What Was Jim Crow?

WARNING; THIS ARTICLE CONTAINS EXPLICIT LANGUAGE AND DEPICTIONS OF VIOLENCE TOWARDS AFRICAN AMERICANS.

Jim Crow was the name of the racial caste system which operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between 1877 and the mid-1960s. Jim Crow was more than a series of rigid anti-Black laws. It was a way of life. Under Jim Crow, African Americans were relegated to the status of second class citizens. Jim Crow represented the legitimization of anti-Black racism. Many Christian ministers and theologians taught that Whites were the Chosen people, Blacks were cursed to be servants, and God supported racial segregation. Craniologists, eugenicists, phrenologists, and Social Darwinists, at every educational level, buttressed the belief that Blacks were innately intellectually and culturally inferior to Whites. Pro-segregation politicians gave eloquent speeches on the great danger of integration: the mongrelization of the White race. Newspaper and magazine writers routinely referred to Blacks as niggers, coons, and darkies; and worse, their articles reinforced anti-Black stereotypes. Even children's games Years of African-American Imagery in Games"). All major societal institutions reflected and supported the oppression of Blacks. portrayed Blacks as inferior beings (see "From Hostility to Reverence: 100

The Jim Crow system was undergirded by the following beliefs or rationalizations: Whites were

superior to Blacks in all important ways, including but not limited to

intelligence, morality, and civilized behavior; sexual relations between Blacks and Whites would produce a mongrel race which would destroy America; treating Blacks as equals would encourage interracial sexual unions; any activity which suggested social equality encouraged interracial sexual relations; if necessary, violence must be used to keep Blacks at the bottom of the racial hierarchy. The following Jim Crow etiquette norms show how inclusive and pervasive these norms were:

a. A Black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a White male because it implied being socially equal. Obviously, a Black male could not offer his hand or any other part of his body to a White woman, because he risked being accused of rape. b. Blacks and Whites were not supposed to eat together. If they did eat together, Whites were to be served first, and some sort of partition was to be placed between them. c. Under no circumstance was a Black male to offer to light the cigarette of a White female -- that gesture implied intimacy. d. Blacks were not allowed to show public affection toward one another in public, especially kissing, because it offended Whites. e. Jim Crow etiquette prescribed that Blacks were introduced to Whites, never Whites to Blacks. For example: "Mr. Peters (the White person), this is Charlie (the Black person), that I spoke to you about." f. Whites did not use courtesy titles of respect when referring to Blacks, for example, Mr., Mrs., Miss., Sir, or Ma'am. Instead, Blacks were called by their first names. Blacks had to use courtesy titles their first names. g. If a Black person rode in a car driven by a White person, the Black person sat in the back seat, or the back of a truck.

when referring to Whites, and were not allowed to call them by

h. White motorists had the right-of-way at all intersections. Stetson Kennedy, the author of Jim Crow Guide, offered these simple

rules that Blacks were supposed to observe in conversing with Whites: 1. Never assert or even intimate that a White person is lying. 2. Never impute dishonorable intentions to a White person. 3. Never suggest that a White person is from an inferior class. 4. Never lay claim to, or overly demonstrate, superior knowledge or intelligence. 5. Never curse a White person. 6. Never laugh derisively at a White person. 7. Never comment upon the appearance of a White female.1 Jim Crow etiquette operated in conjunction with Jim Crow laws (black codes). When most people think of Jim Crow they think of laws (not the Jim Crow etiquette) which excluded Blacks from public transport and facilities, juries, jobs, and neighborhoods. The passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution had granted Blacks the same legal protections as Whites. However, after 1877, and the election of Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, southern and border states began restricting the liberties of Blacks. Unfortunately for Blacks, the Supreme Court helped undermine the Constitutional protections of Blacks with the infamous Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case, which legitimized Jim Crow laws and the Jim Crow way of life. In 1890, Louisiana passed the "Separate Car Law," which purported to aid passenger comfort and Whites. This was a ruse. No public accommodations, including by creating "equal but separate" cars for Blacks

railway travel, provided Blacks with equal facilities. The Louisiana law made it illegal for Blacks to sit in coach seats reserved for Whites, and Whites could not sit in seats reserved for Blacks. In 1891, a group of Blacks decided to test the Jim Crow law. They had Homer A. Plessy, who White-only railroad coach. He was arrested. Plessy's lawyer argued that was seven-eights White and one-eighth Black (therefore, Black), sit in the

Louisiana did not have the right to label one citizen as White and another Black for the purposes of restricting their rights and privileges. In Plessy, the Supreme Court stated that so long as state governments provided legal process and legal freedoms for Blacks, equal to those of Whites, Court, by a 7-2 vote, upheld the Louisiana law, declaring that racial separation did not necessarily mean an abrogation of equality. In practice, Plessy represented the legitimization of two societies: one White, and advantaged; the other, Black, disadvantaged and despised. Blacks were denied the right to vote by grandfather clauses (laws that restricted the right to vote to people whose ancestors had voted before the Civil War), poll taxes (fees charged to poor Blacks), white primaries (only Democrats could vote, only Whites could be Democrats), and literacy tests ("Name all the Vice Presidents and Supreme Court Justices throughout America's history"). Plessy sent this message to southern and border states: Discrimination against Blacks is acceptable. Jim Crow states passed statutes severely regulating social interactions between the races. Jim Crow signs were placed above water fountains, door entrances and exits, and in front of public facilities. There were separate hospitals for Blacks and Whites, separate prisons, separate public and private schools, separate churches, separate cemeteries, separate public restrooms, and separate public accommodations. In most instances, the Black facilities were grossly inferior -- generally, older, less-well-kept. In other cases, there were no Black facilities -- no Colored public restroom, no public beach, no place to sit or eat. Plessy gave Jim Crow states a legal way to ignore their constitutional obligations to their Black citizens. they could maintain separate institutions to facilitate these rights. The

Jim Crow laws touched every aspect of everyday life. For example, in 1935, Oklahoma prohibited Blacks and Whites from boating together. Boating implied social equality. In 1905, Georgia established separate parks for Blacks and Whites. In 1930, Birmingham,

Alabama, made it illegal for Blacks and Whites to play checkers or

dominoes together. Here are some of the typical Jim Crow laws, as compiled by the Martin Luther King, Jr., National Historic Site Interpretive Staff:
o

Barbers. No colored barber shall serve as a barber (to) white girls or Blind Wards. The board of trustees shall...maintain a separate
and support of all blind persons of the colored or black race (Louisiana). women (Georgia).

building...on separate ground for the admission, care, instruction,

Burial. The officer in charge shall not bury, or allow to be buried,

white persons (Georgia).

any colored persons upon ground set apart or used for the burial of
o

Buses. All passenger stations in this state operated by any motor

and separate ticket windows for the white and colored races

transportation company shall have separate waiting rooms or space (Alabama).

Child Custody. It shall be unlawful for any parent, relative, or other

white person in this State, having the control or custody of any white child, by right of guardianship, natural or acquired, or otherwise, to dispose of, give or surrender such white child permanently into the custody, control, maintenance, or support, of a negro (South Carolina).

Education. The schools for white children and the schools for negro
children shall be conducted separately (Florida).

Libraries. The state librarian is directed to fit up and maintain a

the library for the purpose of reading books or periodicals (North Carolina).
o

separate place for the use of the colored people who may come to

Mental Hospitals. The Board of Control shall see that proper and
distinct apartments are arranged for said patients, so that in no case shall Negroes and white persons be together (Georgia).

and shall never be compelled to serve in the same organization. No

Militia. The white and colored militia shall be separately enrolled,

organization of colored troops shall be permitted where white troops are available and where whites are permitted to be officers (North Carolina).
o

organized, colored troops shall be under the command of white

Nurses. No person or corporation shall require any White female

nurse to nurse in wards or rooms in hospitals, either public or private, in which negro men are placed (Alabama).

Prisons. The warden shall see that the white convicts shall have
convicts (Mississippi).

separate apartments for both eating and sleeping from the negro
o

to the houses of reform shall be kept entirely separate from each other (Kentucky).
o

Reform Schools. The children of white and colored races committed

Teaching. Any instructor who shall teach in any school, college or

institution where members of the white and colored race are received and enrolled as pupils for instruction shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined... (Oklahoma).

Wine and Beer. All persons licensed to conduct the business of

selling beer or wine...shall serve either white people exclusively or colored people exclusively and shall not sell to the two races within the same room at any time (Georgia).2 The Jim Crow laws and system of etiquette were undergirded by violence, real and threatened. Blacks who violated Jim Crow norms, for example, drinking from the White water fountain or trying to vote, risked their homes, their

jobs, even their lives. Whites could physically beat Blacks with impunity. Blacks had little legal recourse against these assaults because the Jim Crow criminal justice system was all-White: police, prosecutors, judges, juries, and prison officials. Violence was instrumental for Jim Crow. It was

a method of social control. The most extreme forms of Jim Crow violence were lynchings.

Lynchings were public, often sadistic, murders carried out by mobs. Between 1882, when the first reliable data were collected, and 1968, when lynchings had become rare, there were 4,730 known lynchings, were hanged or shot, but some were burned at the stake, castrated, including 3,440 Black men and women. Most of the victims of Lynch-Law beaten with clubs, or dismembered. In the mid-1800s, Whites constituted the majority of victims (and perpetrators); however, by the period of Radical Reconstruction, Blacks became the most frequent lynching victims. This is an early indication that lynching was used as an intimidation tool to keep Blacks, in this case the newly-freedmen, "in their places." The great majority of lynchings occurred in southern and border states, where the resentment against Blacks ran deepest. According to the social economist Gunnar Myrdal: "The southern states account for nine-tenths of the lynchings. More than two thirds of the remaining one-tenth occurred in the six states which immediately border the South."3 Many Whites claimed that although lynchings were distasteful, they were were prone to violent crimes, especially the rapes of White women. Arthur Raper investigated nearly a century of lynchings and concluded that approximately one-third of all the victims were falsely accused.4 Under Jim Crow any and all sexual interactions between Black men and White women was illegal, illicit, socially repugnant, and within the Jim Crow definition of rape. Although only 19.2 percent of the lynching victims between 1882 to 1951 were even accused of rape, Lynch law was often supported on the popular belief that lynchings were necessary to way: "There is much reason to believe that this figure (19.2) has been secure from any further investigation; by the broad Southern definition of inflated by the fact that a mob which makes the accusation of rape is protect White women from Black rapists. Myrdal refutes this belief in this necessary supplements to the criminal justice system because Blacks

rape to include all sexual relations between Negro men and white women; and by the psychopathic fears of white women in their contacts with Negro men."5 Most Blacks were lynched for demanding civil rights,

violating Jim Crow etiquette or laws, or in the aftermath of race riots. Lynchings were most common in small and middle-sized towns where

Blacks often were economic competitors to the local Whites. These Whites resented any economic and political gains made by Blacks. Lynchers were seldomly arrested, and if arrested, rarely convicted. Raper estimated that "at least one-half of the lynchings are carried out with police officers participating, and that in nine-tenths of the others the officers either condone or wink at the mob action."6 Lynching served many purposes: it was cheap entertainment; it served as a rallying, uniting point for Whites; it functioned as an ego-massage for low-income, low-status Whites; it the fledgling social equality movement. Lynch mobs directed their hatred against one (sometimes several) was a method of defending White domination and helped stop or retard

victims. The victim was an example of what happened to a Black man who tried to vote, or who looked at a White woman, or who tried to get a White man's job. Unfortunately for Blacks, sometimes the mob was not satisfied to murder a single or several victims. Instead, in the spirit of pogroms, the mobs went into Black communities and destroyed additional lives and property. Their immediate goal was to drive out -through death or expulsion -- all Blacks; the larger goal was to maintain, at all costs, White supremacy. These pogrom-like actions are often these "riots" as "a terrorization or massacre...a mass referred to as riots; however, Gunnar Myrdal was right when he described lynching."7Interestingly, these mass lynchings were primarily urban phenomena. James Weldon Johnson, the famous Black writer, labeled 1919 as "The Red Summer." It was red from racial tension; it was red from bloodletting. During the summer of 1919, there were race riots in Chicago, Illinois;

phenomena, whereas the lynching of single victims was primarily a rural

Knoxville and Nashville, Tennessee; Charleston, South Carolina; Omaha, Nebraska; and two dozen other cities. W.E.B. DuBois, the Black social Negroes were lynched, of whom one was a woman and eleven were scientist and civil rights activist, wrote: "During that year seventy-seven soldiers; of these, fourteen were publicly burned, eleven of them being burned alive. That year there were race riots large and small in twenty-six American cities including thirty-eight killed in a Chicago riot of August; from twenty-five to fifty in Phillips County, Arkansas; and six killed in Washington."8 The riots of 1919 were not the first or last "mass lynchings" of Blacks, as evidenced by the race riots in Wilmington, North Carolina (1898); Atlanta, Georgia (1906); Springfield, Illinois (1908); East St. Louis, Illinois (1917); Tulsa, Oklahoma (1921); and Detroit, Michigan (1943). Joseph Boskin, author of Urban Racial Violence, claimed that the riots of the 1900s had the following traits:

1. In each of the race riots, with few exceptions, it was White people that sparked the incident by attacking Black people. 2. In the majority of the riots, some extraordinary social condition prevailed at the time of the riot: prewar social changes, wartime mobility, post-war adjustment, or economic depression. 3. The majority of the riots occurred during the hot summer months. 4. Rumor played an extremely important role in causing many riots. Rumors of some criminal activity by Blacks against Whites 5. The police force, more than any other institution, was invariably involved as a precipitating cause or perpetuating factor in the riots. either by actually participating in, or by failing to quell the attack. 6. In almost every instance, the fighting occurred within the Black community.9 In almost every one of the riots, the police sided with the attackers, perpetuated the actions of the White mobs.

