pathogens, viruses and bacteria.

The process employs flat sheet membrane panels housed in stainless steel (304 or 316) units
and aerated by a coarse bubble system below each unit. A series of these membranes are
submerged within an activated sludge treatment tank. The aeration necessary for treatment of
the liquors also generates an upward cross-flow over the membranes; essential to keep fouling
of the filtration surface to a minimum. An advantage of this design is that the membrane
panels are securely retained and do not touch or abrade each other whilst the units also act as
a flume to ensure effective tank mixing and even distribution of the biomass.

The membrane panels are manufactured with a pore size in the range of 0.1 to 0.4 μm which
in operation becomes covered by a dynamic layer of protein and cellular material. This further
enhances the effectiveness of this filtration performance by providing an effective pore size of
less than 0.01 μm, which is in the ultra filtration range.

The incoming wastewater requires screening (< 3 mm) and de-gritting prior to entering the
membrane bioreactor tank. The process requires no primary or secondary settlement stages
and no additional tertiary treatment or UV stages to achieve very high disinfection.

The MBR system does not require flocs to be formed to remove the solids by settlement and
therefore the biomass can operate at very high levels of MLSS, generally in the order of
12,000-18,000 mg/l, and as high as 22,000 mg/l. This high concentration enables a small tank
volume and a long sludge age to be utilised, which substantially reduces sludge production.

The hydraulic flow determines the required number of membrane units. Each membrane unit
may contain up to 400 flat sheet membrane panels housed within a rectangular box, together
with an integral aeration system in the bottom section of the unit.

Treated effluent is removed from the membrane units using gravity head (typically 1 – 1.2 m),
or a pumped suction operation can be utilised.

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 On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems – Technical issues
UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

3.5. Aerobic Fixed Film Systems

Fixed film system can employ a process of purely fixed film, or a combination of fixed film
and suspended growth. Many commercially available package plants use aerobic fixed film
systems. Variants of this process are described below.

3.5.1. Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC)

The Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) supports a biologically active film, or biomass, of
aerobic microorganisms. An RBC treatment system typically comprises of three units:
Primary Zone: A settlement tank where wastewater enters and solids settle and are stored
for subsequent removal. Anaerobic digestion may also take place.
RBC: This is where the biological treatment takes place. Numerous discs attached to a
shaft form the RBC assembly, which is partially submerged in a trough to create an
environment for an active biomass to develop on the media. The RBC is slowly rotated to
bring the biomass into alternate contact with the wastewater and atmospheric oxygen.
Final Clarification Zone: Here settlement of the mixed liquor and excess biomass takes
place.

3.5.2. Submerged Aerated Filter (SAF)

The SAF process can be described as follows: Settled wastewater is fed from a primary tank
into the first stage of a reactor at a controlled rate, where it is mixed with the aerated bulk
liquid already present. Air is introduced into the reactor through a fine bubble diffuser system
at the base of each chamber. A uniquely structured media is suspended over the fine bubble
membrane diffuser to provide optimised contact between the oxygen-rich wastewater and the
biomass.

With a high surface area to volume ratio, the media supports a biologically active film of
microorganisms, to treat the wastewater by using oxygen from the air provided. Manufactured
from lightweight vacuum-formed PVC sheets (for example), bonded together to form packs,
the media can easily be removed for maintenance.

When the oxygen-rich wastewater comes into contact with the biomass attached to the surface
of the media, organic pollutants are broken down by the biomass. The flow of air can be
controlled to optimise the levels of dissolved oxygen within the reactor, ensuring that the
process is energy efficient.

3.5.3. Moving Bed Bioreactor (MBBR)

A number of suppliers offer processes that are based on free-floating submerged plastic media
on which a biofilm grows. The market leader at present is arguably the Kaldnes process
(Purac Ltd.), and therefore this process is described further below.

The process is based on the biofilm principle, and the core of the process are the biofilm
carrier elements made from polyethylene with a density slightly below that of water. These
are designed to provide a large protected surface for the bacteria culture.

