MBA SEMESTER III MB0050 Research Methodology- 4 Credits (Book ID: B1206 ) Assignment Set- 1 (60 Marks) Note:

Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions 1. a. Differentiate between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales, with an example of each. [ 5marks] b. What are the purposes of measurement in social science research?

Ans:- A ordinal variable, is one where the order matters but not the difference between values. For example, you might ask patients to express the amount of pain they are feeling on a scale of 1 to 10. A score of 7 means more pain that a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3. But the difference between the 7 and the 5 may not be the same as that between 5 and 3. The values simply express an order. Another example would be movie ratings, from * to *****. A interval variable is a measurement where the difference between two values is meaningful. The difference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is the same difference as between 90 degrees and 80 degrees. A ratio variable, has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a clear definition of 0.0. When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable. Variables like height, weight, enzyme activity are ratio variables. Temperature, expressed in F or C, is not a ratio variable. A temperature of 0.0 on either of those scales does not mean 'no temperature'. However, temperature in degrees Kelvin in a ratio variable, as 0.0 degrees Kelvin really does mean 'no temperature'. Another counter example is pH. It is not a ratio variable, as pH=0 just means 1 molar of H+. and the definition of molar is fairly arbitrary. A pH of 0.0 does not mean 'no acidity' (quite the opposite!). When working with ratio variables, but not interval variables, you can look at the ratio of two measurements. A weight of 4 grams is twice a weight of 2 grams, because weight is a ratio variable. A temperature of 100 degrees C is not twice as hot as 50 degrees C, because temperature C is not a ratio variable. A pH of 3 is not twice as acidic as a pH of 6, because pH is not a ratio variable.

Empirical research in the social sciences requires both accurate and reliable measures. Collection of data takes many forms in the social sciences including measurement of perceptions, cognitions, opinions, and other latent constructs that cant be measured
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directly. When it comes to quantification of people, perceptions, and events, there are 4 main types of measurement. One mistake many social science researchers make is collecting data at a lower level than is necessary. As it turns out, it is always possible to transform data from a higher level to a lower level but never the other way around. Before you collect data for a research study, consider carefully which of the 4 types of data you are collecting and how you will use them once you have them. 4 Levels of Measurement Nominal Scale The nominal scale (also called dummy coding) simply places people, events, perceptions, etc. into categories based on some common trait. Some data are naturally suited to the nominal scale such as males vs. females, redheads vs. blondes vs. brunettes, and African American vs. Asian. The nominal scale forms the basis for such analyses as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) because those analyses require that some category is compared to at least one other category. The nominal scale is the lowest form of measurement because it doesnt capture information about the focal object other than whether the object belongs or doesnt belong to a category; either you are a smoker or not a smoker, you attended college or you didnt, a subject has some experience with computers, an average amount of experience with computers, or extensive experience with computers. No data is captured that can place the measured object on any kind of scale say, for example, on a continuum from one to ten. Coding of nominal scale data can be accomplished using numbers, letters, labels, or any symbol that represents a category into which an object can either belong or not belong. Ordinal Scale The ordinal scale has at least one major advantage over the nominal scale. The ordinal scale contains all of the information captured in the nominal scale but it also ranks data from lowest to highest. Rather than simply categorize data by placing an object either into or not into a category, ordinal data give you some idea of where data lie in relation to each other. For example, suppose you are conducting a study on cigarette smoking and you capture how many packs of cigarettes three smokers consume in a day. It turns out that the first

subject smokes one pack a day, the second smokes two packs a day, and the third smokes ten packs a day. Using an ordinal scale, your data would look like this. 1. Ten packs a day smoker 2. Two packs a day smoker 3. One pack a day smoker The ordinal scale rank orders the subjects by how many packs of cigarettes they smoke in one day. Notice, however, that although you can use the ordinal scale to rank the subjects, there is some important data missing; the first smoker occupies a rank the same distance from the second smoker as the second smoker occupies a rank the same distance from the third smoker. Consequently, no information exists in the ordinal scale to indicate the distance one smoker is from the others except for the ranking. Richer than nominal scaling, ordinal scaling still suffers from some information loss in the data. Interval Scale Unlike the nominal scale that simply places objects into or out of a category or the ordinal scale that rank orders objects, the interval scale indicates the distance one object is from another. In the social sciences, there is a famous example often taught to students on this distinction. Suppose you are near the shore of a lake and you see three tree stumps sticking out of the water. Using the water as a reference point, it would be easy to measure which stump rises highest out of the water. In this way, you can create a relative measure of the height of the stumps from the surface of the water. For example, the first stump may breach the water by twenty-four centimeters, the second by twenty-six centimeters, and the third by twenty-eight centimeters. Unlike the nominal and ordinal scales, you can make relative distance measurements among objects using the interval scale. However, the distance the stumps extend out of the water gives you no indication of how long the stumps actually are. Its possible that the bottom of the lake is irregular making the tallest stump look tallest only in relation to the water. Using interval scaling, you have no indication of the absolute length of the stumps. Still, the interval scale contains richer information that the two lower levels of scaling. Ratio Scale The scale that contains the richest information about an object is ratio scaling. The ratio scale contains all of the information of the previous three levels plus it contains an absolute zero point. To use the example above, the ratio scale allows you to measure
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the stumps from the bottom of the lake; the bottom of the lake represents the absolute zero point. The distinction between interval and ratio scales is an important one in the social sciences. Although both can capture continuous data, you have to be careful not to assume that the lowest possible score in your data collection automatically represents an absolute zero point. Take extraversion captured using a psychometrically sound survey instrument. The items that capture this construct may range from zero to ten on the survey but there is no guarantee that a score of zero on the survey places a subject at the absolute zero point on the extraversion construct. Yes, you know that a subject with a score of eight on the scale is more extraverted than someone with a score of seven, but those numbers only exist for comparison between each other, not in comparison to some absolute score of zero extraversion