Boskin omitted the following: the mass media, especially newspapers

often published inflammatory articles about "Black criminals" immediately

before the riots; Blacks were not only killed, but their homes and

businesses were looted, and many who did not flee were left homeless; and, the goal of the White rioters, as was true of White lynchers of single victims, was to instill fear and terror into Blacks, thereby buttressing White domination. The Jim Crow hierarchy could not work without violence being used against those on the bottom rung. George

Fredrickson, a historian, stated it this way: "Lynching represented...a way of using fear and terror to check 'dangerous' tendencies in a black community considered to be ineffectively regimented or supervised. As segregated society provided an inadequate measure of day-to-day control."10 Many Blacks resisted the indignities of Jim Crow, and, far too often, they paid for their bravery with their lives. such it constituted a confession that the regular institutions of a

Ferris State University Sept., 2000

Dr. David Pilgrim, Professor of Sociology

Kennedy, Stetson. Jim Crow Guide: The Way It Was. Boca Raton: Florida Atlantic

University Press, 1959/1990, pp.216-117.

2

is: http//www.nps.gov/malu/documents/jim crowlaws.htm.

3

National Historic Site Interpretive Staff. Last Updated January 5, 1998. The web address

This list was derived from a larger list composed by the Martin Luther King, Jr.,

Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma. New York: 1944, pp. 560-561. Myrdal, op. cit., .561. Ibid., pp.561-562. Arthur. A. Rapier, The Tragedy of Lynching. Chapel Hill, 1933, pp.13-14. Myrdal, op.cit., p.566.

Huggins (editor). New York: Viking Press, 1986, p.747.

9

W.E.B. Dubois, Originally in Dust of Dawn. Cited here from DuBois: Writings, Nathan

Joseph Boskin, Urban Racial Violence. Beverly Hills, 1976, pp.14-15. George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image In The White Mind: The Debate on Afro-

10

American Character and Destiny 1817-1914. New York: Harper & Row, 1971, p.272.

The following images contain racist language.

Some of the images show explicit violence against African Americans.

You have been forewarned!

Jim Crow Legislation Overview

By Susan Falck, M.A., Research Associate California State University--Northridge, California

"There is no wonder that we die," an Alabama woman sighed, "The wonder is that we persist in living."
"The Negro Problem," The Independent, September 18, 1902 More than 400 state laws, constitutional amendments, and city ordinances legalizing segregation and discrimination were passed in the United States between 1865 and 1967. These laws governed nearly every aspect of daily life, from education to public transportation, from health care and housing to the use of public facilities. African-American children got their first taste of racial discrimination when they found themselves barred from attending school with white children, and being sent, instead, to inferior facilities. Growing up, these children learned that their lives were equally restricted outside the classroom. They were forbidden from sharing a bus seat with a white passenger or to ride in the same compartment of a train. They were denied access to public parks and restaurants, and, in some states, were forced to enter public amusements like the circus through a separate entrance. Black movie theater patrons were seated in the balcony, separated from white customers in what was commonly referred to as "Nigger heaven." When they went to work, African Americans were forced to use separate entrances and bathrooms and to collect their paychecks at separate windows. Even in death, legislation hearses from carrying both races, and cemeteries were required to maintain separate graveyards. ensured that the races would remain separate. Several states prohibited

While the majority of Jim Crow laws discriminated specifically against African Americans, other minority groups also were frequently targeted. Western states routinely passed discriminatory legislation against Asians

and Native Americans, passing 51 Jim Crow laws, 12 percent of the (17) than any other state in the country.

nation's total. Outside the South, California passed more Jim Crow laws

Miscegenation statutes, intended to prevent racial interbreeding, led the list of Jim Crow laws enacted. At least 127 laws prohibiting interracial marriage and cohabitation were passed between 1865 and the 1950s Western states enacted 33 such laws (27 percent). Both whites and blacks who ignored the law could receive sentences for up to ten years hard labor in the penitentiary in a number of states. Punishment for miscegenation in state statutes was still in force in the 1960s in Delaware, Florida, Indiana, Maryland, Mississippi, and North Carolina. Further testament that racism existed nationwide is evident in education laws. States outside the South enacted 23 percent of the laws that authorized segregated schools. Likewise, seven of the 12 laws that required race to be considered in adoption petitions were passed outside of the South. Although the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court Brown v. Topeka Board of nationwide, with 37 percent of the statutes passed outside the South.

continued to pass Jim Crow legislation well into the 1960s, particularly in the area of school segregation. Historian C. Vann Woodward estimated that 106 new segregation laws were passed between the Brown decision and the end of 1956. By May 1964, the South had enacted 450 laws and resolutions to frustrate the Supreme Court's particularly dehumanizing. In 1960, the city of Danville, Virginia, decision. Many of these statutes were passed at the local level and were attempted to maintain segregated library facilities by establishing a "stand-up-pick-up-your-books-and-go" policy. Tables and chairs were a library card was $2.50 and new applicants (blacks) were required to furnish two credit references and two character witnesses. As late as 1967, the city of Sarasota, Florida, prohibited blacks and whites from removed from the library so that patrons could not sit down. The cost of

Education decision formally made segregation illegal, southern states

using the same beaches and authorized police to clear the area if such mixing occurred.

Here is a breakdown of the laws compiled for this Web site. Total Number Enacted 283

Legislation Topics Segregation Statutes (includes adoption, business licenses, health care, housing, prisons, public accommodation, public carrier, school and race classification) Miscegenation Statutes Voting Rights Total

127 29 439

As you can see from the table below, miscegenation and school segregation laws dominated the types of statutes passed. % of Total Type Miscegenation Education Public carrier Public accommodation Voting rights Number Statutes Passed 127 112 71 34 29 29 25 16 8 6

Other categories of Jim Crow segregation laws compiled for this Web site include: Category Number on this Web site

Adoption Alcohol sales Business Licenses Employment Health Care Housing Military Land ownership Prisons Race Classification Recreation Sports Vital Records

12 1 1 4 19 5 3 1 5 7 4 1 1

Not surprisingly, the South legislated the greatest percentage of Jim Crow laws (79 percent). Louisiana passed more Jim Crow laws than any state in the nation (29). Alabama and Georgia, with 27 statues each, were behind. Here's a look at the laws from all categories (segregation, miscegenation and voting rights) by region: Region South West Midwest Northeast Number of Laws % of Total 342 59 27 11 78 13 6 3

In September 1949, only 15 states had no segregation laws in effect. These included Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode

Jersey, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin. Of the remaining states, 30 states prohibited mixed marriages and "race whites. Fourteen states permitted or required separate railroad accommodations. mixing." Twenty states proscribed separate schools for blacks and

By September 1949, only 18 states had laws prohibiting discrimination in places of public accommodation. These states included California, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, includes 215 laws that protected civil rights. Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Washington, and Wisconsin. This Web site

Jim Crow Inside the South

Although the rule of Jim Crow took many forms, the legal side of white supremacy (laws and court rulings) began first in the South before spreading across the nation. This map presents an extensive survey of those laws designed to disfranchise African Americans and segregate them from whites in the schools and public places of the American South. kind of legal landscape depicting the history and character of Jim Crow. Each entry tells an individual story, but taken together the map presents a The states listed as Inside the South were part of the Confederacy, were states and territories where slavery existed substantially prior to the Civil War, or were states and territories where the legacy of slavery was strongly felt in the years immediately after the Civil War. Students and teachers may want to use this map in conjunction with the other maps and "in-depth" historical essays available on the site. Read an overview of Jim Crow legislation across the United States. If you are interested in contributing research text or lesson plans for this section, please submit the Join Us form. All teachers are paid for their contributions to the site.

In no particular order:

Texas Twenty-seven Jim Crow laws were passed in the Lone Star state. The state enacted one anti-segregation law in 1871 barring in 1889. 1866: Education [Constitution] All taxes paid by blacks to go to maintaining African schools. Duty of the legislature to "encourage colored schools." 1866: Railroads [Statute] "All railroad companies shall attach one passenger car for the special accommodation of freedmen." 1871: Barred segregation on public carriers [Statute] Public carriers prohibited from making any distinctions in the carrying of passengers. Penalty: Misdemeanor punishable by a both. 1876: Voting rights [Constitution] Required electors to pay poll tax. 1879: Miscegenation [Statute] equally to both parties. Confirmed intermarriage law passed in 1858. Penalty applied 1889: Railroads [Statute] Railroad companies required to maintain separate coaches for white and colored passengers, equal in comfort. Penalty: Passengers refusing to sit where assigned were guilty of a misdemeanor, and could be fined between $5 and $20. 1891: Railroads [Statute] fine from $100 to $500, or imprisonment from 30 to 90 days, or separation of the races on public carriers. This law was repealed

Separate coach laws strengthened. Separate coaches for white and Negro passengers to be equal in all points of comfort and in each compartment. Trains allowed to carry chair cars or sleeping cars for the exclusive use of either race. Law did not apply to streetcars. Penalty: Conductors who failed to enforce law faced misdemeanor charge punishable by a fine from $5 to $25. The railroad company could be fined from $100 to $1,000 for each trip. Passengers who refused to sit in designated areas faced fines from $5 to $25. 1907: Streetcars [Statute] Required all streetcars to comply with the separate coach law passed in 1889. Penalty: Streetcar companies could be fined from $100 to $1,000 for failing to enact law. A passenger wrongfully riding in an improper coach was guilty of a misdemeanor, and faced fines from $5 to $25. 1909: Railroads [Statute] Depot buildings required to provide separate waiting areas for the use of white and Negro passengers. 1914: Railroads [Statute] Negro porters shall not sleep in sleeping car berths nor use bedding intended for white passengers. 1915: Miscegenation [State Code] from two to five years. The penalty for intermarriage is imprisonment in the penitentiary 1919: Public accommodations [Statute] Ordered that Negroes were to use separate branches of county free libraries. 1922: Voting Rights [Statute] convenience. Designed by signage posted in a conspicuous place

"in no event shall a Negro be eligible to participate in a Democratic party primary election held in the State of Texas" 1925: Education [Statute] Required racially segregated schools. 1925: Public accommodations [Statute] custodian in all county libraries. 1925: Miscegenation [Penal Code] Miscegenation declared a felony.Nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where such marriages were legal. 1926: Public carriers [Statute] Public carriers to be segregated. 1935: Health Care [Statute] Established a state tuberculosis sanitarium for blacks. 1935: Public carriers [State Code] Directed that separate coaches for whites and blacks on all common carriers. 1943: Public carriers [State Code] Ordered separate seating on all buses. 1949: Employment [Statute] Coal mines required to have separate washrooms. 1950: Public accommodations [Statute] Separate facilities required for white and black citizens in state parks 1951: Voting rights [Constitution] Required electors to pay poll tax. 1951: Miscegenation [Statute] Unlawful for person of Caucasian blood to marry person of African blood. Penalty:Two to five years imprisonment. Separate branches for Negroes to be administered by a Negro Overturned in 1927 by U.S. Supreme Court in Nixon v. Herndon.

1952: Health Care [Statute] Establishment of TB hospitals for blacks. 1953: Public carriers [Penal Code] Public carriers to be segregated. 1956: Public accommodations [Municipal Ordinance] Abolished previously required segregation in the city of San Antonio's swimming pools and other recreational facilities. 1958: Education [Statute] No child compelled to attend schools that are racially mixed. No desegregation unless approved by election. Governor may schools where troops used on federal authority.

Oklahoma Following the pattern of states bordering the Confederacy, Oklahoma strongly supported separation of the races with 18 Jim Crow laws passed between 1890 and 1957. An Oklahoma City ordinance passed in 1925 made it illegal for black bands to voting rights. 1890: Education [Statute] Every three years an election for school electors to be held to vote for or against separate schools for white and colored children. 1897: Education [Statute] A separate district will be established for colored children wherever there are at least eight black children. Unlawful for any white child to attend a school for black children (or vice versa). 1907: Education [Constitution] march with white bands. Two laws were passed that restricted

Separate schools for white and colored children to be provided by the legislature. 1907: Voting rights [Statute] Indigent persons housed in a poorhouse at public expense excluded from voting. Exception made for Federal, Confederate, and Spanish American veterans. 1907: Voting rights [Statute] Required electors to read and write any section of the state Constitution. Exempted those who were enfranchised on January 1, 1866, and lineal descendants of such persons. Declared upheld. 1908: Education [Statute] Public schools within Oklahoma to be operated under a plan of separation between the white and colored races. Penalty: Teachers could be fined between $10 and $50 for violating the law, and their certificate cancelled for one year. Corporations that operated schools that did not comply with the law were guilty of a misdemeanor and could be fined between $100 and $500. between $5 and $20 daily. 1908: Railroads [Statute] All railroad and streetcar companies to provide separate coaches for white and black passengers, "equal in all points of comfort and convenience." Penalty: Railway companies that violate the law fined $100 to $1,000. Passengers who fail to comply can be $25. Conductors could be fined $50 to $500 for failing to enforce the law. 1908: Miscegenation [Statute] charged with a misdemeanor punishable by a fine from $5 to White students who attended a colored school could be fined unconstitutional in 1915; however, provision for literacy was

Unlawful for a person of African descent to marry any person not of African descent. Penalty: Felony punishable by a fine of up to $500 and imprisonment from one to five years in the penitentiary. 1915: Public accommodations [Statute] Required telephone companies to maintain separate booths for white and colored patrons. 1921: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited marriage between Indians and Negroes. 1921: Education [Statute] Misdemeanor for a teacher to teach white and colored children in the same school. Penalty: Cancellation of teaching certificate without renewal for one year. 1921: Public accommodations [Statute] Required maintenance of separate accommodations for colored persons in public libraries in cities with a Negro population of 1,000 or more. 1925: Entertainment [City Ordinance] Black bands were prohibited from marching with white bands in Oklahoma City parades. Also, white Golden Gloves boxers were prohibited from sparring against black boxers. 1937: Public carriers [Statute] 1949: Health Care [Statute] Called for a consolidated Negro institution to care for blind, deaf and orphans. 1954: Public accommodations [Statute] Separate restrooms in mines required. 1955: Miscegenation [Statute] Public carriers to be segregated.