The plastic "wheel" in the Kaldnes Moving Bed™ Process is the result of extensive research.
It has been described as "an apartment with three rooms and a kitchen, where bacteria can live
comfortably and tuck into hearty meals of water pollutants". (Kaldnes web site,
http://www.kmt.no/process.html)

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 On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems – Technical issues
UNESCO-IHE, MUI Department, Elisabeth v. Münch, PhD

Compared to conventional activated sludge processes there is no sludge recycle in the MBBR
process, and the final clarification stage is considerably smaller.

Alternative processes also exist that use activated sludge together with freely moving media,
and these are sometimes referred to as “suspended carrier” processes.

3.6. Constructed Wetlands

Wetlands are comparatively shallow (typically < 0.6 m) bodies of slow-moving water in
which dense stands of water-tolerant plants such as reeds are grown. In man-made,
constructed, wetlands, these artificially created bodies are typically long, narrow trenches or
channels to promote the occurrence of plug flow conditions. A septic tank, a primary settling
basin or an anaerobic reactor to remove the bulk of the suspended solids and organic matter
commonly precedes constructed wetlands for sewage treatment.

Two systems are distinguished:

Free water surface systems with shallow water depths; or
Subsurface flow systems with water flowing laterally through the sand or gravel.

Constructed wetland systems can significantly remove BOD, total suspended solids, nitrogen
and phosphorus, as well as metals, trace organics and pathogens. Mosquito control and plant
harvesting are the two main operational considerations associated with constructed wetlands
for wastewater treatment (Qasim, 1999).

3.7. Other Issues

3.7.1. Nutrient Removal
Increasingly, the removal of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) is required before treated
effluent can be discharged to the environment (particularly if the disposal site is a sensitive
water course).

Nitrogen removal is usually performed using the biological processes of nitrification and
denitrification. In large, centralised activated sludge plants, this process is realised using
biological nutrient removal (BNR). All BNR process configurations for nitrogen removal
have in common the use of an aerobic stage (for nitrification) and an anoxic stage (for
denitrification). These two stages can be incorporated into suspended growth or attached
growth process designs.

Phosphorus removal can also be achieved using a BNR process, and it requires the right
sequence of anaerobic, anoxic and aerobic conditions. Due to the process complexity and
inherent instability, it is not commonly used in small scale or on-site WWTPs. Instead,
chemical P removal using iron salt dosing is commonly used (e.g. in Norway).

Anaerobic treatment systems such as septic tanks or UASBs are, on their own, unable to
provide nutrient removal.

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3.7.2. Sludge Management

All wastewater treatment processes described above produce sludge; some produce more,
others produce less. It is important to take into account how the sludge should be treated and
disposed when devising a wastewater management system. Sludge from septic tanks is also
called septage or faecal sludge. Treatment options for faecal sludge, or other biological
sludges resulting from decentralised wastewater treatment, include:
Co-composting with organic solid waste
Planted drying bed
Unplanted drying bed
Settling/thickening tank (or only a storage tank)
Settling pond
Anaerobic digestion
Co-treatment with sewage sludge
Co-treatment with wastewater

In each case, a liquid fraction and a solids fraction will be the result of treatment. The liquid
fraction has to be treated further (e.g ponds, constructed wetlands). The solid fraction could
be used for beneficial reuse in agriculture. Where this is not possible, the treated sludge could
be disposed in landfills or burnt in incinerators (but this is unlikely to be an option for
decentralised systems).

For more details on faecal sludge management the reader is referred to the web site of the
Swiss organisation SANDEC (www.sandec.ch), who is very active in this field.

3.7.3. Odour
The potential for odour generation is an important consideration for decentralised wastewater
treatment because potential odour receptors (peoples’ noses!) might be much closer than in
the case of centralised WWTPs.

Odour can be minimised by proper wastewater treatment process design (e.g. ensuring that
the biological process is not overloaded) or with specialised odour treatment technology (such
as biofilters or activated carbon adsorption).