[ 5 marks] 2. a. What are the sources from which one may be able to identify research problems? [ 5 marks] b. Why literature survey is important in research? [ 5 marks]

Ans:- So how do researchers come up with the idea for a research project? Probably one of the most common sources of research ideas is the experience of practical problems in the field. Many researchers are directly engaged in social, health or human service program implementation and come up with their ideas based on what they see happening around them. Others aren't directly involved in service contexts, but work with (or survey) people who are in order to learn what needs to be better understood. Many of the ideas would strike the outsider as silly or worse. For instance, in health services areas, there is great interest in the problem of back injuries among nursing staff. It's not necessarily the thing that comes first to mind when we think about the health care field. But if you reflect on it for a minute longer, it should be obvious that nurses and nursing staff do an awful lot of lifting in performing their jobs. They lift and push heavy equipment, and they lift and push oftentimes heavy patients! If 5 or 10 out of every hundred nursing staff were to strain their backs on average over the period of one year, the costs would be enormous -- and that's pretty much what's happening. Even
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minor injuries can result in increased absenteeism. Major ones can result in lost jobs and expensive medical bills. The nursing industry figures that this is a problem that costs tens of millions of dollars annually in increased health care. And, the health care industry has developed a number of approaches, many of them educational, to try to reduce the scope and cost of the problem. So, even though it might seem silly at first, many of these practical problems that arise in practice can lead to extensive research efforts. Another source for research ideas is the literature in your specific field. Certainly, many researchers get ideas for research by reading the literature and thinking of ways to extend or refine previous research. Another type of literature that acts as a source of good research ideas is the Requests For Proposals (RFPs) that are published by government agencies and some companies. These RFPs describe some problem that the agency would like researchers to address -- they are virtually handing the researcher an idea! Typically, the RFP describes the problem that needs addressing, the contexts in which it operates, the approach they would like you to take to investigate to address the problem, and the amount they would be willing to pay for such research. Clearly, there's nothing like potential research funding to get researchers to focus on a particular research topic. And let's not forget the fact that many researchers simply think up their researchtopic on their own. Of course, no one lives in a vacuum, so we would expect that the ideas you come up with on your own are influenced by your background, culture, education and experiences. Is the study feasible? Very soon after you get an idea for a study reality begins to kick in and you begin to think about whether the study is feasible at all. There are several major considerations that come into play. Many of these involve making tradeoffs between rigor and practicality. To do a study well from a scientific point of view may force you to do things you wouldn't do normally. You may have to control the implementation of your program more carefully than you otherwise might. Or, you may have to ask program participants lots of questions that you usually wouldn't if you weren't doing research. If you had unlimited resources and unbridled control over the circumstances, you would always be able to do the best quality research. But those ideal circumstances seldom exist, and researchers are almost always forced to look for the best tradeoffs they can find in order to get the rigor they desire. There are several practical considerations that almost always need to be considered when deciding on the feasibilityof a research project. First, you have to think about how long the research will taketo accomplish. Second, you have to question whether
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there are important ethical constraintsthat need consideration. Third, can you achieve the needed cooperationto take the project to its successful conclusion. And fourth, how significant are the costsof conducting the research. Failure to consider any of these factors can mean disaster later. The Literature Review One of the most important early steps in a research project is the conducting of the literature review. This is also one of the most humbling experiences you're likely to have. Why? Because you're likely to find out that just about any worthwhile idea you will have has been thought of before, at least to some degree. Every time I teach a research methods course, I have at least one student come to me complaining that they couldn't find anything in the literature that was related to their topic. And virtually every time they have said that, I was able to show them that was only true because they only looked for articles that were exactlythe same as their research topic. A literature review is designed to identify related research, to set the current research project within a conceptual and theoretical context. When looked at that way, there is almost no topic that is so new or unique that we can't locate relevant and informative related research. Some tips about conducting the literature review. First, concentrate your efforts on the scientific literature. Try to determine what the most credible research journals are in your topical area and start with those. Put the greatest emphasis on research journals that use a blind review system. In a blind review, authors submit potential articles to a journal editor who solicits several reviewers who agree to give a critical review of the paper. The paper is sent to these reviewers with no identification of the author so that there will be no personal bias (either for or against the author). Based on the reviewers' recommendations, the editor can accept the article, reject it, or recommend that the author revise and resubmit it. Articles in journals with blind review processes can be expected to have a fairly high level of credibility. Second, do the review earlyin the research process. You are likely to learn a lot in the literature review that will help you in making the tradeoffs you'll need to face. After all, previous researchers also had to face tradeoff decisions. What should you look for in the literature review? First, you might be able to find a study that is quite similar to the one you are thinking of doing. Since all credible research studies have to review the literature themselves, you can check their literature review to get a quick-start on your own. Second, prior research will help assure that you include all of the major relevant constructs in your study. You may find that other similar studies routinely look at an outcome that you might not have included. If you did your study without that construct, it would not be judged credible if it ignored a major
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construct. Third, the literature review will help you to find and select appropriate measurement instruments. You will readily see what measurement instruments researchers use themselves in contexts similar to yours. Finally, the literature review will help you to anticipate common problems in your research context. You can use the prior experiences of other to avoid common traps and pitfalls. Research is made in order to inform people with new knowledge or discovery. However, it is not to be expected that everybody would willingly believe what you are tackling in your whole research paper. Thus, what you can do to make your research more credible will be to support them with other works which have spoken about the same topic that you have for your research. This is where literature review comes in. You can even have literature sources in works such as stories, comments, project, speech, article, novel, poem, essay, program, theory, and others. This is why literature review involves scanning the pages of any published literature like books, newspaper, magazine, website, webpage, collection, paper, pamphlet, and the like where you may be able to find any reference to the same topicthat you are researching on. This time, literature does not exclusively refer to the poetic rendition of words, like that of Shakespeare alone. There are many reasons why literature review is rendered as a significant part of any researchor dissertation paper. You may ask what makes it as such if it is only supposed to contain tidbits of other related works. Literature review is the part of the paper where the researcher will be given the opportunity to strengthen your paper for you will be citing what other reliable authors have said about your topic. This will prove that you are not just writing about any random subject but that many others have also poured their thoughts on the topic. You may also ask what makes literature review a necessary part of the paper. This question can be answered by trying not to include the review in your paper. Obviously, it affects the length of your paper but this is not the noticeable part. What would most certainly be lacking is the fact that your paper, without the literature review, only contains all of your opinions about the facts that you have discovered through your research. Thus, how can you further convince the readers, in this case, the committee who will scrutinize your paper? This is the need that is answered only by the literature review. By the mere fact that you are using referencing by citing what more credible people had said about the topic will build a stronger foundation for your paper. With a literature review, you need to establish a clear tie between the works that you have cited and the topic that you are writingabout. You should be able to justify the inclusion of a certain work in your review so as to make everything that you have writtenuseful. The more you include useless points in your paper, the more that the committee will think that you have not put in a lot of thinking into your paper. Literature review is also unique from the rest of the paper. While you have to fill most of
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the paper with your own analysis, in a literature review alone, you will have to write purely about related works of other people.