Marriage of anyone of African descent to one who is not white prohibited. Penalty: Up to $500 and one to five years imprisonment. 1957: Adoption [Statute] Adoption petitions must state race of petitioner and child.

Missouri Seven school segregation and five miscegenation statutes, a

public accommodations statute and a law forbidding interracial adoptions were passed in Missouri between 1865 and 1952, characterizing the state's civil rights stance as typical of most other border states. No anti-segregation laws were passed during this period. The state's 1879 miscegenation law, which made marriage between any white person and a person with oneeighth Negro blood or more illegal, offers testament to the difficulty of determining an individual's racial lineage. The statute noted that a jury in a miscegenation trial would determine the amount of Negro blood from a person's appearance. 1865: Education [Constitution] Separate free public schools are required for white and Negro children. 1865: Education [Statute] Provides education for all children as long as white children are sent to separate schools from black children. 1866: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited all marriages between whites and Negroes. 1875: Education [Constitution] African descent. Separate free public schools shall be established for children of

1879: Miscegenation [Statute] Persons with one-eighth or more Negro blood were prohibited from marrying white persons. Penalty: Two years in the penitentiary, or a fine up to $100, or imprisonment in the county jail for three months, or both fine and imprisonment. "A jury could determine the amount of Negro blood from appearance." 1887: Education [Statute] A school for Negro children to be established in districts where there are more than fifteen children of required age. In districts with less than fifteen children, they may attend school in another district with a separate school for Negro children. 1889: Education [Statute] Unlawful for any black child to attend any white public school, or for any white child to attend a school for black children. 1909: Miscegenation [Statute] and Asians prohibited. 1929: Education [Statute] Required racially segregated schools. 1929: Public accommodations [Statute] City boards of education authorized to establish and maintain separate libraries for whites and blacks. 1929: Miscegenation [Statute] Miscegenation declared a felony.Also prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1949: Education [Statute] Enabled Negroes to enroll in the University of Missouri in cases where the course they took were not available at Lincoln University (a black college). 1949: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriages between white persons and Negroes, or white persons

Prohibited marriage between white persons and Negroes or white persons and Asians. Penalty: Two years in penitentiary or not less 1952: Adoptions [Statute] Forbid interracial adoptions. than three months in county jail, fine not less than $100, or both.

Arkansas Recorded eighteen Jim Crow laws between 1866 and 1959. barred in 1873, but these laws were overturned by 1891. 1866: Education [Statute] No Negro or mulatto would be allowed to attend any public school except one reserved for "colored persons." 1866: Miscegenation [Statute] Repeals or modifications of statutes of common laws concerning intermarriage between whites and Negroes or mulattoes would be prohibited. [Statute] Unlawful for railroads, steamboats, stage coaches, or other public carriers to refuse to provide same accommodations as are furnished others paying the same fare. Also unlawful to deny any person paying the same sum as others accommodation at public houses of entertainment, inns, hotels or restaurants. 1873: Barred school segregation [Statute] Unlawful to refuse to provide equal and like accommodations for the education of each and every youth of school age. 1884: Miscegenation [State Code] 1873: Barred segregation of public carriers and accommodations

Segregation of schools, public places and transportation were

All marriages of white persons with Negroes or mulattoes declared illegal. 1891: Railroads [Statute] Railroad companies and their employees have power to assign passengers to the proper seat or proper waiting room for each race. Penalties: Persons not complying with this ordinance were to be fined between $10 and $200. Employees who failed to assign a passenger to the correct place were to be fined $25. Railway companies not complying with the law would be fined between $100 and $500. 1893: Railroads [Statute] All railroad companies to provide equal but separate accommodations for each race. In addition to providing separate passenger cars, the companies were to create separate waiting rooms at all passenger depots in the state. 1897: Education [Statute] Separate colleges for teachers to be established for each race. 1903: Streetcars [Statute] Streetcar companies are to separate white and black passengers. Penalties: Passengers who refused to take their assigned seat will be charged with a misdemeanor and fined $25. Companies that fail to enforce the law will also be found guilty of a misdemeanor and fined $25. 1921: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibits cohabitation between whites and blacks and defines the term "Negro" as any person who has any Negro blood in his veins. 1935: Public accommodations [Statute] All race tracks and gaming establishments were to be segregated. 1947: Public Accommodation [Statute]

A series of statutes were passed that made segregation at polling places, on motor carriers and railroad cars and within prisons mandatory. 1947: Public accommodation [Statute] Required separate washrooms in mines 1947: Voting rights [Statute] Required voters to pay poll tax. 1947: Miscegenation [Statute] Sexual relations and marriage between whites and blacks illegal. Penalty: First conviction $20 to $100, second, $100 minimum and up to 12 months imprisonment, third and subsequent convictions, one to three years imprisonment. 1947: Health Care [Statute] Separate tuberculosis hospitals to be established for Negroes. 1947: Education [Statute] 1957: Education [Statute] No child required to enroll in a racially mixed school. 1957: Public Carrier [Statute] 1958: Education [Statute] Governor may schools by election with ballot to read: "For racial racial integration of all schools within the school district." 1959: Public Carriers [Statute] intrastate buses. Required assignment of passengers to segregated seats on all integration of all schools within the school district," or "Against Required segregation on all public carriers. Required segregation of races in public schools.

Louisiana 1868: Barred school segregation [Statute] Prohibited separate schools based on race. 1869: Barred public accommodations and carrier segregation [Statute] Prohibited excluding passengers from railroads, streetcars, steamboats, coaches or other vehicles based on race. Allowed for a person's removal if they did not pay the fare, or engaged in disorderly conduct, or committed an act that injured the business of the carrier. Penalty: Forfeiture of the license and closing of the place of business; offender liable to suit by the injured party to recover damages. 1870: Anti-miscegenation [State Code]

Private or religious marriages legal to all persons of whatever race or color as well as to marriages formerly prohibited by any law of the state. No language prohibiting intermarriage or miscegenation. 1873: Barred public accommodations and carrier segregation [Statute] Ensured all Louisiana and U.S. citizens equal and impartial access to use all common carriers on land and water, inns and all public resorts. Penalty: Forfeiture of business license. Liable for damages in favor of the injured party. 1890: Railroads [Statute] Railway companies to provide equal but separate accommodations for white and colored passengers. Penalty:

Passengers or conductors not complying with the law subject to a fine of $25 or imprisonment for 20 days. Officers and directors of railway companies that fail to comply guilty of a misdemeanor and could be fined between $100 and $500. Law did not apply to streetcars. 1894: Miscegenation [Statute] Intermarriage between white persons and persons of color prohibited. 1894: Railroads [Statute]

Depots must provide equal but separate waiting rooms for the white and colored races. "No person shall occupy the wrong room." Law must be posted in a conspicuous place. Penalty: Persons who insist on entering the improper place may be fined $25 or imprisoned up to 30 days. Agents failing to enforce the law guilty of misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of $25 to $50. 1898: Education [Constitution] General Assembly to establish free public schools for the white and colored races. 1902: Streetcars [Statute]

All streetcars must provide separate but equal accommodations. Penalty: Passengers or conductors not complying could receive a fine of $25 or imprisonment up to 30 days. A railway company that refused to comply could receive a fine of $100, or imprisonment between 60 days and six months. 1908: Public accommodation [Statute] Unlawful for whites and blacks to buy and consume alcohol on the same premises. Penalty: Misdemeanor, punishable by a fine

between $50 to $500, or imprisonment in the parish prison or jail up to two years. 1908: Miscegenation [Statute] Concubinage between the Caucasian or white race and any person of the Negro or black race is a felony. Penalty: labor. 1910: Miscegenation [Statute] Restatement of the law passed in 1908, using the words "Persons of the Caucasian and colored races." 1912: Residential [Statute] Building permits for building Negro houses in white communities, or any portion of a community inhabited principally by white people, and vice versa prohibited. Penalty: violators right to cause said building to be removed and destroyed." 1914: Public accommodation [Statute] All circuses, shows and tent exhibitions required to provide two ticket offices with individual ticket sellers and two entrances to the performance for each race. 1918: Prisons [Statute] Provided for the segregation of the races in all municipal, parish and state prisons. 1921: Housing [Statute] Prohibited Negro and white families from living in the same dwelling place. fined from $50 to $2,000, "and the municipality shall have the Imprisonment from one month to one year, with or without hard

1921: Education [Constitution] Called for separate, free public schools for the education of white and black children between the ages of six and eighteen years. 1928: Public Carrier [Statute] carriers. 1932: Miscegenation [State Code] Outlawed interracial marriages. Nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where such marriages were legal. Also prohibited Negroes and Indians to marry each other. 1932: Residential [State Code] No person or corporation shall rent an apartment in an apartment house or other like structure to a person who is not of the same race as the other occupants. 1942: Health Care [Statute] in old age homes. 1951: Adoption [Statute] Forbid interracial adoptions. 1951: Miscegenation [Statute] Cohabitation between whites and blacks illegal. Penalty: Up to $1,000, or up to five years imprisonment, or both. 1952: Miscegenation [State Code]

Equal but separate accommodations to be provided on all public

Separate but equal accommodations for the races to be provided

Prohibited marriage between whites and persons of color. Penalty: Up to $1,000 and/or five years imprisonment.

1954: Education [Statute] Immediately after the Brown decision, Louisiana amended its be operated separately for white and black children. Penalty: $500 to $1,000 for not enforcing and imprisonment from three to six months. 1956: Recreation [Statute] Firms were prohibited from permitting on their premises any dancing, social functions, entertainments, athletic training, of the white and Negro races. 1956: Public carriers [Statute] Revised older laws requiring that common carriers provide Negro intrastate and interstate passengers. 1956: Employment [Statute] Provided that all persons, firms or corporations create separate bathroom facilities for members of the white and Negro races addition, separate eating places in separate rooms as well as separate eating and drinking utensils were to be provided for members of the white and Negro races. Penalty: Misdemeanor, $100 to $1,000, 60 days to one year imprisonment. 1956: Public accommodations [Statute] All public parks, recreation centers, playgrounds, etc. would be segregated. This provision was made "for the purpose of protecting the public health, morals and the peace and good order in the state and not because of race." employed by them or permitted to come upon their premises. In separate waiting rooms for white intrastate passengers and for games, sports or contests in which the participants are members Constitution to state that all public and elementary schools would

1957: Education [Constitution] All public schools to be racially segregated. 1957: Education [Statute] Compulsory attendance suspended in school systems where integration ordered; no state funds to non-segregated schools. 1958: Health Care [Statute] All human blood to be used in the state of Louisiana for transfusions to be labeled with the word "Caucasian," "Negroid," or "Mongoloid" so as to clearly indicate the race of the donor. If the blood was not labeled it was not permitted to be used. 1960: Voting rights [Statute] Required that the race of all candidates named on ballots be designated. Kentucky Typical of most border states, Kentucky passed numerous segregation laws after the Civil War (17). Beginning in 1866, a miscegenation law was passed that carried a felony penalty with imprisonment in the state penitentiary up to five years. A 1909 statute called for the establishment of an institution to care for black deaf mutes, with the provision that the two races would be "kept entirely separate and distinct from each other." No antisegregation laws were passed before 1948. A miscegenation statute was still in effect in 1955. 1866: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited whites from marrying any Negro or any descendant of any Negro to the third generation inclusive. Penalty: Felony,

punishable by imprisonment in the state penitentiary up to five years. 1866: Education [Statute] School district trustees given right to create separate schools for black children. 1868: Barred school segregation [Statute] Prohibited separate schools based on race. 1869: Barred public accommodations and carrier segregation [Statute] Prohibited excluding passengers from railroads, streetcars, steamboats, coaches or other vehicles based on race. Allowed for a person's removal if they did not pay the fare, or engaged in disorderly conduct, or committed an act that injured the business of the carrier. Penalty: Forfeiture of the license and closing of the place of business; offender liable to suit by the injured party to recover damages. 1870: Barred anti-miscegenation [State Code] Private or religious marriages legal to all persons of whatever law of the state. No language prohibiting intermarriage or miscegenation. 1873: Education [Statute] Unlawful for a black child to attend a white school, and the reverse. "No colored school shall be located within one mile of a white school, except in cities and towns, where it may not be within six hundred feet." [Statute] Ensured all Louisiana and U.S. citizens equal and impartial access to use all common carriers on land and water, inns and all public 1873: Barred public accommodations and carrier segregation race or color as well as to marriages formerly prohibited by any

resorts. Penalty: Forfeiture of business license. Liable for damages in favor of the injured party. 1890: Railroads [Statute] Railway companies to provide equal but separate accommodations for white and colored passengers. Penalty: Passengers or conductors not complying with the law subject to a fine of $25 or imprisonment for 20 days. Officers and directors of railway companies that fail to comply guilty of a misdemeanor and could be fined between $100 and $500. Law did not apply to streetcars. 1891: Education [Statute] Unlawful for black and white children to attend the same schools. 1892: Railroads [Statute] Railroads to provide separate coaches for white and colored passengers. Signs must be posted stating the race for each car. Penalty: Railway companies that failed to comply could be fined from between $500 to $1,500. Conductors who failed to enforce the law were to be fined from $50 to $100. 1893: Miscegenation [Statute] mulatto. 1894: Railroads [Statute] Depots must provide equal but separate waiting rooms for the white and colored races. "No person shall occupy the wrong room." Law must be posted in a conspicuous place. Penalty: Persons who insist on entering the improper place may be fined $25 or imprisoned up to 30 days. Agents failing to enforce the law guilty of misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of $25 to $50. 1894: Miscegenation [Statute] prohibited. Intermarriage between white persons and persons of color Marriage prohibited between a white person and a Negro or

