DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, UOC, SRI LANKA

Experiments With
Oscillators


Prasan Hettiarachchi
11/21/2011



The following content is from a very old report of a practical assignment I had to do when I was in my
2nd undergraduate year. It can contain a lot of errors. But here it is copied because information in this
report might be helpful to students who just start learning about practical oscillator circuits in
Electronics subjects.This report has some figures/text directly taken from IC manufacturer datasheets
and also from application notes provided with these ICs.All the simulations were done using Electronics
Workbench V5


Experiments With Oscillators
The following content is from a very old report of a practical assignment I had to do when I was
in my 2nd undergraduate year. It can contain a lot of errors. But here it is copied because
information in this report might be helpful to students who just start learning about practical
oscillator circuits in Electronics subjects.This report has some figures/text directly taken from
IC manufacturer datasheets and also from application notes provided with these ICs.All the
simulations were done using Electronics Workbench V5

Introduction

In this experiment I implemented various oscillators and
observed their characteristics. My focus was basically on sine
wave generation techniques with TL084 QUAD OP-AMP IC and square
wave generation using popular 555 IC.

Oscillator Definition

Oscillators are circuits that produce specific, periodic
waveforms such as square, triangular, saw-tooth or sinusoidal.
There are two main classes of oscillators: relaxation and
sinusoidal. Relaxation oscillators generate the triangular, saw-
tooth and other non-sinusoidal waveforms. Sinusoidal oscillators
consist of amplifiers with external components used to generate
oscillation or crystals that internally generate the
oscillation.

Part I: Sine wave oscillators

Sine wave oscillators are used as references or test waveforms
by many circuits. A pure sine wave has only a single or
fundamental frequency. Ideally no harmonics are present.

Op-amp oscillators are circuits that are unstable. Oscillators
are useful for generating uniform signals that are used as a
reference in such applications as audio, function generators,
digital systems, and communication systems.

Two general classes of oscillators exist: sinusoidal and
relaxation. Sinusoidal oscillators consist of amplifiers with RC
or LC circuits that have adjustable oscillation frequencies, or
crystals that have a fixed oscillation frequency. Relaxation
oscillators generate triangular, saw-tooth, square, pulse, or
exponential waveforms.

Op-amp sine-wave oscillators operate without an externally-
applied input signal. Instead, some combination of positive and
negative feedback is used to drive the op amp into an unstable
state, causing the output to cycle back and forth between the
supply voltages at a continuous rate. The frequency and
amplitude of oscillation are set by the arrangement of passive


Experiments With Oscillators
and active components around a central op amp. Op-amp
oscillators are restricted to the lower end of the frequency
spectrum because op amps do not have the required bandwidth to
achieve low phase shift at high frequencies. Crystal oscillators
are used in high-frequency applications up to the hundreds of
MHz range.



Requirement for oscillation



Canonical Form of a Feedback System with Positive or Negative Feedback

Here the simplest form of a negative feedback system is used to
demonstrate the requirements for oscillation to occur. Figure 1
shows the block diagram for this system in which Vin is the
input voltage, Vout is the output voltage from the amplifier
gain block (A), and is the signal called the feedback factor
that is fed back to the summing junction. E represents the error
term that is equal to the summation of the feedback factor and
the input voltage.


out
in out
out
in out
out
in
V E A
E V V
V
V V
A
V A
V A A
|
|
|
=
=
=
=
+



Oscillators do not require an externally-applied input signal;
instead, they use some fraction of the output signal created by
the feedback network as the input signal.

Oscillation results when the feedback system is not able to find
a stable steady-state because its transfer function can not be
satisfied. The system goes unstable when the denominator in last


Experiments With Oscillators
equation becomes zero, i.e., when 1 + A= 0, or A= 1. The key
to designing an oscillator is ensuring that A= 1.

Satisfying this criterion requires that the magnitude of the
loop gain is unity with a corresponding phase shift of 180 as
indicated by the minus sign. This is called the Barkhausen
criterion. For positive feedback configuration term A=1 with 0
or 360 phase shift.



At this stage, one of three things can occur:
Nonlinearity in saturation or cutoff causes the system to
become stable and lock up at the current power rail.
The initial change causes the system to saturate (or
cutoff) and stay that way for a long time before it becomes
linear and heads for the opposite power rail.
The system stays linear and reverses direction, heading for
the opposite power rail.

The second alternative produces highly distorted oscillations
(usually quasi-square waves), the resulting oscillators being
called relaxation oscillators. The third produces a sine-wave
oscillator.


Wein Bridge Oscillator

The Wien Bridge is one of the simplest and best known
oscillators. Figure shows the basic Wien Bridge circuit
configuration. Advantages of the circuit are this circuit has
only a few components and good frequency stability. The major
drawback of the circuit is that the output amplitude is at the
supply voltages, which saturates the op-amp and causes high
output distortion.