3. a. What are the characteristics of a good research design? b. What are the components of a research design?

[ 5marks] [ 5 marks]

Ans:- Much contemporary social research is devoted to examining whether a program, treatment, or manipulation causes some outcome or result. For example, we might wish to know whether a new educational program causes subsequent achievement score gains, whether a special work release program for prisoners causes lower recidivism rates, whether a novel drug causes a reduction in symptoms, and so on. Cook and Campbell (1979) argue that three conditions must be met before we can infer that such a cause-effect relation exists: 1. Covariation.Changes in the presumed cause must be related to changes in the presumed effect. Thus, if we introduce, remove, or change the level of a treatment or program, we should observe some change in the outcome measures. 2. Temporal Precedence.The presumed cause must occur prior to the presumed effect. 3. No Plausible Alternative Explanations.The presumed cause must be the only reasonable explanation for changes in the outcome measures. If there are other factors which could be responsible for changes in the outcome measures we cannot be confident that the presumed cause-effect relationship is correct. In most social research the third condition is the most difficult to meet. Any number of factors other than the treatment or program could cause changes in outcome measures. Campbell and Stanley (1966) and later, Cook and Campbell (1979) list a number of common plausible alternative explanations (or, threats to internal validity). For example, it may be that some historical event which occurs at the same time that the program or treatment is instituted was responsible for the change in the outcome measures; or, changes in record keeping or measurement systems which occur at the same time as the program might be falsely attributed to the program. The reader is referred to standard research methods texts for more detailed discussions of threats to validity.
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This paper is primarily heuristic in purpose. Standard social science methodology textbooks (Cook and Campbell 1979; Judd and Kenny, 1981) typically present an array of research designs and the alternative explanations which these designs rule out or minimize. This tends to foster a "cookbook" approach to research design - an emphasis on the selection of an available design rather than on the construction of an appropriate research strategy. While standard designs may sometimes fit real-life situations, it will often be necessary to "tailor" a research design to minimize specific threats to validity. Furthermore, even if standard textbook designs are used, an understanding of the logic of design construction in general will improve the comprehension of these standard approaches. This paper takes a structural approach to research design. While this is by no means the only strategy for constructing research designs, it helps to clarify some of the basic principles of design logic. Minimizing Threats to Validity Good research designs minimize the plausible alternative explanations for the hypothesized cause-effect relationship. But such explanations may be ruled out or minimized in a number of ways other than by design. The discussion which follows outlines five ways to minimize threats to validity, one of which is by research design: 1. By Argument. The most straightforward way to rule out a potential threat to validity is to simply argue that the threat in question is not a reasonable one. Such an argument may be made either a priori or a posteriori, although the former will usually be more convincing than the latter. For example, depending on the situation, one might argue that an instrumentation threat is not likely because the same test is used for pre and post test measurements and did not involve observers who might improve, or other such factors. In most cases, ruling out a potential threat to validity by argument alone will be weaker than the other approaches listed below. As a result, the most plausible threats in a study should not, except in unusual cases, be ruled out by argument only. 2. By Measurement or Observation.In some cases it will be possible to rule out a threat by measuring it and demonstrating that either it does not occur at all or occurs so minimally as to not be a strong alternative explanation for the causeeffect relationship. Consider, for example, a study of the effects of an advertising campaign on subsequent sales of a particular product. In such a study, history (i.e., the occurrence of other events which might lead to an increased desire to purchase the product) would be a plausible alternative explanation. For example, a change in the local economy, the removal of a competing product from the market, or similar events could cause an increase in product sales. One might attempt to minimize such threats by measuring local economic indicators and the