1898: Education [Constitution] General Assembly to establish free public schools for the white and colored races. 1902: Streetcars [Statute] All streetcars must provide separate but equal accommodations. Penalty: Passengers or conductors not complying could receive a fine of $25 or imprisonment up to 30 days. A railway company that refused to comply could receive a fine of $100, or imprisonment between 60 days and six months. 1904: Education [Statute] Unlawful to maintain or operate any college, school or institution where persons of the white and Negro races are both received as pupils. Law did not prohibit private schools or colleges from maintaining a separate and distinct branch, in a different locality, not less than 25 miles apart, for the education exclusively of one race or color. Penalty: Violators fined $1,000. 1908: Public accommodation [Statute] Unlawful for whites and blacks to buy and consume alcohol on between $50 to $500, or imprisonment in the parish prison or jail up to two years. 1908: Miscegenation [Statute] Concubinage between the Caucasian or white race and any person of the Negro or black race is a felony. Penalty: Imprisonment from one month to one year, with or without hard labor. 1909: Health Care [State Code] Institution for education of colored deaf mutes established. "But the two races shall be forever kept entirely separate and distinct from each other." 1910: Miscegenation [Statute] the same premises. Penalty: Misdemeanor, punishable by a fine

Restatement of the law passed in 1908, using the words "Persons of the Caucasian and colored races." 1912: Residential [Statute] Building permits for building Negro houses in white communities, or any portion of a community inhabited principally by white people, and vice versa prohibited. Penalty: violators right to cause said building to be removed and destroyed." 1914: Public accommodation [Statute] All circuses, shows and tent exhibitions required to provide two ticket offices with individual ticket sellers and two entrances to the performance for each race. 1915: Education [Statute] No white children to attend any graded common school for colored children and vice versa. 1918: Prisons [Statute] Provided for the segregation of the races in all municipal, parish and state prisons. 1921: Education [Constitution] Called for separate, free public schools for the education of white and black children between the ages of six and eighteen years. 1921: Housing [Statute] dwelling place. 1928: Education [Statute] children. 1928: Public Carrier [Statute] Equal but separate accommodations to be provided on all public carriers. 1932: Residential [State Code] Prescribed separate textbooks for white and black school Prohibited Negro and white families from living in the same fined from $50 to $2,000, "and the municipality shall have the

No person or corporation shall rent an apartment in an apartment house or other like structure to a person who is not of the same race as the other occupants. 1932: Miscegenation [State Code] Outlawed interracial marriages. Nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where such marriages were 1933: Public accommodations [Statute] Authorized the establishment of separate library facilities for Negroes in certain cities. 1934: Education [Statute] Required schools to be racially segregated. 1942: Health Care [Statute] Separate but equal accommodations for the races to be provided in old age homes. 1944: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriage between a white person and a Negro or mulatto was prohibited and void. Penalty: Fine of $500 to $5,000. If continued twelve months. 1944: Railroads [Statute] Called for separate coaches or compartments for white and colored passengers. 1948: Barred school segregation [Statute] Amended law to allow Negro physician and nurses to take postgraduate studies in public hospitals in Louisville. 1950: Barred school segregation [Statute] Permitted blacks to attend institutions of higher learning in Kentucky under two conditions. Students could attend if a school's governing body approved and if comparable courses to cohabitate would be imprisoned in the penitentiary for three to legal. Also prohibited Negroes and Indians to marry each other.

were not available at the Kentucky College for Negroes in Frankfort, KY. 1951: Miscegenation [Statute] Cohabitation between whites and blacks illegal. Penalty: Up to $1,000, or up to five years imprisonment, or both. 1951: Adoption [Statute] Forbid interracial adoptions. 1952: Miscegenation [State Code] Prohibited marriage between whites and persons of color. Penalty: Up to $1,000 and/or five years imprisonment. 1953: Health Care [Statute] Repealed in 1954. 1954: Education [Statute] Immediately after the Brown decision, Louisiana amended its Constitution to state that all public and elementary schools would be operated separately for white and black children. Penalty: $500 to $1,000 for not enforcing and imprisonment from three to six months. 1955: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited marriage between whites and Negroes. Penalty: $500 to $5,000. If cohabitation continues, imprisonment for three to 12 months. 1956: Public carriers [Statute] Revised older laws requiring that common carriers provide Negro intrastate and interstate passengers. 1956: Employment [Statute] Provided that all persons, firms or corporations create separate bathroom facilities for members of the white and Negro races employed by them or permitted to come upon their premises. In separate waiting rooms for white intrastate passengers and for Separate tuberculosis hospitals to be established for blacks.

addition, separate eating places in separate rooms as well as separate eating and drinking utensils were to be provided for $100 to $1,000, 60 days to one year imprisonment. 1956: Recreation [Statute] Firms were prohibited from permitting on their premises any dancing, social functions, entertainments, athletic training, of the white and Negro races. 1956: Public accommodations [Statute] All public parks, recreation centers, playgrounds, etc. would be segregated. This provision was made "for the purpose of protecting the public health, morals and the peace and good order in the state and not because of race." 1956: Public carrier [Statute] Public carriers to be segregated. 1957: Education [Constitution] All public schools to be racially segregated. 1957: Education [Statute] Compulsory attendance suspended in school systems where integration ordered; no state funds to non-segregated schools. 1958: Health Care [Statute] All human blood to be used in the state of Louisiana for transfusions to be labeled with the word "Caucasian," "Negroid," or "Mongoloid" so as to clearly indicate the race of the donor. If the blood was not labeled it was not permitted to be used. 1960: Voting rights [Statute] Required that the race of all candidates named on ballots be designated.
Tennessee

members of the white and Negro races. Penalty: Misdemeanor,

games, sports or contests in which the participants are members

Enacted 20 Jim Crow laws between 1866 and 1955, including six school, four miscegenation, three railroad, one streetcar, and two public accommodation statutes. The one law barring school segregation, passed in 1869, giving all citizens the right to attend the University of Tennessee came with a qualification. Instructional facilities for persons of color segregation laws for miscegenation, transportation and public accommodation were still in effect. 1866: Education [Statute] Separate schools required for white and black children 1869: Barred school segregation [Statute] While no citizen of Tennessee could be excluded from attending the University of Tennessee on account of his race or color, "the accommodation and instruction of persons of color shall be separate from those for white persons." 1870: Miscegenation [Constitution] Intermarriage prohibited between white persons and Negroes, or descendants of Negro ancestors to the third generation. 1870: Miscegenation [Statute] Penalty for intermarriage between whites an blacks was labeled a felony, punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary from one to five years. 1870: Education [Statute] would be separated from those used for white students. As of 1954,

Schools for white and colored children to be kept separate. 1873: Education [Statute]

"White and colored persons shall not be taught in the same school, but in separate schools under the same general regulations as to management, usefulness and efficiency."

1875: Public accommodations [Statute]

Hotel keepers, carriers of passengers and keepers of places of amusement have the right to control access and exclude persons as "that of any private person over his private house." 1881: Railroads [Statute]

Railroad companies required to furnish separate cars for colored passengers who pay first-class rates. Cars to be kept in good repair, and subject to the same rules governing other first-class cars for preventing smoking and obscene language. Penalty: If companies fail to enforce the law required to pay a forfeit of $100, half to be paid to the person suing, the other half to be paid to the state's school fund. 1882: Railroads [Statute] 1881 law amended to state that railroads required to supply first-class passenger cars to all persons paying first-class rates. Penalty: $300 fine payable to the public school fund. 1885: Public accommodations [Statute] All well-behaved persons to be admitted to theaters, parks, shows, or other public amusements, but also declared that proprietors had the right to create separate accommodations for whites and Negroes. 1891: Railroads [Statute] Railways to provide equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races. Penalty: Railroad companies that failed to comply with law guilty of a misdemeanor and subject to fines from $100 to $500. Conductors could be fined from $25 to $50. 1901: Education [Statute] Unlawful for any school or college to permit white and colored persons to attend the same school. Penalty: $50 fine, or imprisonment from 30 days to six months, or both. 1905: Streetcars [Statute]

All street cars required to designate a portion of each car for white

passengers and also for colored passengers. Required signs to be posted. Special cars could be run for one race exclusively. Penalty: Streetcar companies could be fined $25 for each offense. Passengers who refused to take the proper seat could be fined $25. 1925: Education [Statute] Separate elementary and high schools to be maintained for white and Negro children. 1932: Race classification [State Code] Classified "Negro" as any person with any Negro blood. 1932: Miscegenation [State Code] Miscegenation declared a felony. 1932: Education [State Code] Required racially segregated high schools. 1953: Voting rights protected [Constitution] Repealed poll tax statute. 1955: Public carriers [State Code] Public carriers to be segregated. 1955: Employment [State Code]

Separate washrooms in mines required. 1955: Health Care [State Code] insane. 1955: Miscegenation [State Code]

Separate buildings for black and white patients in hospitals for the

Prohibited marriage or living together as man and wife between racially fine. Florida Enacted 19 Jim Crow segregation laws between 1865 and 1967. Florida

mixed persons. Penalty: One to five years imprisonment in county jail, or

also imposed some of the harshest penalties on record. Blacks or whites who entered a railroad car reserved for the other race could be sentenced to the pillory or whipped 39 times, or both. Florida also rewarded informers for reporting cases of miscegenation, who would receive half of the $1,000 fine. A law barring segregation of public facilities was passed in 1873, but was overturned by 1885. As late as 1967, the city of Sarasota passed a city ordinance requiring segregated beaches. 1865: Railroad [Statute] Negroes or mulattoes who intruded into any railroad car reserved for white persons would be found guilty of a misdemeanor and, upon conviction, sentenced to stand in the pillory for one hour, or to be whipped, not exceeding 39 stripes, or both, at the discretion of the jury." Whites faced the same penalty for entering a car reserved for persons of color. 1873: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination on account of race in the full and equal enjoyment of public accommodations such as inns, public transportation, theaters, schools, cemeteries and places of public amusement. Did not colored persons. include private schools or cemeteries established exclusively for white or

1881: Miscegenation [Statute]

Unlawful for any white person to intermarry with any Negro person. Penalty: Performing such a ceremony punishable by a fine of $1,000, "of which one-half shall be paid to the informer."

1885: Education [Constitution]

White and colored children shall not be taught in the same school. 1885: Miscegenation [Constitution]

"Forever" prohibited marriages between whites and blacks, or between a "white person and a person of Negro descent to the fourth generation inclusive."

1887: Railroads [Statute]

"All respectable Negro persons" to be sold first-class tickets at the same rates as white passengers and shall be provided a separate car "equally as good and provided with the same facilities for comfort as for white persons." Penalty: Conductors and railroad companies violating the provisions of the law faced a fine up to $500. 1887: Education [Constitution] White and colored children prohibited from being taught in the same schools. 1895: Education [Statute] Penal offense for any persons to conduct any school, any grade, either public or private where whites and blacks are instructed or boarded in the same building, or taught in the same class by the same teachers. Penalty: Between $150 and $500 fine, or imprisonment in the county jail between three and six months. 1903: Miscegenation [Statute] Intermarriage with a Negro, mulatto, or any person with one-eighth a fine not more than $1,000. 1905: Streetcars [Statute] Separation of races required on all streetcars. Gave Caucasian mistresses the right to have their children attended in the white section of the car by Negro blood shall be punished. Penalty: Imprisonment up to ten years or

an African nurse, but withheld from an African woman the equal right to have her child attended in the African section by its Caucasian nurse. 1907: Railroads [Statute]

Separate waiting rooms for each race to be provided at railroad depots along with separate ticket windows. Also called for separation of the races on streetcars. Signs in plain letters to be marked "For White" and "For Colored" to be displayed. Penalties: Railroad companies that refused to comply with the provision could be fined up to $5,000. 1909: Railroads [Statute] Separate accommodations required by race. Penalty: Passengers who failed to comply with law would be fined up to $500. 1913: Education [Statute] Unlawful for white teachers to teach Negroes in Negro schools, and for Negro teachers to teach in white schools. Penalty: Violators subject to fines up to $500, or imprisonment up to six months. 1927: Education [Statute] Criminal offense for teachers of one race to instruct pupils of the other in public schools. 1927: Race classification [Statute] Defined the words "Negro" or "colored person" to include persons who have one eighth or more Negro blood.

1941: Voting rights protected [Statute] Poll tax repealed.