Experiments With Oscillators

Because this circuit uses both negative and positive feedback we
have to derive an equation for the voltage gain of the
amplifier. Here we first consider the positive feedback loop
consisting of
3
Z
and
4
Z
to find V
+
. Then we consider the
negative feedback path and find the V
out
.












Experiments With Oscillators
4
3 4
1 2
1
4 1 2
3 4 1
test
out
out
test
Z
V V
Z Z
Z Z
V V
Z
V Z Z Z
V Z Z Z
|
+
+
| |
=
|
+
\ .
| |
+
=
|
\ .
| || |
+
= =
| |
+
\ . \ .


For Wein Bridge oscillator Z
1
=R
G
, Z
2
=R
F
, Z
3
=R+1/j
0
, Z
4
=R||j
0

where
0
is the oscillating frequency. Substituting in above
equation we get
1/ 3 | =
. Therefore to satisfy the oscillation
voltage gain of the amplifier = 3 i.e. R
F
=2R
G
.

But practically if we design a circuit with voltage gain of
exactly 3, oscillations does not begin automatically. To start
the oscillations I used a switch witch momentarily connect
inverting input of OP-amp to ground. This started oscillations
but oscillation quickly decayed and stopped. Therefore to
maintain sustained oscillations I had to use a voltage gain of
at least 3.06. This can be explained because none of the
components used are ideal and there is a loss of energy in RC
networks, oscilloscope cables an op-amp itself.


Experiments With Oscillators

Figure: My design of wein bridge oscillator (This design
was used both for simulation and experiment)








Figure: Starting oscillations with a switch







Experiments With Oscillators





Figure: Decaying Oscillations when gain is exactly 3



These facts caused us to use a voltage gain of more than 3 to
keep oscillations and further higher gain to start oscillations
(Oscillations start automatically due to noise). But there is a
major drawback of using higher voltage gain. Higher the voltage
gain, higher the distortion. Theoretically if voltage gain is
more than 3 oscillations should not occur. But practically,
since oscillator oscillates very close to supply rails, higher
gain force the op-amp to a non linear region and it still
oscillates producing remarkable distortion. This is illustrated
in following pictures.







Figure: Stating oscillations automatically with higher gain.







Experiments With Oscillators




Figure: Distorted wave forms


Solution: Use Automatic Gain Control

So to maintain an undistorted sine wave we have to use some form
of an AGC with the amplifier gain. These can be done in two
ways.

Using non-linear feedback. We can use positive temperature
coefficient device like a lamp for R
G
.
Using a separate AGC feedback circuit.






Figure: Single supply Wein Bridge oscillator with AGC.





Experiments With Oscillators


The Phase Shift Oscillator


The 180
0
phase shift and the condition A= 1 is introduced by
active and passive components in any oscillator. In a phase
shift oscillator we chose passive components to get the desired
phase shift while keeping phase shift of active components
constant. Since op-amps work best in low frequency spectrum RC
networks are the preferred phase shift devices.

The following graph shows the phase shift introduced by RC
networks with oscillating frequency. The rate of change of phase
with frequency, d/d, determines frequency stability. When
buffered RC sections (an op amp buffer provides high input and
low output impedance) are cascaded, the phase shift multiplies
by the number of sections, n.




So this graph shows us to get an 180
0
phase shift we need at
least two RC sections. But frequency stability is very low in
such design. Therefore we use three RC sections. If we want to
get good results we have to use buffered RC sections since RC
sections can load each other causing higher voltage gain from
the op-amp.



Experiments With Oscillators





Figure: The phase shift oscillator (This design was used
both for the simulation and experiment.)

The normal assumption is that the phase shift sections are
independent of each other.

Then using above Equation the loop phase shift is 180
0
, when
the phase shift of each section is 60
0.

This occurs when =2f = 1.732/RC because the tangent of 60
0
=
1.732.

The magnitude of at this point is (1/2)
3
. So the gain, A, must
be equal to 8 for the system gain to be equal to one.

Therefore theoretical gain of op-amp = 8

The practical gain to start an oscillation = 32.4

The practical gain to keep oscillation = 31.6

Theoretical frequency = 2.76 Khz

Practical frequency = 3.78 Khz

The main reason for this is RC sections are not buffered. That
is they load each other. Also the tolerance of the values of
components can vary the results. But still there is a remarkable
reduction in distortion comparing to the wein bridge oscillator.




Experiments With Oscillators





Figure: Start of phase shift oscillator





Figure: Output of phase shift oscillator




Figure: Oscillation cease when gain reduces



Experiments With Oscillators

Phase shift oscillator with buffered RC network.