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availability and sales of competing products. If there is no change in these measures coincident with the onset of the advertising campaign, these threats would be considerably minimized. Similarly, if one is studying the effects of special mathematics training on math achievement scores of children, it might be useful to observe everyday classroom behavior in order to verify that students were not receiving any additional math training to that provided in the study. 3. By Design.Here, the major emphasis is on ruling out alternative explanations by adding treatment or control groups, waves of measurement, and the like. This topic will be discussed in more detail below. 4. By Analysis.There are a number of ways to rule out alternative explanations using statistical analysis. One interesting example is provided by Jurs and Glass (1971). They suggest that one could study the plausibility of an attrition or mortality threat by conducting a two-way analysis of variance. One factor in this study would be the original treatment group designations (i.e., program vs. comparison group), while the other factor would be attrition (i.e., dropout vs. non-dropout group). The dependent measure could be the pretest or other available pre-program measures. A main effect on the attrition factor would be indicative of a threat to external validity or generalizability, while an interaction between group and attrition factors would point to a possible threat to internal validity. Where both effects occur, it is reasonable to infer that there is a threat to both internal and external validity. The plausibility of alternative explanations might also be minimized using covariance analysis. For example, in a study of the effects of "workfare" programs on social welfare case loads, one plausible alternative explanation might be the status of local economic conditions. Here, it might be possible to construct a measure of economic conditions and include that measure as a covariate in the statistical analysis. One must be careful when using covariance adjustments of this type -- "perfect" covariates do not exist in most social research and the use of imperfect covariates will not completely adjust for potential alternative explanations. Nevertheless causal assertions are likely to be strengthened by demonstrating that treatment effects occur even after adjusting on a number of good covariates. 5. By Preventive Action.When potential threats are anticipated they can often be ruled out by some type of preventive action. For example, if the program is a desirable one, it is likely that the comparison group would feel jealous or demoralized. Several actions can be taken to minimize the effects of these attitudes including offering the program to the comparison group upon completion of the study or using program and comparison groups which have
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little opportunity for contact and communication. In addition, auditing methods and quality control can be used to track potential experimental dropouts or to insure the standardization of measurement. The five categories listed above should not be considered mutually exclusive. The inclusion of measurements designed to minimize threats to validity will obviously be related to the design structure and is likely to be a factor in the analysis. A good research plan should, where possible. make use of multiple methods for reducing threats. In general, reducing a particular threat by design or preventive action will probably be stronger than by using one of the other three approaches. The choice of which strategy to use for any particular threat is complex and depends at least on the cost of the strategy and on the potential seriousness of the threat. Design Construction Basic Design Elements. Most research designs can be constructed from four basic elements: 1. Time.A causal relationship, by its very nature, implies that some time has elapsed between the occurrence of the cause and the consequent effect. While for some phenomena the elapsed time might be measured in microseconds and therefore might be unnoticeable to a casual observer, we normally assume that the cause and effect in social science arenas do not occur simultaneously, In design notation we indicate this temporal element horizontally - whatever symbol is used to indicate the presumed cause would be placed to the left of the symbol indicating measurement of the effect. Thus, as we read from left to right in design notation we are reading across time. Complex designs might involve a lengthy sequence of observations and programs or treatments across time. 2. Program(s) or Treatment(s).The presumed cause may be a program or treatment under the explicit control of the researcher or the occurrence of some natural event or program not explicitly controlled. In design notation we usually depict a presumed cause with the symbol "X". When multiple programs or treatments are being studied using the same design, we can keep the programs distinct by using subscripts such as "X1" or "X2". For a comparison group (i.e., one which does not receive the program under study) no "X" is used. 3. Observation(s) or Measure(s). Measurements are typically depicted in design notation with the symbol "O". If the same measurement or observation is taken at every point in time in a design, then this "O" will be sufficient. Similarly, if the same set of measures is given at every point in time in this study, the "O" can be used to depict the entire set of measures. However, if different measures are
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given at different times it is useful to subscript the "O" to indicate which measurement is being given at which point in time. 4. Groups or Individuals. The final design element consists of the intact groups or the individuals who participate in various conditions. Typically, there will be one or more program and comparison groups. In design notation, each group is indicated on a separate line. Furthermore, the manner in which groups are assigned to the conditions can be indicated by an appropriate symbol at the beginning of each line. Here, "R" will represent a group which was randomly assigned, "N" will depict a group which was nonrandomly assigned (i.e., a nonequivalent group or cohort) and a "C" will indicate that the group was assigned using a cutoff score on a measurement.