3.8. Comparison of Processes

Table 2 below provides a comparison of the processes most commonly used for on-site or
small-scale wastewater treatment.

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Table 2. Overview of important processes for on-site / small-scale wastewater treatment

Characteristic Technology →
or parameter
↓ Septic tank UASB Ponds Constructed Anaerobic Conventional MBR RBC,
wetlands, land treatment + ASP, SBR, SAF,
application Sand filters Ext. aeration MBBR
Type of process Anaerobic Anaerobic Anaerobic and Anaerobic + Aerobic Aerobic Aerobic attached
and aerobic aerobic aerobic/physical suspended suspended growth, or
growth growth + suspended +
physical attached growth
Effluent quality Low Medium Low Medium High High Very high High
(overall)
BOD Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High Very high High
removal
N removal None None Low Low Medium High High High
1
P removal None None None Low None Possible Possible Possible
Sustainability Medium High Medium High Medium Low Low Medium
(overall)
Energy use Very low Low Low Very low Medium High Very high Medium to High

Biogas Yes, but not Yes No No Yes No No No

usually
production
captured
Chemical No No No No No No, except for Yes (for No, except for P
use P removal membrane removal
cleaning)
Sludge Low Low Low None 2 Low High Low Medium to low
production
Space Medium to Medium to High High Medium Medium to low Very low Medium to low
high 3 high
requirements
Ease of O&M Very simple Simple Very simple Simple Medium to Reasonably High complexity Reasonably

1
Usually with chemical P removal.
2
Harvesting of plants required instead of sludge production
3
Includes space requirement for drainfield, depending on site conditions
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Characteristic Technology →
or parameter
↓ Septic tank UASB Ponds Constructed Anaerobic Conventional MBR RBC,
wetlands, land treatment + ASP, SBR, SAF,
application Sand filters Ext. aeration MBBR
simple complex complex
Process stability Quite robust Robust Very robust Robust Robust Can be Reasonably Reasonably robust
unstable robust
Capital cost Low Low Medium Medium High High Very high High
O&M cost Low Low Low Low Low to medium High Very high Medium

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4. FINAL DISPOSAL METHODS

4.1. Final Disposal Methods for Normal Site Conditions

The on-site final disposal options for normal site condition include (Qasim, 1999):
Seepage pits
Gravel-filled absorption trenches or bed, with one of the following dosing and resting
alternatives:
o Septic tank effluent discharge by gravity
o Septic tank with serial distribution
o Septic tank with alternating trenches
o Septic tank with pressure dosed distribution
o Septic tank with shallow trench low-pressure pipe distribution
Leaching infiltrator or chambers

4.2. Final Disposal Methods for Difficult Site Conditions

The following disposal methods are suitable for difficult site conditions (Qasim, 1999):
Trench and bed or leaching chambers with improved treatment
Shallow sand-filled, pressure-dosed disposal field
Septic tank and mound
Evaporation and absorption bed
Recirculating intermittent sand filter, disinfection, and surface discharge
Constructed wetlands

4.3. Final Disposal Methods for Adverse Site Conditions

Briefly, the following options exist for adverse site conditions:
Holding tank and hauling wastes
Evaporative lagoon
Slow-rate land treatment
Overland flow
Waterless, ultra-low-flow toilets, urine-separation toilets
Dual system (black water – grey water)
Complete system / total recycle
The last three technology options fall into the group of “ecosan” (for ecological sanitation)
technologies. Ecosan describes a new holistic paradigm in sanitation based on the systematic
closure of local material flow cycles, thus introducing the concept of sustainability and
integrated, eco-system oriented waster and natural resource management to sanitation and water
management. Ecosan systems aim to enable a near complete recovery of all nutrients, trace
elements and energy contained in household wastewater and organic waste and their productive
reuse in agriculture.