The buffered phase shift oscillator is much improved over the
un-buffered version. The buffers prevent the RC sections from
loading each other; hence the buffered phase shift oscillator
performs closer to the calculated frequency and gain. The gain
setting resistor, R
G
, loads the third RC section. If the fourth
buffer in a quad op amp buffers this RC section, the performance
becomes ideal.


































Experiments With Oscillators

PART II: Square Wave Generation with 555 Timer.

The LM555/NE555/SA555 is a highly stable controller capable of
producing accurate timing pulses. With monostable operation, the
time delay is controlled by one external resistor and one
capacitor. With astable operation, the frequency and duty cycle
are accurately controlled with two external resistors and one
capacitor.




The astable multivibrator:

Astable operation: following figure shows the 555 connected as
an astable multivibrator. Both the trigger and threshold inputs
(pins 2 and 6) to the two comparators are connected together and
to the external capacitor. The capacitor charges toward the
supply voltage through the two resistors, R1 and R2. The
discharge pin (7) connected to the internal transistor is
connected to the junction of those two resistors.

When power is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor will
be uncharged, therefore, both the trigger and threshold inputs
will be near zero volts. The lower comparator sets the control
flip-flop causing the output to switch high. That also turns off
transistor T1. That allows the capacitor to begin charging
through R1 and R2. As soon as the charge on the capacitor
reaches 2/3 of the supply voltage, the upper comparator will
trigger causing the flip-flop to reset. That causes the output
to switch low. Transistor T1 also conducts. The effect of T1
conducting causes resistor R2 to be connected across the
external capacitor. Resistor R2 is effectively connected to
ground through internal transistor T1. The result of that is
that the capacitor now begins to discharge through R2.


Experiments With Oscillators



Figure: Astable Multivibrator

Frequency of operation

f = 1/(0.693C x (R
1
+ 2R
2
))

Off and On time periods

t
1
= 0.693(R
1
+R
2
)C
t
2
= 0.693 x R
2
x C

And the duty cycle is

D = t
1
/t = (R
1
+ R
2
) / (R
1
+ 2R
2
) (This shows that D > 50)

Figure: AMV circuit 1 (Used both in simulation and experiment)




Experiments With Oscillators


Figure: Output and capacitor waveform





Astable Multivibrator II with 50% duty cycle




Even though its quite difficult to calculate the duty cycle of
this AMV it can be shown that it can produce a duty cycle of
50%.


1
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
0.693
2
ln
2
on
off
T RC
R R R R
T C
R R R R
=
| | | |

=
| |
+
\ . \ .





Experiments With Oscillators


50% duty cycle gives

2 1 2
1 2 1 2
2
ln 0.693
2
R R R
R R R R
| |

=
|
+
\ .


An interesting phenomena occurs when R
1
<=2R
2
then AMV does not
oscillate and remain on forever.






Figure: AMV with 50% duty cycle







Figure: AMV remains on when R
1
<=2R
2



Experiments With Oscillators



Astable multivibrator-3 with adjustable duty cycle



Figure: AMV with 50% duty cycle(Here it can be adjusted to any
value)


Frequency of operation

f = 1/(0.693 x C x (R
1
+ R
2
))

Duty Cycle

D = t
1
/t = R
1
/ (R
1
+ R
2
)





Experiments With Oscillators

Figure: AMV waveforms (threshold voltage is distorted due to
the non linearity of diodes.)


555 as a Voltage controlled Oscillator

In this configuration a basic AMV is changed to work as a VCO
using the control input of 555 IC. But there is one constraint.
That is we cannot get larger frequency spectrum. Circuit has
good linearity in the region it operates.



Figure: VCO (In experiment a function generator was used as the
AC voltage source)







Figure: Output waveform and control voltage of VCO


Experiments With Oscillators
Pulse Width Modulation using 555

Another two useful applications of 555 IC are PWM and frequency
dividing. Both of these circuits are based on monostable
operation of 555 IC. So the monostable mode of 555 is explained
below.


Figure: The MMV block diagram

T = 1.1 x RC



Figure: The PWM circuit (this design was used for both
simulation and experiment)




Experiments With Oscillators

Figure: Output and control voltages of PWM





In this circuit theres a considerable distortion in the actual
circuit. In actual experiment when we change the control voltage
not only the pulse width but the frequency of the output is also
changed.

555 as a frequency divider



Figure: Schematic of the frequency divider circuit.


This circuit can be used to divide the frequency of a given
pulse when the monostable time period is greater than the time
period of the given pulse. This is shown in the following
picture.




Experiments With Oscillators

Figure: Output of the circuit with input










Discussion

These experiments were very interesting to do even though I have
to spend considerable time and effort to finish the all
experiments.

I couldnt use the DSO since at the time we were doing our
experiments it was hooked up for another project. So all the
waveforms were taken from CRO and because of that I couldnt get
the waveforms to the report. All the waveforms are taken from
EWB simulations and most of the time they were quite close to
the real waveforms obtained from CRO.