ELEMENTS (Components) OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Choose among each component that offers several critical choices

HOW (Criteria for selecting)

What is the reason of the research? To what extent the result will affect your decision? Will it be used for a critical decision? (eg.like investment decision) (strategic or tactical or operational importance of the decision)

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 What is the required degree of precision and confidence? Extent of generalization required. Is there sufficient time available for such a research? What is the budget allocated for the research?

SUMMARY: Ask the following question at every point of selection

Whether the benefits that result from a more sophisticated design to ensure accuracy, confidence, generalizability, etc., are

WORTH the investment of more resources?

TYPES OF RESEARCH (Common classification)

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

CAUSAL RESEARCH

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PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

EXPLORATORY

DESCRIPTIVE

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

It is the purpose rather than a technique that determines whether a study is exploratory, descriptive or causal.

TYPE OF THE INVESTIGATION

CORRELATIONAL

CAUSAL

COMPARISON (Difference)

TYPE OF INVESTIGATION - Causal versus non causal (correlational)

Correlational When the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables that are associated with the problem. Study can be conducted in the natural setting where events occur without researcher interfering with the variables. (No manipulation of independent variable)

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Causal

When the researcher want to delineate the cause of a problem Some variables have to be manipulated and others controlled

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Make EXPLORATORY Study

FOR Obtaining better understanding of the phenomena To define the problem more clearly- refer: what is a problem

Diagnosing a situation (hot issues in company, concern of employees, customers, suppliers, concern of company, sector, countries) Discovering new ideas, seeking for new opportunities. (workers having suggestions for improvement like increasing production, reducing cost, customers suggestions for new products to develop. THEN Proceed with more rigorous research

Usually data is collected by interviews, observations and when the data reveal some pattern regarding the phenomena of interest then

Theories are built - Hypothesis are developed

NOTs Doing a study for the first time in a particular organization does not make the research exploratory in nature Purpose is to help formulate the problem and clarify concepts rather than developing a conclusive evidence THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
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(Classified on the basis of data collection - information gathering)

EXPERIENCE SURVEYS - Discussions with knowledgeable people, both inside and outside the company. SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS - Not only used for exploring (exploratory research but also for descriptive and conclusive research. CASE STUDIES PILOT STUDIES 1-FOCUS GROUP 2-PROJECTIVE METHODS 3-DEPTH INTERVIEWS

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DESCRIPTIVE STUDY

Describing the characteristics of a variable in a given situation

Like demographic characteristics

of individuals,

like employees, customers

organizations

like production levels, assets, locations, sales, inventory levels, suppliers, profits, financial ratios.

industries

like economical, financial indicators pertaining to the industries.

For the purpose of :

Understanding the characteristics of a group in a given situation Aid in thinking systematically about aspects in a given situation Offer ideas for further research Can be ultimately used for decision purposes.

Exploratory Qualitative data may help to understand the phenomena Descriptive More quantitative data in terms of frequencies, measures of central tendencies (mean, median, mode, quartiles, percentiles)

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measures of dispersion (standard deviation)

HYPOTHESIS TESTING (refer to discussion on causal & correlational type of investigation)

Nature of certain relationships Establish the differences among groups Independence of two or more factors(variables)

Discussion of null (Ho) and alternative hypothesis (Ha)

Final Word on selection among exploratory, descriptive and hypothesis testing

Rigorness increase

Cost increase

STUDY SETTING

CONTRIVED

- Artificial Setting

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NONCONTRIVED - Natural environment where events naturally occur

FIELD STUDY

- A noncontrived setting with minimal researcher interference. Correlational studies

FIELD EXPERIMENT - A noncontrived setting with researcher interference to a moderate extent. Cause -effect relationship

LAB EXPERIMENT

- A contrived setting with researcher interference to the maximum extent. Cause- effect relationship

UNIT OF ANALYSIS

INDIVIDUALS ; DYADS (Wife- Husband, Superior-Subordinate); GROUPS; DIVISIONS; INDUSTRY; COUNTRIES.

TIME HORIZON: CROSS SECTIONAL ; LONGITUDINAL

VALIDITY

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INTERNAL VALIDITY : Refers to the extent of the confidence in the cause effect that variable X causes variable Y.