1944: Miscegenation [Statute]

Illegal for whites and Negroes to live in adultery. Penalty: up to $500, or up to two years imprisonment. 1945: Antidefamation [Statute]

Unlawful to print, publish, distribute by any means, any publications, handbills, booklets, etc. which tends to expose any individual or any religious group to hatred, contempt, ridicule, or abuse unless the name and address of those doing so is clearly printed on the written material. 1958: Education [Statute]

County boards of education may adopt regulation for closing schools during emergencies. Schools to automatically when federal troops used to prevent violence. 1958: Public Carrier [Statute] Races to be segregated on public carriers. 1967: Public accommodations [City Ordinance] Sarasota passed a city ordinance stating that "Whenever members of two or moreraces shallbe upon any publicbathing beach within the corporate limits of the City of Sarasota, it shall be the duty of the Chief of police or other officerin charge of the public forces of the City...with the assistance of such police forces, to clear the area involved of all members of all races present." West Virginia Eleven Jim Crow statutes were passed in West Virginia between 1865 and 1955. An 1865 school segregation act declared that at least 30 black children were need to establish a separate school. Districts with less than 30 Negro students found themselves in a quandary, however, with the school board left with the decision of how to educate black students as vital records of black and white West Virginians were required to be states by the U.S. Supreme Court in preparing its Brown v. Board of

they "think best." Another statute passed in 1873 declared that even the

maintained in separate record books. In a 1954 questionnaire issued to Education decision, West Virginia noted that the state "has no 'Jim Crow' laws, and we are not aware of any such prior laws in the statutes. The prevailing custom throughout this State has been and continues to be the

catering to caucasians only for the purpose of lodging, public institutions, public halls and restaurants." 1865: Education [Statute]

Enacted separate schools for Negroes, where there are more than 30 Negro children in a school district. If average daily attendance dropped to less than 15 per month, the school would be d up to six months. If less than 30 black children reside in a district, funds were to be used for Negro education as "the board thinks best." 1872: Education [Constitution] White and colored persons shall not be taught in the same school. 1873: Education [Statute] Separate school law amended requiring the number of Negro children for a separate school to be greater than fifteen. 1873: Vital records [Statute] Records of colored persons' marriages, births and deaths would be kept in separate books. 1882: Miscegenation [Statute] White persons who marry a colored person shall be jailed up to one year, and fined up to $100. Those who perform such a marriage ceremony will be guilty of a misdemeanor and fined up to $200. 1901: Education [Statute] Separate school law amended. Number of Negro children required to establish a colored school changed to ten. 1931: Miscegenation [State Code]

Declared miscegenation a misdemeanor. 1931: Education [State Code]

Required separate building for the schools of each race. In addition, teachers in Negro schools must be Negroes. 1955: Health Care [State Code] persons. 1955: National Guard [State Code] Governor may organize a unit of Negro troops. 1955: Miscegenation [State Code] White persons prohibited from marrying Negroes. Penalty: Up to $100 and/or up to one year imprisonment. 1957: Barred health care segregation [Statute] Tuberculosis hospital for blacks discontinued; any person with chronic illness may be admitted.

Establishment of home for mentally deficient, aged and informed colored

Mississippi Enacted 22 Jim Crow statutes, and a law restricting voting rights between 1865 and 1956. Six miscegenation laws were enacted, four school and three railroad segregation acts were passed. Three segregation laws were passed after the 1954 Brown decision. The sentence for violating the state's 1865 miscegenation law was life imprisonment. In later years, the miscegenation laws became more complex. In 1880, those persons with one quarter or more Negro blood were considered "colored." By 1890 the law had become more stringent, marking those with one-eighth or more to include not only blacks but Asians as well in the list of unacceptable Negro blood as non-white. In 1906, the miscegenation law was amended mates for Caucasians. During the Reconstruction era, Mississippi passed five civil rights laws, permitting miscegenation, protecting voting rights and barring public carrier and school segregation.

1865: Miscegenation [Statute]

Declared a felony for any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto to intermarry with any white person. Penalty: Imprisonment in state penitentiary for life. 1865: Railroad [Statute]

Unlawful for any freedman, Negro, or mulatto to ride in any first-class passenger cars used by white persons. Penalty: Misdemeanor punished by a fine between $50 to $500; and imprisonment in county jail until fine and costs of prosecution are paid. Half of the fines to be paid to the informer, the other half to the county treasury where offense was committed. 1867: Barred court testimony discrimination [Statute] Negroes given the right to testify on the same terms as white persons. 1867: Jury selection [Statute] Negroes declared incompetent to serve as jurors. 1868: Voting rights protected [Constitution] Removed the limitation of suffrage to white persons only. 1868: Barred public carrier segregation [Constitution] All citizens had the right to travel on all public transportation. 1871: Barred anti-miscegenation [State Code]

Omitted miscegenation or intermarriage statute. 1871: Barred school segregation [State Code] equal advantages in public schools. 1872: Barred prison segregation [Statute] No distinction on account of race or color or previous condition in working convicts.

All children from five to twenty-one years of age shall have in all respects

1873: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] 1878: Education [Statute]

Prohibited teaching white and black children in the same school. 1880: Miscegenation [State Code] Revised state code to declare marriage between white persons and Negroes or mulattoes or persons of one-quarter or more Negro blood as "incestuous and void." Penalty: Fine up to $500, or imprisonment in the penitentiary up to ten years, or both. 1888: Railroad [Statute] New depot buildings were to provide separate rooms for the sexes and the races if deemed proper by the board. Equal but separate accommodations to be provided for white and colored passengers. Penalty: Misdemeanor for railroad companies failing to comply, with a fine up to $500. Conductors who failed to enforce the law could be fined from $25 to $50 for each offense. 1890: Miscegenation [Constitution] Prohibited marriage of a white person with a Negro or mulatto or person who has one-eighth or more of Negro blood. 1890: Education [Constitution]

Separate schools to be maintained for white and black children. 1896: Education [Statute]

Separate districts established for the schools of white and black children. 1904: Streetcars [Statute]

Streetcars were to provide equal but separate accommodations for white and colored passengers. Penalties: Passengers could be fined $25 or confined up to 30 days in county jail. Employees liable for a fine of $25 or confinement up to 30 days in jail. A streetcar company could be

charged with a misdemeanor for failing to carry out law and be fined $100 and face imprisonment between 60 days and six months. 1906: Railroads [Statute]

Railroad commission to provide separate waiting rooms for white and black passengers. Separate restrooms were to be provided also. 1906: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited marriage between a white person with a Negro or mulatto or a person with one-eighth or more Negro blood, or with an Asian or person with one-eighth or more "Mongolian" blood. 1920: Miscegenation [Statute] Persons or corporations who printed, published or circulated written material promoting the acceptance of intermarriage between whites and Negroes would be guilty of a misdemeanor. Penalty: Fine up to $500 or imprisonment up to six months, or both. 1930: Education [State Code] Required schools to be racially segregated, and the creation of separate districts to provide school facilities for the greatest number of pupils of both races. In addition, authorized the establishment of separate schools for Native Americans. 1930: Miscegenation [State Code]

Miscegenation declared a felony. Nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where such marriages were legal. Also persons who had one eighth of more Asian blood. 1942: Voting rights [Constitution] Instituted poll tax requirement. prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian race and those

1942: Miscegenation [State Code]

Marriage between white and Negro or Asian void. Penalty: $500 and/or to fine of $500 and/or six months. 1942: Health Care [State Code ]

up to ten years imprisonment. Anyone advocating intermarriage subject

Segregated facilities at state charity hospital and separate entrances at all state hospitals.

1956: Education [State Code & Constitution]

Separate schools to be maintained. All state executive officers required to prevent implementation of school segregation decision by "lawful means." Governor may any school if he determines closure to be in best interest of majority of children. 1956: Public carriers [State Code] Public carriers to be segregated. 1956: Public accommodation [Statute] Firms and corporations authorized to choose their clientele and the right to refuse service to any person. 1958: Recreation [Statute] Authorized goveronr to parks to prevent desegregation. Alabama Enacted 27 Jim Crow segregation laws between 1865 and 1965: including six each against miscegenation and desegregated schools. A 1915 health care segregation law prevented white nurses from caring for black male patients. Unlike other former Confederacy states, no laws were enacted during the Reconstruction period barring segregation. Miscegenation the penitentiary for two to seven years of hard labor. After the Brown decision, six segregation laws were passed, including a Birmingham city

violations carred the harshest penalties. Violators could be sentenced to

ordinance requiring segregated public accommodations and recreational areas.

1865: Miscegenation [Constitution]

Stated that it was the duty of the general assembly to periodically enact laws prohibiting intermarriage between whites and blacks, or with persons of mixed blood, and to establish penalties. 1865: Miscegenation [Constitution]

Stated that it was the duty of the general assembly to periodically enact laws prohibiting intermarriage between whites and blacks, or with persons of mixed blood, and to establish penalties. 1867: Miscegenation [State Code] Set penalties for intermarriage and cohabitation between blacks and whites. Penalties: Confinement in the penitentiary at hard labor between two and seven years. Those who issued the license or performed such a ceremony could be fined from $100 to $1,000, or imprisoned for six months, or both. 1875: Education [Constitution] Separate schools to be provided for the children of citizens of African descent 1878: Education [Statute]

Repeated separate school requirement of 1875 Constitution. 1891: Railroads [Statute]

Railroads to provide equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races, providing two or more passenger cars for each passenger train, or by dividing the passenger cars by partitions so as to create separate accommodations. Conductors were given authority to assign passengers to the proper car. Law did not apply to white or colored passengers entering the state upon railroads who purchased their tickets in another state where a similar law was not in force. Penalties:

Persons who attempted to ride in the wrong railroad car would be fined $100. Railroad companies that failed to enforce the law would be fined up to $500; conductors could be fined as much as $100. 1901: Miscegenation [Constitution] Declared that the legislature could never pass any law authorizing or legalizing "any marriage between any white person and a Negro, or descendant of a Negro." 1901: Education [Constitution] Separate schools to be provided for white and colored children. No child of either race to be permitted to attend a school of the other race. 1907: Miscegenation [State Code] Restated 1867 constitutional provision prohibiting intermarriage and cohabitation between whites and blacks. Penalties remained the same. A political code adopted in the same year defined the term "Negro" to include "mulatto," which was noted as "persons of mixed blood descended from a father or mother from Negro ancestors, to the fifth generation inclusive, though one ancestor of each generation may have been a white person." Note: This code added two additional generations to the original 1867 definition of what constituted a "Negro" person. 1911: Jails [Statute] Unlawful for any sheriff or jailer "to confine in the same room or apartment of any jail or prison white and Negro prisoners." 1915: Health Care [Statute]

White female nurses were prohibited from caring for black male patients. 1927: Education [State Code]

All schools to be segregated by race. 1928: Miscegenation [State Code] Miscegenation declared a felony.

1928: Race classification [State Code] Classified all persons with any Negro blood as colored. 1928: Public accommodations [State Code] Forbid the use by members of either race of toilet facilities in hotels and restaurants which were furnished to accommodate persons of the other race. 1940: Miscegenation [State Code] Prohibited intermarriage and cohabitation between whites and blacks or the descendant of any Negro. Penalty: Imprisonment in the penitentiary for two to seven years. Ministers and justices of the peace faced fines between $100 and $1,000 and could be imprisoned in the county jail for up to six months. 1940: Prisons [State Code] Unlawful to chain together white and black convicts or allow them to sleep together. 1940: Railroads [State Code] Code commanded that separate waiting rooms be provided for blacks and whites as well as equal but separate accommodations on railroad cars. Did not apply to passengers entering Alabama from another state that did not have similar laws. 1940: Education [State Code] County Boards of Education to provide free separate schools for white and colored children.

1945: Public Carriers [Statute]

Required separate waiting rooms and ticket windows for the white and colored races as well as separate seating on buses. Penalty: Misdemeanor carrying a fine of $500.

1945: Voting Rights [Constitution]

Established voting qualifications to included being able to read and write, understand and explain any article of the U.S. Constitution. Elector had to be employed for the greater part of the 12 months preceding registration.

1955: Public Carrier [Statute] Called for segregation on public transportation. 1956: Public accommodation [City Ordinance] The city of Huntsville, Ala., passed a municipal ordinance that set aside one day a week when Negroes could use the municipal golf course. 1956: Recreation [City Council Resolution ] The Huntsville, Ala., City Council passed a resolution that made it unlawful for white and blacks to play cards, dice, dominoes, checkers, pool, billiards, softball, basketball, baseball, football, golf, or track together. Also applied to swimming pools and beaches. 1956: Public Carriers [City Ordinance] Birmingham, Ala., acted to "reaffirm, reenact and continue in full force and effect" ordinances which prescribed segregated seating on city buses to prevent "incidents, tensions and disorder." 1957: Education [State Code]

No child compelled to attend schools that are racially mixed. 1957: Public accommodations and recreation [State Code] referendum.

Political subdivisions may alienate recreational facilities if approved by

1963: Public accommodations and recreation [City Ordinance] Repeated portions of Birmingham's city code which had prohibited interracial recreation and had required separation of the races in

restaurants and places of entertainment, and separate bathrooms for black and white employees. Georgia Passed 27 Jim Crow laws. In addition to the usual miscegenation and licenses, health care and prisons were passed. An 1899 statute authorizing railroad segregation noted that railways were not compelled to transport blacks in either sleeping cars or parlor cars. One antisegregation law was passed during the Reconstruction era. A curious municipal ordinance was passed by the city of Atlanta in 1927 making it illegal for black barbers to service white children under the age of fourteen. Although Georgia's poll tax law was repealed in 1955, a statute passed three years later restricted voting to those who could answer a series of challenging questions about the Constitution. 1865: Miscegenation [Statute] Unlawful for officials to issue marriage licenses to persons of African descent and the other a white person. Penalty: A misdemeanor that carried a fine between $200 and $500, or confinement in jail for three months, or both. Ministers who married such persons also guilty of a misdemeanor, and fined between $500 and $1,000, or confied in jail for six months, or both. 1870: Barred railroad segregation [Statute]

educational statues, segregation laws governing such areas as business

Railroads required to furnish equal accommodations to all, without regard to race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Penalty: $10,000. Violators could be sued, and the injured party could collect as much as

1872: Education [Statute] Called for separate schools for white and black children. Penalty: Schools that admitted both races would receive no monies from the public school fund.