The ecosan area is a rapidly developing field and it would go beyond the scope of this report to
go into too much detail here. A very good web site on this topic is the site by the German
organisation GTZ: http://www.gtz.de/ecosan/english/index.html

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5. WASTEWATER COLLECTION, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL FOR SEWERED

AREAS

5.1. Collection Systems

The main types of collection systems of relevance here are 4 :
Conventional gravity system
Small-diameter, variable-slope sewers
Pressure sewers
Vacuum sewer

5.2. Treatment Systems

The options for small wastewater treatment systems in sewered areas are principally the same as
for the on-site systems discussed above. The only difference is in the disposal mechanism, which
is typically, but not always, by discharge to a watercourse. As a result of this, the requirements
for effluent quality may be higher, or lower, compared to on-site systems.

5.2.1. Pre-engineered Package Plants

Most package plants are complete factory-built, prefabricated systems shipped for installation.
The site preparation may require excavation and a concrete foundation slab. Package plants
utilise one of the following processes:
Biological
o Extended aeration activated sludge
o RBC
o SAF
o MBBR
Physical/chemical
o Coagulation/precipitation
o Filtration
o Membranes

Pollution control is big business. It is driven by regulations and public perception. Many vendors
are trying to sell equipment. You need carefully evaluate the many products and services offered.
The following approach to working with suppliers is recommended (Edwards, 1995):
Determine if their experience is relevant to your situation
Investigate their reputation in the business
Define your problem before you call them
Establish what you expect them to provide
Obtain a cost estimate for their services and equipment
Ask for design, installation, and training proposals in writing
Ask them to test their equipment in your business
Have necessary site work done before equipment arrives for installation

4
For further information, please refer to the lecture notes of van Duijl on Sewerage and Drainage.
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Set the stage for site visits and training.

Special considerations for wastewater treatment in developing countries or countries in transition

include:
Operator skill required
Frequency of O&M work required
Complexity of maintenance work required
Local support from supplier
Operating costs (chemicals, electricity, spare parts)
The Internet is a valuable source of information about package plants. Keyword searches for
“package”, “packaged”, “compact”, or “small” wastewater treatment plants will yield numerous
web sites of suppliers of such technology. Some examples are listed below:
http://www.keeprocess.com/index.html
http://www.copa.co.uk/products/products.asp
http://www.aquatechtrade.com
http://www.aquamax.net/
http://www.conderproducts.com/

5.2.2. Individually Designed and Constructed Systems

Processes that are individually designed and constructed for sewered areas include (for further
process details see also Section 3):
Septic tank, Imhoff tank (not common for sewered areas)
Ponds (anaerobic or aerated)
Oxidation ditch
SBR
RBC
Trickling filters
Combined attached and suspended growth processes (e.g. SAF)
Constructed wetlands

5.3. Disposal and Reuse Systems

The main options for disposal and reuse systems for sewered areas include:
Subsurface disposal (see also Section 4)
Constructed wetlands (see also Section 3.6)
Land application
Surface water discharge (the most common method for centralised wastewater treatment)
Indirect reuse

6. REFERENCES

Bouma (1979) Subsurface Applications of Sewage Effluent. In: Planning the Uses and
Management of Land; re-printed in EURO Summer School (2000)
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Crites, R. and Tchobanoglous, G. (1998) Small and decentralized wastewater management

systems, WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston

Edwards, J.D. (1995) Industrial Wastewater Treatment - A Guidebook. CRC Press, Inc., Boca
Raton, Florida, USA.

Lens, P., Zeeman, G., and Lettinga, G. (2001) Decentralised Sanitation and Reuse - Concepts,
Systems and Implementation. IWA Publishing, London. (based on EURO Summer
School (2000) DESAR Decentralised Sanitation and Reuse, WICC, June 18-23,
Wageningen University, Sub-department of Environmental Technology, The
Netherlands)

Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F.L., and Stensel, H.D. (2003) Wastewater Engineering, Treatment
and Reuse. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill (4th edition).

Other Recommended Reading Material:

Water Science & Technology, 48, 11-12 (2003): Small Water and Wastewater Treatment
Systems V (Selected Proceedings of the 5th IWA International Specialised Conference on
Small Water and Wastewater Treatment Systems, held in Istanbul, Turkey, 24-26
September 2002)

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