EXTERNAL VALIDITY: Refers to the extent of generalizability of the results of a causal study to other people, events or settings.

There is a trade-off between external validity and internal validity

For internal validity thight control

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH Most exploratory research is qualitative rather than quantitative

Three interrelated purposes

Diagnosing a situation

Screening alternatives testing

concept

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Discovering new ideas

GENERAL CATEGORIES OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH (Classified on the basis of data collection - information gathering)

CATEGORIES

EXPLANATIONS Discussions with knowledgeable people, both inside and outside the company

EXPERIENCE SURVEYS Not only used for exploring (exploratory SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS research) but also for descriptive and conclusive research. Preliminary review of data to clarify issues in the early stages Investigating one or few situations similar to CASE STUDIES the researchers problem and describing the case situation Small scale exploratory research technique PILOT STUDIES that uses sampling but does not apply rigorous standards

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PILOT STUDIES

FOCUS

PROJECTIVE

DEPTH INTERVIEW

FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW

A-Advantages Synergism Serendipity Snowballing Stimulation Security Spontaneity Specialization

Explanations Combined effort Opportunity to develop the idea to its full significance Chain of responses Stimulating, motivating the respondents to express. Focus is on the group rather than the indivual People speak if they have definite feelings Group is interviewed by the highly trained interviewer (moderator)

Scrunity

Observed by several people. As the session can be tape recorded it can be later examined in detail

Structure

Moderator as a participant control the discussions. Open and reopen the topics

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Speed

Interviewing more than one respondent at the same time

B-Group composition: 6 to 10 individuals; homogenous groups with similar lifestyles, job classes, experience and communication skills

C - Environmental conditions: Site should be research agency, office conference room and or a hotel (relaxed and natural)

D- The moderators Job Everyone should get a chance to speak Promote interaction among members Should gain confidence of people Make them feel relaxed and eager to talk Manipulate the flow of the discussion to generate fresh ideas

E -Planning the focus group outline; Discussion guide Written remarks and outline of topics that will be discussed

F - Focus group that use video conferencingremote locations

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G - Focus group as diagnostic tools Can be used to diagnose problems suggested by quantitative research. Quantitative research may be short on why though it is possible to understand what is happening.

H Shortcomings Dominant participant

I - Interactive media and on line research - is beginning to emerge

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES An indirect means of questioning that enables a respondent to project the beliefs and feelings on to a third party, onto an inanimate object or into a task situation

Word association test: Subject is presented with a list of words and asked to respond with the first word that comes to mind. Used to pretest words or ideas to be used in questionnaire.

Sentence completion: e.g. A boss should not --------------

Third person technique : Respondent is asked why a third person (neighbor) does what he or she does or what he or she thinks about an object, event, person,or activity. Respondent is expected to transfer his or her attitutes to the third person.

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Thematic apperception test picture frustration:

A test consisting of a series of pictures shown to research subjects who are then asked to provide a description of the pictures. The researcher analysis the content of these descriptions in an effort to clarify a research problem.

DEPTH INTERVIEWS: A relatively unstructured, extensive interview used in the primary stages of research process.

DATA Recorded measures of certain phenomena

INFORMATION A body of facts that are in format suitable for decision making

GLOBAL INFIRMATION SYSTEMS AND THE INTERNET An organized collection of computer hardware and software, data, and personnel designed to capture, store, update, manipulate, analyse, and immeadiately display information about worldwide business activity.

Decision support system is a computer based system that helps decision makers confront problems through direct interaction with databases and analytical software

Database is a collection of raw data or information arranged in a logical manner and organized in aform that can be stored and processed by a computer.
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Software : Spreadsheets and statistical software is important

EDI : Networks link one or more computers to share data and software.

Input management Computerized data archieves : Input includes all the numerical text, voice and image data that enter data base systems. Input should be managed otherwise garbage in - garbage out will occur. Internet - Intranet Extranet host server File transfer protocol (ftp): a software that allows users to establish an interactive file transfer sessions with a remote hosts computer system so that the user can read and download full-text versions of files from the remote system.

Search engines

SECONDARY DATA

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ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Less expensive Obtained rapidly

May not meet the researchers need Format of the data may be inconvenient Data conversion is necessary

Accuracy of the data should be verified Cross check

OBJECTIVE FOR SECONDARY DATA RESEARCH DESIGN

1- Fact Finding : Statistics, facts about the population

2- Model building: Specifying relationship between two or more variables. Developing descriptive or predictive equations. Eg; market share; estimation of market potential

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CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY DATA

Internal or proprietary data: Secondary data that are created, recorded, or generated by the organization External sources: Books and periodicals, Government sources (DE, HAZNE) Stock market sources (MKB, SPK) Chamber of commerce etc. TO, SO

4. a. Distinguish between Doubles sampling and multiphase sampling. [ 5 marks] b. What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling? [ 5 marks]