1877: Education [Constitution] Schools shall be free to all children of the state, but separate schools shall be provided for white and black children. 1891: Railroad and streetcars [Statute]

All railroads to furnish equal accommodations, in separate cars, for white and black passengers. Law did not apply to sleeping-cars. Streetcar conductors to assign passengers to seats, separating the races as must as practicable. Penalty: Passengers who did not comply were guilty of a misdemeanor and could be ejected by a conductor. 1895: Education [State Code] Black and white children not allowed to attend the same school. Penalty: Teachers who taught white and black pupils in the same school would not be compensated out of the public school fund. 1899: Railroads [Statute] Railroad companies had the right to assign passengers to seats and berths, and would separate white and colored passengers in sleeping cars. White and colored passengers would not be allowed to occupy the same compartment. Companies were not compelled to carry blacks in sleeping cars or parlor cars. 1905: Public accommodations [Statute]

Any person could donate lands to a city for a park, with the condition that the use of a park be limited to the white race only, or to white women gifts for the "exclusive use of the class named." 1908: Penal institutions [Statute] and children only, or to the colored race. Municipalities could accept such

Separate eating and sleeping accommodations were required for white and black prisoners, and while working. 1925: Business licenses [Statute]

No license would be issued to any person of "the white or Caucasian race to operate a billiard room to be used, frequented, or patronized by persons of the Negro race" and vice versa. 1926: Race classification [State Code] Classified a "Negro" as any person with at least one quarter Negro blood. 1926: Education [State Code] Required schools to be racially segregated.Teachers who were guilty of not be compensated. 1926: Miscegenation [State Code] Colored clergyman can marry Negroes only. Also nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where such marriages were legal. 1927: Miscegenation [Statute] "Unlawful for a white person to marry anyone except a white person." Another statute enacted the same year changed the law to read that all persons with any ascertainable trace of Negro blood must be classified as persons of color. Penalty: Both races would be imprisoned in the penitentiary for one to two years. 1927: Public accommodations [City Ordinance] receiving or teaching white and colored pupils in the same school would

No Negro barber in Atlanta allowed to serve white children under fourteen years of age. Court later declared the ordinance unconstitutional. 1928: Miscegenation [State Code] Miscegenation declared a felony. Also unlawful for Caucasian persons to marry Asians or Malays.

1928: Race classification [Statute]

Required all persons to fill out voter registration forms with information concerning their racial ancestry. If there was any admixture of Negro of color. 1931: Public carriers [Statute] colored passengers. 1933: Education [State Code] The board of education was responsible to provide instruction of black and white children in separate schools. 1935: Miscegenation [State Code] Illegal for a white to marry anyone but a white. Penalty:Felony, one to two years imprisonment. 1935: Health Care [State Code] Separate mental hospitals to be established for blacks. 1935: Public Carriers [Statute] Required segregation on all public transportation. 1945: Education [Constitution] Separate schools to be provided for the white and colored races. 1949: Voting rights [Statute] Those persons registering to vote were required to correctly answer ten out of thirty questions. Many of the questions were quite difficult. 1955: Voting rights protected [State Code] Repealed poll tax blood in the veins of any registrant, person would be considered a person

Motor common carriers could confine themselves to carry either white or

1957: Public accommodations and recreation [State Code] Political subdivisions may alienate parks, etc.

1957: Education [State Code] No public funds to be allocated to non-segregated schools. Penalty: felony. 1958: Voting rights [Statute]

This statute made voter registration extremely tedious and difficult. Law was designated as "An act to effect a complete revision of the laws of this state relating to the qualification and registration of voters." For example, one of the questions asked "Under what constitutional classification do you desire to make application for registration?" 1958: Public carriers [State Code] Segregation on public carriers 1963: Public carrier segregation barred [City Ordinance] The city of Albany, Ga, repealed the ordinances which had required segregation in transportation, ticket sales and restaurants. 1963: Public accommodations segregation barred [City Ordinance] The city of Atlanta passed an ordinance which repealed all city ordinances "which required the separation of persons because of race, color or creed in public transportation, recreation, entertainment and other facilities.

South Carolina Passed 22 segregation laws between 1865 and 1957. Six miscegenation laws, six school segregation laws and four railroad segregation statutes take custody of a white child. Three anti-segregation laws were passed during the Reconstruction era, but were overturned in 1879. 1865: Miscegenation [Statute] were passed, including a 1952 statute that made it a crime for a black to

Prohibited marriage between a white person and a person of color.

1866: Miscegenation [Statute] Upheld 1865 law prohibiting intermarriage 1868: Barred school segregation [Constitution] All public schools and universities to be free and open to all persons regardless of race or color.

1869: Barred public accommodation segregation [Constitution]

Gave all classes of citizens without regard to race or color equal access to public, legal and political privileges. Included the right to intermarry. 1869: Barred public carrier segregation [Statute] Unlawful for public carriers or any business to discriminate on account of race or color. Penalty: Fine of $1,000 and hard labor in the penitentiary for five years. Corporations that violated this act shall forfeit their business license. 1879: Miscegenation [Statute] "Marriage between a white person and an Indian, Negro, mulatto, mestizo, or half-breed shall be null and void." Penalty: Misdemeanor, fined a minimum of $500, or imprisoned for not less than twelve months, or both. Ministers who performed such marriages faced misdemeanor charges, subject to the same penalty. 1895: Miscegenation [Constitution]

Prohibited marriage between a white person with a Negro or mulatto, or a person who had one-eighth or more Negro blood. 1895: Education [Constitution] No children of either race "shall ever be permitted to attend a school provided for children of the other race." 1896: Education [Statute]

Unlawful for pupils of one race to attend schools provided for persons of another race.

1898: Railroads [Statute]

All railroads to provide separate first-class coaches for the accommodation of white and colored passengers. Penalty: Railroad employees who violated the law were liable to a fine from $300 to $500. Section 6 of the law noted that it was legal for all persons paying secondclass fare to ride in a second-class car. 1900: Railroads [Statute] Amended the act of 1898, repealing section six. The new law stated that railroads were not required to have second-class coaches. Penalty: Employees violating the law faced misdemeanor charges punishable by a fine between $25 and $100. Passengers who refused to sit in their assigned car were guilty of a misdemeanor and could be fined from $25 to $100. 1903: Railroads [Statute] Amended 1900 law stating that railroads were required to furnish separate apartments for white and colored passengers only on passenger trains, not on freight trains. 1905: Streetcars [Statute] Authorized streetcars to separate the races in their cars. Penalty: imprisoned for up to 30 days for each offense. 1906: Railroads [Statute] Conductors who failed to enforce the law could be fined up to $100, or

Firms providing meals to passengers at railroad stations were prohibited from serving meals to white and colored passengers in the same room, at the same counter, or at the same table. Penalty: Misdemeanor, could be fined from $25 to $100, or imprisoned up to 30 days. 1932: Public accommodations [Statute]

All circuses and tent show must provide separate entrances for white and black customers.

1932: Education [State Code]

Required racially segregated schools. 1932: Miscegenation [State Code] Miscegenation declared a misdemeanor. Also forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1935: Education [Statute] Required school bus drivers to be of the same race as the children they transported. 1952: Voting rights protected [State Code] Repealed poll tax statute. 1952: Employment [State Code] Unlawful for cotton textile manufacturers to allow different races to work together in same room, use same exits, bathrooms, etc. Penalty $100 and/or imprisonment at hard labor up to 30 days. 1952: Miscegenation [State Code] Marriage of white with Negro, mulatto, Indian, or mestizo void. Penalty: Not less than $500 and/or not less than 12 months imprisonment. 1952: Adoption [Statute] Crime to give colored person custody of a white child. 1952: Public carriers [State Code] Public carriers to be segregated. 1955: Education [State Code] Regular school attendance statute repealed.

1956: Public accommodations [Statute]

State Commission of Forestry given authority to operate and supervise only racially separated parks and to admit to the facilities of the parks only persons who have the express permission of the state. 1957: Education [State Code] because of court order. North Carolina Passed 23 Jim Crow laws between 1873 and 1957. Seven of the statutes concerned school segregation, six were related to transportation and four outlawed miscegenation. No anti-segregation laws were passed until 1963. Suggesting the difficulty in determining a person's race, a school segregation law passed in 1903 declared that no child no matter how "remote the strain" of Negro blood could be considered a white child and attend a school for white children. The state continued to pass noncompulsory attendance requirements after the Brown decision in 1956 and 1957 as a means to avoid desegregation. 1873: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited marriages between whites and Negroes or Indians or persons of Negro or Indian descent to third generation. 1875: Education [Constitution]

No appropriations for schools from and to which students transfer

White and black children shall be taught in separate public schools, "but there shall be no discrimination made in favor of, or to the prejudice of, either race."

1875: Miscegenation [Constitution]

Prohibited forever all marriages between a white person and a Negro or between a white person and a person of Negro descent to third generation inclusive.

1899: Railroads [Statute]

Railroad and steamboat companies to provide separate but equal accommodations for white and black passengers. Did not apply to streetcars. Penalty: A company that failed to enforce this act fined $100 any train or steamboat who has been provided accommodations with a person of a different race. 1901: Education [Statute] per day, each day, to be recovered in action brought by any passenger on

Clarified how children would be separated in public schools. The education policies followed the code regulating marriages from the 1875 Constitution, which stated that persons of Negro descent to the third generation inclusive were considered "colored." 1903: Education [Statute] No child with "Negro blood in its veins, however remote the strain, shall attend a school for the white race, and no such child shall be considered a white child." 1907: Streetcars [Statute] All streetcars shall set aside a portion of the front of each car as necessary for white passengers, and a rear portion of the car for black passengers. Noted that "no contiguous seats on the same bench shall be occupied by the white and colored passengers at the same time unless or until all other seats are occupied." Penalty: Misdemeanor for officer who violates this act, and may be fined or imprisoned. Passengers who Companies were not liable for a mistake in the designation of any passenger to a seat set apart for the other race. 1908: Education [Statute] violated the law could be fined up to $50 or imprisoned up to 30 days.

Prohibited black and white children from attending the same schools. Descendants of the Croatan Indians to have separate schools also. 1919: Health Care [Statute]

Mandatory that public or private hospitals, sanatoriums, or institutions which admitted colored patients to employ colored nurses to care for inmates of their own race. Law repealed in 1925. 1921: Miscegenation [Statute] Miscegenation declared a felony. 1925: Public Carriers [Statute] Seats on all buses to be segregated by race. 1929: Health Care [Statute] Mental hospitals to be segregated by race. 1931: Education [State Code] Authorized separate education facilities for the "Cherokee Indians of Robeson County" and the "Indians of Person County," formerly known as "Croatans." Denied the privilege of such schools to all persons of Negro blood to the fourth generation inclusive. 1931: Public accommodations [State Code] State library directed to maintain a separate place to accommodate colored patrons. 1933: Prisons [Statute] Prisons to be segregated by race. 1947: Public accommodations [Statute] Called for racial restrictions for the burial of the dead at cemeteries. 1950: Public carriers [Statute] Public carriers to be segregated. 1952: National Guard [Statute] No black troops to be permitted where white troops available; colored troops to be under control of white officers.

1953: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriage between white and Negroes or Indians void. Penalty:Infamous crime, four months to ten years imprisonment, fine discretion of court. 1956: Education [Statute]

Local school boards given the option to suspend school operations. 1956: Public accommodations [Statute] facilities. Penalty: Msdemeanor. 1957: Education [Statute] No child forced to attend school with children of a different race. 1957: Health Care [Statute] Hospitals for the insane to be segregated. 1963: Barred public accommodations segregation [City Ordinance] Raleigh, N.C. repealed a portion of the city code which required racial segregation in public cemeteries. 1963: Barred residential segregation [City Ordinance] Repealed a 30-year ordinance in Asheville, N.C., which had barred persons of different races from residing in the same neighborhood.

Required all plants and other businesses to maintain separate toilet

Virginia With 25 statutes enacted between 1870 and 1960, Virginia passed a wide variety of Jim Crow laws, including seven public carrier, six school, four miscegenation and a residential statute to separate the races. An 1878 miscegenation law made it a crime for a white and black Virginian to marry outside the state. A 1912 statute authorized cities and towns to create "segregation districts" that would prevent blacks from moving into

communities designated for whites only. This law set a precedent for

many other states that adopted restrictive real estate covenants. One of the most dehumanizing segregation ordinances was passed by the city of Danville in 1960 to restrict library usage to white patrons. 1870: Education [Statute] school. 1873: Miscegenation [State Code] White persons who married Negroes would be jailed for at least one year, and fined a minimum of $100. Those who performed such ceremonies faced fines of $200, of which one-half would go to the informer. 1878: Miscegenation [Statute] White persons who intermarried with a colored person would be confined in the penitentiary between two and five years. Ministers who performed such ceremonies were to be fined $200, of which the informer received half. "White and colored persons going out of the state to marry, shall be punished as if married in the state." 1882: Education [Statute] White and colored children shall be taught in separate schools. "The determination as to who is a colored person lies with the board." 1900: Railroads [Statute]

Prohibited white and colored children from being taught in the same

Railroads required to offer separate cars for white and colored passengers. Conductors given the authority to judge the race of each passenger if a passenger refuses to dis his race. Penalty: Railroads that failed to enforce this law were guilty of a misdemeanor, and could be fined from $300 to $1000 for each offense. Conductors who failed to fine. 1900: Steamboats [Statute]

enforce the law were guilty of a misdemeanor, and faced a $25 to $50

Call for the separation of white and colored passengers on steamboats charges and were subject to a fine between $25 and $100. Passengers

while sitting, eating and sleeping. Penalty: Officers faced misdemeanor who refused to occupy the accommodations assigned to them were guilty jail for 30 days, or both. 1901: Streetcars [City Ordinance] Alexandria streetcars required to have separate compartments for white and black passengers. Penalty: Passengers who refused to occupy the from $5 to $25. 1902: Education [Constitution] Mixed schools prohibited. White and colored children not allowed to be taught in the same school. 1904: Railroads [Statute] Railroad corporations empowered to reject and to refuse admittance to ride in their cars at their discretion. 1904: Steamboats [Statute] Owners of steamboat wharves ordered to provide separate and "noncommunicating rooms for the white and colored races." Did not apply to wharves at which boats arrived between 7 a.m. and 7 p.m. that offered between $5 and $20 for each offense. 1906: Streetcars [Statute] public houses while waiting. Penalty: Misdemeanor, punishable by a fine place assigned to them were guilty of a misdemeanor and could be fined

of a misdemeanor and could be fined between $5 and $50, or confined in

Streetcars required to provide separate but equal compartments to white and colored passengers. "In cold weather they shall reasonably heat the several compartments." Penalty: Passengers who failed to comply faced misdemeanor charges and fines from $5 to $25. Companies that failed to enact law were guilty of a misdemeanor and could be fined between $50 to $250 for each offense.

1912: Residential [Statute] This act, noting that "the preservation of the public morals, public health and public order, in the cities and towns of this commonwealth is endangered by the residence of white and colored people in proximity to one another," authorized cities and towns that adopted the provision, to be divided into districts known as "Segregation districts." City councils detailing the number of white persons and colored persons residing within such segregation districts. One year from the passage of the ordinances adopting the provision of this act, unlawful for any colored person, not then residing in a district so defined and designated as a white district, to move into and occupy as a residence any building or portion thereof in such white district. Also unlawful for a white person to move into a colored district. Penatly: Misdemeanor, with fine for the first week between $5 and $50 and for each succeeding day of such residence the sum of $2. ordered to prepare a map showing the boundaries of all such districts,

1930: Public accommodation [State Code] Required segregation in every theater, movie theater, opera house or other place of public entertainment which accepts both white and colored audiences. 1930: Race classification [State Code]

Classified "Negro" as any person with Negro blood. 1930: Education [State Code]

Required racially segregated schools. 1930: Miscegenation [Constitution]

Originally entitled "A bill to preserve the integrity of the white race," tightened miscegenation provisions. The definition of "whiteness" was narrowed to state "no trace whatever" of non-white blood allowed. Nullified interracial marriage if parties went to another jurisdiction where

such marriages were legal. For the first time Virginia prohibited marriage between whites and Asians and other non-white non-Negroes. Penalty: penitentiary for between one and five years. 1950: Voting rights [State Code] Felony for both parties if found guilty. Punishable by confinement in the

Required electors to pay poll tax. 1950: Public carriers [State Code] Public carriers to be segregated.

1950: Miscegenation [State Code] Unlawful for white person to marry anyone except another white, or person with no other admixture of blood than white and American Indian. Penalty:One to five years imprisonment. 1950: Health Care [State Code] Establishment of separate hospitals for colored insane and epileptic patients. 1956: Race Classification [State Code] The terms "Negro" and "colored person" were synonymous and included all persons with "any quantum whatever of Negro blood." 1956: Education [Statute]

Restricted public school funds to "efficient schools," which were defined as racially segregated schools. 1958: Education [State Code] transferred to governor. 1960: Public accommodations [Municipal Ordinance] The city of Danville, Virginia, ordered the main library that had served whites only to be d in order to avoid desegregation, a measure which city

Upon enrollment of members of both races, schools must ; control

voters approved by a two to one margin. Soon the city council moved to reopen the library on terms defined in an April 1960 ordinance. Noting no further membership cards were to be issued. When blacks again that city library facilities were overtaxed by the demands of its patrons, sought service and were refused they went to court and won their suit. When the library reopened it was on a restricted basis. For a 90 day trial period the library opened on a "stand-up pick-up-your-books-and-go" basis only. Tables and chairs were removed so that patrons could not sit down. Browsing in the stacks was not allowed. The cost of a library card and two character witnesses. When the trial period ended, chairs and tables were returned but were "well spread out." Only a few blacks applied for cards at the main library. 1960: Athletics [Statute] "no athletic team of any school shall engage in any athletic contest of any nature within the state of Virginia with another team on which persons of any other race are members." Maryland Like other border states, Maryland fully supported segregation, passing 15 such laws between 1870 and 1957. Persons found guilty of violating the 1884 miscegenation law were subject to imprisonment in the penitentiary between 18 months to ten years. The state also paid was not repealed until 1967. 1870: Education [Statute] for colored children. 1872: Education [Statute] Schools to be established for colored children. No colored school shall be established in a district unless the colored population warrants. attention to segregating its steamboat trade.The miscegenation statute was $2.50 and applicants were required to furnish two credit references

Taxes paid by colored people shall be set aside for maintaining schools

1884: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited all marriages between white persons and Negroes and persons of Negro descent to third generation inclusive. Penalty: Person guilty of infamous crime and subject to a sentence of imprisonment in the such ceremonies were to be fined $100. 1904: Railroads [Statute] penitentiary between 18 months to ten years. Ministers who performed

All railroad companies required to provide separate cars or coaches for white and colored passengers. Signage in plain letters to be displayed in a conspicuous place. Penalty: Companies that failed to comply could be fined between $300 and $1,000. Passengers who refused to take their assigned seat could be charged with a misdemeanor and fined between $5 and $50, or imprisoned in jail for 30 days, or both. Conductors who failed to carry out the law could be charged with a misdemeanor and fined between $25 and $50. 1904: Steamboats [Statute] White and colored passengers to be assigned to separate areas of a steamboat. Penalty: Company officers who failed to enforce the law could be charged with a misdemeanor, and fined between $25 and $50. Passengers who refused to sit where assigned were liable for misdemeanor and could be fined between $5 and $50. 1908: Steamboats [Statute]

Steamboats operating on the Chesapeake Bay required to provide separate toilet or retiring rooms, and separate sleeping cabins for white and black passengers. Penalty: $50 for each day's violation. 1908: Streetcars [Statute]

Streetcars required to designate separate seats for white and colored passengers. Penalty: Passengers who refused to comply with law guilty of a misdemeanor, and could be fined up to $50, or imprisoned in jail for 30

days, or both. Conductors who refused to enforce the act were guilty of a misdemeanor, and could be fined up to $20. 1924: Miscegenation [State Code] Miscegenation declared a felony. 1924: Education [State Code] Required racially segregated schools. 1935: Miscegenation [Statute] Miscegenation between persons of the Caucasian and Malay races prohibited. 1951: Education [State Code] Duty of County Board of Education to establish free public schools for all colored children between the ages of six and twenty years. 1951: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Repealed public accommodation segregation laws. 1955: Miscegenation [Statute] Any white woman who delivered a child conceived with a Negro or mulatto would be sentenced to the penitentiary for 18 months to five years. 1957: Miscegenation [State Code]

Crime for white woman to bear a black man's child. Law held unconstitutional later that year in State v. Howard. 1957: Miscegenation [State Code] Prohibited marriage between whites and Negroes or Asians. Penalty: 18 months to 10 years imprisonment. 1957: Adoption [State Code]

Required race to be disd on petition for adoption.

1967: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law.

Jim Crow Outside the South

Jim Crow did not confine itself to the South alone, but actually spread across the United States. The South's Jim Crow laws were adapted in the states indicated below to discriminate against other ethnicities, cultures, and religions, as well as against African Americans. The states listed as Outside the South were part of the Union during the Civil War or had entered the Union as free states after the Civil War. You may want to use map. This is only a partial representation of the types of laws and statutes instituted outside of former slave-owning states. For a list of an overview of Jim Crow legislation across the United States. If you would like to add information to this map from your state, please Join Us. All teachers are paid for their contributions to the site. sources used for the information offered in this map, click here. Read

this information with the Jim Crow Violence or Jim Crow Inside the South

In no particular order:

Alaska 1905: Education [Statute] Schools provided for the education of white children and "children of mixed blood who lead a civilized life." Statute unclear as to whether only mulatto children would be allowed to attend or if a "pure" black child would also be admitted. 1923: Voting [Statute] In April 1925 the seventh Alaska Territorial Legislature enacted into law a measure requiring that voters in territorial elections be able to read and write the English language. 1925: Voting [Statute] The only law passed concerning minorities related to school admission. Children of mixed blood who led a "civilized life" would be allowed to attend school with white children. No specific mention of black children was made. Public accommodations segregation was barred in 1949. 1935: Barred school segregation [Statute] An act establishing the University of Alaska contained a provision outlawing discrimination because of color. 1949: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Citizens entitled to full and equal public accommodations. Unlawful to display signs indicating racial discrimination. Penalty: Misdemeanor; $250, 30 days imprisonment, or both. California 1866: Voting [Statute] The 1866 California registry act required electors to complete voter registration three months before a general election. Naturalized citizens were required to present original court-sealed naturalization papers.

An 1878 act applying to San Francisco required each voter to register in person before every general election. Voters had to register in their own elector precinct. Because precincts were very small, if a voter moved he was required to re-register.

In 1894, California passed a constitutional amendment that disfranchised any "person who shall not be able to read the constitution in the English language and write his name." An advisory referendum indicated that amendment was again passed in 1911. From 1879 to 1926, California's constitution stated that "no native of China" shall ever exercise the privileges of an elector in the state." Similar provisions appeared in the constitutions of Oregon and Idaho. 1866: Voter rights [Statute] Required electors to complete voter registration three months before a general election. Naturalized citizens were required to present original court-sealed naturalization papers. 1866-1947: Segregation, voting [Statute] Enacted 17 Jim Crow laws between 1866 and 1947 in the areas of miscegenation (6) and education (2), employment (1) and a residential ordinance passed by the city of San Francisco that required all Chinese inhabitants to live in one area of the city. Four voting restriction laws were passed that targeted foreign born inhabitants, particularly the Chinese. Although school segregation was banned by 1880, this law was overturned in 1902, and included Asian children as candidates for separate schools. Similarly, a miscegenation law passed in 1901 broadened an 1850 law, adding that it was unlawful for white persons to marry "Mongolians." The legislation reflects the dominant society's growing anxiety over the steady numbers of Asians immigrating to nearly 80% of voters supported an educational requirement. A similar

California by the early twentieth century. An 1893 statute barred public accommodation segregation, with seven additional civil rights laws passed by 1955. 1870: Education [Statute] African and Indian children must attend separate schools. A separate school would be established upon the written request by the parents of

ten such children. "A less number may be provided for in separate schools in any other manner." 1872: Alcohol sales [Statute] repeal in 1920. 1878: Voter rights [City Ordinance] The city of San Francisco required each voter to register in person before each general election in their own elector precinct. Because precincts were very small, if a voter moved he was required to reregister. 1879: Voter rights [Constitution] "No native of China" would ever have the right to vote in the state of California. Repealed in 1926. 1879: Employment [Constitution] Prohibited public bodies from employing Chinese and called upon the legislature to protect "the statefrom the burdens and evils arising from" their presence. A statewide anti-Chinese referendum was passed by 99.4 percent of voters in 1879. 1880: Barred school segregation [Statute] Children of any race or nationality, from six to twenty-one years of age, entitled to admission to public schools. 1880: Miscegenation [Statute] Made it illegal for white persons to marry a "Negro, mulatto, or Mongolian."

Prohibited the sale of liquor to Indians. The act remained legal until its

1890: Residential [City Ordinance]

The city of San Francisco ordered all Chinese inhabitants to move into a certain area of the city within six months or face imprisonment. The Bingham Ordinance was later found to be unconstitutional by a federal court.

1891: Residential [Statute] Required all Chinese to carry with them at all times a "certificate of residence." Without it, a Chinese immigrant could be arrested and jailed. 1893: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute]

Unlawful to refuse admission to anyone with the price of admission to opera houses, theaters, museums, circuses, etc. Penalty: Injured person could recover actual damages and $100. 1894: Voter rights [Constitution] Any person who could not read the Constitution in English or write his name would be disfranchised. An advisory referendum indicated that nearly 80 percent of voters supported an educational requirement. 1901: Miscegenation [Statute] The 1850 law prohibiting marriage between white persons and Negroes or mulattoes was amended, adding "Mongolian." 1902: Education [Statute] Repealed earlier law barring school segregation passed in 1880. In addition to black children, Chinese and Japanese youngsters were also prohibited from attending schools designated for white children. 1909: Miscegenation [Statute]

Persons of Japanese descent were added to the list of undesirable statute. 1913: Property [Statute]

marriage partners of white Californians as noted in the earlier 1880

Known as the "Alien Land Laws," Asian immigrants were prohibited from owning or leasing property. The constitutionality of the land laws were were justified as a means of protecting white farmers. The California Supreme Court struck down the Alien Land Laws in 1952. upheld by the United State Supreme Court in 1923 and 1925. The laws

1925: Barred school antidefamation [Statute] No textbooks or other instructional materials used by public schools could reflect upon U.S. citizens because of their race, color, or creed. 1929: Barred school segregation [School Code]

Repealed discriminatory sections of earlier codes and provided that all children, regardless of race, should be admitted to all schools. 1931: Civil rights protection [State Code] Outlawed racial discrimination. 1931: Miscegenation [State Code] Prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1933: Miscegenation [Statute] Broadened earlier miscegenation statute to also prohibit marriages between whites and Malays. 1945: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited marriage between whites and "Negroes, mulattos, Mongolians and Malays." 1947: Miscegenation [Statute] Subjected U.S. servicemen and Japanese women who wanted to marry to rigorous background checks. Barred the marriage of Japanese women to white servicemen if they were employed in undesirable occupations. 1947: Barred school segregation [Statute]

Repealed 1866 segregation law that required separate schools for children of Chinese, Japanese and Mongolian parentage. 1948: Barred miscegenation segregation [Statute] Repealed miscegenation laws. Prior to repeal interracial marriages were prohibited, but no penalties were attached to such marriages, or to

interracial co-habitation, or to migration into California by interracial couples legally wed out of state.