Ans:- Sample size calculations for a continuous outcome require specification of the anticipated variance; inaccurate specification can result in an underpowered or
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overpowered study. For this reason, adaptive methods whereby sample size is recalculated using the variance of a subsample have become increasingly popular. The first proposal of this type (Stein, 1945, Annals of Mathematical Statistics 16, 243-258) used all of the data to estimate the mean difference but only the first stage data to estimate the variance. Stein's procedure is not commonly used because many people perceive it as ignoring relevant data. This is especially problematic when the first stage sample size is small, as would be the case if the anticipated total sample size were small. A more naive approach uses in the denominator of the final test statistic the variance estimate based on all of the data. Applying the Helmert transformation, we show why this naive approach underestimates the true variance and how to construct an unbiased estimate that uses all of the data. We prove that the type I error rate of our procedure cannot exceed alpha. Double and multiple sampling plans were invented to give a questionable lot another chance. For example, if in double sampling the results of the first sample are not conclusive with regard to accepting or rejecting, a second sample is taken. Application of double sampling requires that a first sample of size n1 is taken at random from the (large) lot. The number of defectives is then counted and compared to the first sample's acceptance number a1 and rejection number r1. Denote the number of defectives in sample 1 by d1 and in sample 2 by d2, then: If d1 a1, the lot is accepted. If d1 r1, the lot is rejected. If a1 < d1 < r1, a second sample is taken. If a second sample of size n2 is taken, the number of defectives, d2, is counted. The total number of defectives is D2 = d1 + d2. Now this is compared to the acceptance number a2 and the rejection number r2 of sample 2. In double sampling, r2 = a2 + 1 to ensure a decision on the sample. If D2 a2, the lot is accepted. If D2 r2, the lot is rejected.

Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling It involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from a population. All the sub-samples should be drawn using the same sampling technique and each is a self-contained and adequate sample of the population. Replicated sampling can be used with any basic sampling technique: simple or stratified,
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single or multi-stage or single or multiphase sampling. It provides a simple means of calculating the sampling error. It is practical. The replicated samples can throw light on variable non-sampling errors. But disadvantage is that it limits the amount of stratification that can be employed.

5. a. How is secondary data useful to researcher? b. What are the criteria used for evaluation of secondary data?

[ 5 marks] [ 5 marks]

Ans:- Secondary data is information gathered for purposes other than the completion of a research project. A variety of secondary information sources is available to the researcher gathering data on an industry, potential product applications and the market place. Secondary data is also used to gain initial insight into the research problem. Secondary data is classified in terms of its source either internal or external. Internal, or in-house data, is secondary information acquired within the organization where research is being carried out. External secondary data is obtained from outside sources. The two major advantages of using secondary data in market research are time and cost savings.

The secondary research process can be completed rapidly generally in 2 to 3 week. Substantial useful secondary data can be collected in a matter of days by a skillful analyst. When secondary data is available, the researcher need only locate the source of the data and extract the required information. Secondary research is generally less expensive than primary research. The bulk of secondary research data gathering does not require the use of expensive, specialized, highly trained personnel. Secondary research expenses are incurred by the originator of the information.

There are also a number of disadvantages of using secondary data. These include:

Secondary information pertinent to the research topic is either not available, or is only available in insufficient quantities. Some secondary data may be of questionable accuracy and reliability. Even government publications and trade magazines statistics can be misleading. For example, many trade magazines survey their members to derive estimates of market size, market growth rate and purchasing patterns, then average out these
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results. Often these statistics are merely average opinions based on less than 10% of their members. Data may be in a different format or units than is required by the researcher. Much secondary data is several years old and may not reflect the current market conditions. Trade journals and other publications often accept articles six months before appear in print. The research may have been done months or even years earlier.

As a general rule, a thorough research of the secondary data should be undertaken prior to conducting primary research. The secondary information will provide a useful background and will identify key questions and issues that will need to be addressed by the primary research. Internal data sources Internal secondary data is usually an inexpensive information source for the company conducting research, and is the place to start for existing operations. Internally generated sales and pricing data can be used as a research source. The use of this data is to define the competitive position of the firm, an evaluation of a marketing strategy the firm has used in the past, or gaining a better understanding of the companys best customers. There are three main sources of internal data. These are: 1. Sales and marketing reports. These can include such things as:

Type of product/service purchased Type of end-user/industry segment Method of payment Product or product line Sales territory Salesperson Date of purchase Amount of purchase Price Application by product Location of end-user

2. Accounting and financial records. These are often an overlooked source of internal secondary information and can be invaluable in the identification, clarification and

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prediction of certain problems. Accounting records can be used to evaluate the success of various marketing strategies such as revenues from a direct marketing campaign. There are several problems in using accounting and financial data. One is the timeliness factor it is often several months before accounting statements are available. Another is the structure of the records themselves. Most firms do not adequately setup their accounts to provide the types of answers to research questions that they need. For example, the account systems should capture project/product costs in order to identify the companys most profitable (and least profitable) activities. Companies should also consider establishing performance indicators based on financial data. These can be industry standards or unique ones designed to measure key performance factors that will enable the firm to monitor its performance over a period of time and compare it to its competitors. Some example may be sales per employee, sales per square foot, expenses per employee (salesperson, etc.). 3. Miscellaneous reports. These can include such things as inventory reports, service calls, number (qualifications and compensation) of staff, production and R&D reports. Also the companys business plan and customer calls (complaints) log can be useful sources of information. External data sources There is a wealth of statistical and research data available today. Some sources are:

Federal government Provincial/state governments Statistics agencies Trade associations General business publications Magazine and newspaper articles Annual reports Academic publications Library sources Computerized bibliographies Syndicated services.

A good place to start your search is the local city, college or university library. Most reference librarians are very knowledgeable about what data is available, or where to look to find it. Also contact government libraries and departments for research reports/publications they may have done.
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On many occasions, researchers must choose from two or more sources of data. The choice should be guided by the determination of which data score highest on the following considerations: Pertinency: To be usable, the data must have the same units of measurement specified in the project, must be applicable to the periods of time in question, and must be derived from the universe. Classes of data must be constructed in the same way as in the project. Who collected and Published the Data and Why: In evaluating secondary data, the researcher must examine the organization that collected the data and the purposes for which they were published. An organization that makes the collection and publication of data its chief functions is apt to furnish accurate data. Obviously, the success of such a firm depends on the long-run satisfaction of its client that the information supplied is accurate. The ability of an organization to procure the wanted information is a pivotal consideration. This often reduces itself to a matter of authority and prestige. The US Bureau of Internal Revenue, for instance, can obtain accurate information about income more easily than any private firm simply because it has legal authority to do so. When feasible, the capabilities and motivation of the individuals responsible for the data collection should also be appraised. Reputation, experience, and degree of independence on the particular project are all genuine considerations in assessing the reliability of an expert. An individual working for an independent research agency would be more likely to turn out an accurate report than the same individual working or an organization committed to one side of a question. Discovering the purpose for which data are published is mandatory for an adequate evaluation of secondary data. Data published to promote the interest of a particular group, whether political commercial or social are suspect. At the same time, not all data credited to sources with an axe to grind should be dismissed out of hand. Nevertheless information so procured should always be handled with care. Data Collection Methods: If a source fails to give a detailed description of its method of data collection, researchers should be hesitant about using the information provided. All too, often shyness about revealing the procedures used to collect data suggest the employment of inadequate methods. Most primary sources, however, describe their methods, even if only briefly.

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When the methodology is described, researchers should subject it to a painstaking examination. Even if the procedures appear sound, caution must be exercised because weaknesses tend to be camouflaged. Searching questions must be answered positively before the data can be used. If a sample was used, was it selected objectively? Was it large enough particularly for the sub-samples? Was it chosen from the universe of interest? Was the questionnaire adequate or getting the desired information? What kind of supervision was exercised over the people who actually collected the data? Were any checks made on the accuracy of the field workers results? General Evidences of Careful Work: An indispensable point of evaluation is the general evidence that the data have been collected and processed carefully. Is the information presented in a well-organized manner? Are the tables constructed properly, and are they consistent within and among themselves? Are the conclusions supported by the data. Conflicting Data: If several sources of data relating to a researchers problem are available, the data can be submitted to a quality control analysis of the sort applied in production. After dividing the data into good and poor on the basis of criteria like those mentioned above, correlations on points of interest can be run between the two groups, and statistical tests can be made. In projects that rely heavily on secondary data, this technique is particularly valuable.

6. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as or interviewing would be more appropriate. [10 marks]. Ans:- Observation vs Interviewing as Methods of Data Collection

methods of

data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation

Collection of data is the most crucial part of any research project as the success or failure of the project is dependent upon the accuracy of the data. Use of wrong methods of data collection or any inaccuracy in collecting data can have significant impact on the results of a study and may lead to results that are not valid. There are many techniques of data collection along a continuum and observation and interviewing are two of the popular methods on this continuum that has quantitative methods at one end while qualitative methods at the other end. Though there are many similarities in these two

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methods and they serve the same basic purpose, there are differences that will be highlighted in this article. Observation Observation, as the name implies refers to situations where participants are observed from a safe distance and their activities are recorded minutely. It is a time consuming method of data collection as you may not get the desired conditions that are required for your research and you may have to wait till participants are in the situation you want them to be in. Classic examples of observation are wild life researchers who wait for the animals of birdsto be in a natural habitat and behave in situations that they want to focus upon. As a method of data collection, observation has limitations but produces accurate results as participants are unaware of being closely inspected and behave naturally. Interviewing Interviewing is another great technique of data collection and it involves asking questions to get direct answers. These interviews could be either one to one, in the form of questionnaires, or the more recent form of asking opinions through internet. However, there are limitations of interviewing as participants may not come up with true or honest answers depending upon privacy level of the questions. Though they try to be honest, there is an element of lie in answers that can distort results of the project. Though both observation and interviewing are great techniques of data collection, they have their own strengths and weaknesses. It is important to keep in mind which one of the two will produce desired results before finalizing. Observation vs Interviewing Data collection is an integral part of any research and various techniques are employed for this purpose. Observation requires precise analysis by the researcher and often produces most accurate results although it is very time consuming Interviewing is easier but suffers from the fact that participants may not come up with honest replies.

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