1954: Barred public accommodation segregation [State Code]

All citizens given right to full and equal accommodations in public places. 1955: Barred National Guard segregation [State Code] Segregation and discrimination of state National Guard prohibited. 1955: Barred public accommodation segregation [State Code] Misdemeanor for innkeeper or common carriers to refuse service to anyone without just cause.

Oregon Enacted two miscegenation laws in 1867 and 1930 prohibiting intermarriage between whites and blacks, Chinese, Kanaka (Indian tribe) or any person having more than one half Indian blood. A 1953 statute required that adoption petitions note the race of prospective adopting parents. A 1924 statute required electors to read the Constitution in English. 1867: Miscegenation [Statute] Unlawful for any white person to intermarry with any "Negro, Chinese, or or any person having more than one-half Indian blood." Penalty: any person having one-quarter or more Negro, Chinese or kanaka blood, Imprisonment in the penitentiary or the county jail for between three

months and one year. Those who licensed or performed such a ceremony could be jailed for three months to one year, or fined between $100 and $1,000. 1924: Voting rights [State Code] Required electors to read the Constitution in English and write their name.

1924: Voting [Statute] Statute and constitutional amendment passed in 1924 required electors to read the constitution in English and write their name. 1930: Miscegenation [State Code]

Miscegenation declared a felony. Also forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian race and those persons with one fourth or more Chinese or Kanaka blood. 1951: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] 1867 law barring miscegenation was repealed. 1953: Adoption [Statute] Adoption petition must state race or color of adopting parents. 1955: Barred school segregation [Statute] Unlawful to discriminate in trade, vocational or professional schools. Penalty $500 to $1000 fine and/or six months imprisonment. 1957: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] All persons entitled to full and equal advantages of any public accommodation. Penalty: Violator liable up to $500.

Washington Enacted a miscegenation statute in 1866 forbidding marriage between rights laws barring segregation were passed between 1890 and 1956. 1866: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited marriage between white persons and Negroes, Indians, or a person of half or more Negro or Indian blood.

whites and Negroes or Indians. This law was repealed in 1887. Six civil

1887: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law.

1890: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Citizens of whatever race, color, or nationality were given full access to inns, public carriers, theaters and other places of public entertainment and restaurants.

1896: Voting rights [Constitution]

"Indians not taxed shall never be allowed the elective franchise." 1896: Voting [Constitution] A 1896 constitutional amendment stated that "Indians not taxed shall never be allowed the elective franchise." 1896: Voting [Constitution] A constitutional amendment passed in 1896 requiring electors to read and speak English. In 1912 a statute was passed noting, "If naturalized, must furnish satisfactory evidence that he is capable of reading and speaking the English language so as to comprehend the meaning of ordinary English prose." 1909: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Strengthened 1890 civil rights law by noting that persons who were denied public access on account of race, creed, or color would be charged with a misdemeanor.

1910: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Reinforced earlier civil rights law. Penalty: Violation of act would be imprisonment from 30 days to six months. 1920: Restrictive Housing Covenants [Municipal Code]

considered a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine between $50 to $300, or

Beginning in the 1920s, Seattle realtors frequently discriminated against minorities. In November 1927 the Capitol Hill development used a

covenant that read: "The parties...agree each with the others that no part of the lands owned by them shall ever be used or occupied by or sold, conveyed, leased, rented or given to Negroes or any person of Negro blood." An April 1928 covenant for the Broadmoor subdivision read: "No part of said property hereby conveyed shall ever be used or occupied by any Hebrew or any person of the Ethiopian, Malay or any Asiatic race..." (History Link)

Until 1950, Article 34 of the Code of Ethics for realtors in Seattle included the following clause: "A Realtor should never be instrumental in introducing into a neighborhood a character of property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individual whose presence will clearly be detrimental to property values in that neighborhood." Voluntary agreements between realtors and homeowners continued well into the 1960s. In 1964, Seattle voters rejected a referendum that prohibited housing discrimination. In April 1968, the city council passed an open housing ordinance, making restrictive covenants illegal. (History Link) 1932: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution. 1951: Barred public accommodations segregation [State Code] Prohibited segregation within public places of accommodation. 1956: Barred public accommodations segregation [State Code] race, creed, or color.

Misdemeanor to deny full enjoyment of public accommodations based on

1957: Barred residential segregation [State Code]

Barred discrimination within publicly assisted housing. Also prohibited discrimination by financial institutions making loans on such housing.

Idaho Passed four laws prohibiting miscegenation and a statute that prevented Native Americans who had not severed their tribal relations from voting. The miscegenation statute was repealed in 1959. 1867: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited marriage between white persons and Negroes or mulattoes. 1887: Miscegenation [Statute] A restatement of the law passed in 1867. 1889: Voter rights [Constitution] "Indians not taxed, who have not severed their tribal relations and adopted the habits of civilization" were excluded from voting. 1889: Barred school segregation [Constitution] No classification of pupils in the schools shall be made on account of race or color. 1889: Voting [State Code] A constitutional amendment in 1889 stated that "Indians not taxed, who have not served their tribal relations and adopted the habits of civilization" were excluded from voting. 1908: Miscegenation [Statute] Intermarriage prohibited between Negroes and white persons. A marriage valid where consummated outside the state would be valid in Idaho. 1932: Miscegenation [Statute] An 1889 constitutional amendment barred segregation in Idaho schools.

Prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1959: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed miscegenation law.

Nevada Enacted four miscegenation laws and a school segregation statute between 1865 and 1957. The education statute declared that blacks, that a separate school would be established for them if "deemed advisable." The state's miscegenation law offered an extensive list of inappropriate marriage candidates by race and color for Caucasians, including blacks, "Malay or brown race, Mongolian or yellow race, or Indian or red race." The miscegenation statute was repealed in 1959. 1865: Education [Statute] Negroes, Asians, and Indians prohibited from attending public schools. The Board of Trustees of any district could establish a separate school for educating Negroes, Asians, and Indians, if deemed advisable. 1912: Miscegenation [Statute] Unlawful for a white person to intermarry with any person of "Ethiopian or black race, Malay or brown race, Mongolian or yellow race, or Indian or red race, within the State." Penalty: Misdemeanor for participants and the minister who performs such a ceremony. White persons found to be living with the above mentioned groups would be fined between $100 and $500, or confined in the county jail from six months to one year, or both. 1929: Miscegenaion [Statute] Miscegenation declared a misdemeanor. Also forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian, Asian and Malay races. Asians and Indians were prohibited from attending public schools, and

1943: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] All persons entitled to full and equal enjoyment of public accommodations. Penalty: $25 to $100. 1955: Miscegenation [Statute]

Miscegenation illegal. Penalty: $500 to $1,000 and/or six months to one year imprisonment.

1957: Miscegenation [Statute] race.

Gross misdemeanor for white to marry person of black, brown, or yellow

1959: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed 1957 statute making miscegenation legal. Arizona 1865: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriages between whites with "Negroes, mulattoes, Indians, Mongolians" were declared illegal and void. The word "Descendants" does not appear in the statute. 1901: Miscegenation [Statute] Revision of the 1865 statute which added the word "descendants" to the list of minority groups. The revised statutes also stated that marriages would be valid if legal where they were contracted, but noted that Arizona residents could not evade the law by going to another state to perform the ceremony. 1909: Education [Statute]

School district trustees were given the authority to segregate black

students from white children only where there were more than eight Negro pupils in the school district. The legislature passed the law over a veto by the governor.

1911-1962: Segregation, miscegenation, voting [Statute]

Passed six segregation laws: four against miscegenation and two school segregation statutes, and a voting rights statute that required electors to pass a literacy test. The state's miscegenation laws prohibited blacks as

well as Indians and Asians from marrying whites, and were not repealed until 1962.

1912: Voting rights [Statute]

Required voters to be able to read the U.S Constitution in English "in such manner as to show he is neither prompted nor reciting from memory, and to write his name."

1912: Voting [Statute]

Arizona passed a statute in 1912 stating that voters must be able to "read the Constitution of the United States in the English language in such manner as to show he is neither prompted nor reciting from memory, and to write his name." 1927: Education [Statute] In areas with 25 or more black high school students, an election would be called to determine if these pupils should be segregated in separate but equal facilities. 1928: Miscegenation [State Code] Forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian, Asian and Malay races. 1956: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriage of person of "Caucasian blood with Negro, Mongolian, Malay, or Hindu void." Native Americans were originally included in an earlier statute, but were deleted by a 1942 amendment. 1962: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation statute. New Mexico No segregation laws were enacted in New Mexico between 1865 and the early twentieth century.The state's anti-miscegenation legislation was

repealed in 1886, and school segregation was prohibited in 1901. A more stringent law was passed in 1911 declaring that children of Spanish statute was passed authorizing separate schools for black children. 1885: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] descent would never be classed in separate schools. However, in 1929, a

No person could be excluded from public access to inns, public transportation, or places of public entertainment based on race, color, or previous servitude. Penalty: Fine up to $100. 1886: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law. 1901: Barred school segregation [Statute] Unlawful to deny admission to a student on the basis of race or nationality. Penalty: Misdemeanor, with a fine between $50 and $100 and imprisonment in county jail for three months, and shall be "forever barred form teaching school or from holding any office of honor or profit in this territory." 1907: Education [Statute] "Separate rooms [shall] be provided for the teaching of pupils of African descent, and [when] said rooms are so provided, such pupils may not be admitted to the school rooms occupied and used by pupils of Caucasian or other descent. (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1910: Voting [Constitution] A Constitutional amendment passed in 1910 declared "The right of any citizen of the state to vote ... shall never be restricted, abridged, or Spanish languages..." Furthermore, in another part of the state impaired on account of ... inability to speak, read, or write the English or constitution, it states, "Children of Spanish descent ... shall never be denied the right and privilege of admission and attendance in the public schools ... and they shall never be classed in separate schools, but shall

foreover enjoy perfect equality with other children in all public schools of the state."

1910: Protected voting rights [Constitution]

Declared "The right of any citizen of the state to voteshall never be restricted, abridged, or impaired on account ofinability to speak, read, or write the English or Spanish languages, except as may otherwise be provided by this Constitution." 1911: Barred school segregation [Constitution] Free public schools open to all children of school age to be established and maintained. "Children of Spanish descent in the State of New Mexico shall never be denied the right and privilege of admission and attendance in the public schools or other public educational institutions of the State, and they shall never be classed in separate schools, but shall forever enjoy perfect equality with other children in all public schools and educational institutions of the State." 1923: Civil Rights Protection [Statute] Prohibited discrimination in the selection of jurors. 1925: Civil Rights Protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution. 1928: Voting rights protection [Statute] vote in city elections.

For the first time permitted men and women who did not own property to

1938: Civil Rights Protection [Statute]

Strengthened earlier 1885 civil rights act. 1941: Employment Protection [Statute] Established Commission on Employment of the Negro. 1949: Employment Protection [Statute]

Established Fair Employment Practices Commission 1954: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation statute. 1956: Barred school segregation [Statute] to $50, or up to 30 days imprisonment. 1956: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Outlawed discrimination in places of public accommodation. Penalty: misdemeanor, up to $100 and up to 30 days imprisonment. 1957: Barred school segregation [Statute] No segregated schools to be maintained. Utah Four miscegenation laws were passed in Utah between 1888 and 1953, prohibiting intermarriage between whites and those of African or Asian descent. School segregation was barred in 1895. The state's miscegenation law was repealed in 1963. 1888: Miscegenation [Statute] Intermarriage prohibited between a Negro and a white person, and between a "Mongolian" and a white person.

Prohibited exclusion from public schools on account of race. Penalty: up

1895: Barred school segregation [Constitution]

Declared that public schools were open to all children of the state. 1907: Miscegenation [Statute] the same. 1933: Miscegenation [Statute]

Marriage laws amended, with earlier intermarriage provision remaining

Prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1953: Miscegenation [State Code] Marriage between "white and Negro, Malayan, mulatto, quadroon, or octoroon void."

1963: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law.

Colorado 1864: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriage between Negroes and mulattoes, and white persons "absolutely void." Penalty: Fine between $50 and $500, or imprisonment between three months and two years, or both. 1864-1908: [Statute] Passed three Jim Crow laws between 1864 and 1908, all concerning miscegenation. School segregation was barred in 1876, followed by segregation of public facilities in 1885. Four laws protecting civil liberties were passed between 1930 and 1957, when the antimiscegenation statute was repealed. 1876: Voting rights [Statute]

Gave the General Assembly the authority to prescribe educational

qualifications for electors, but laws could not take effect before 1890. An 1891 statute provided for assistance to any voter who could not read or write. Interpreters were provided for non-English speakers. 1876: Barred school segregation [Constitution]

Prohibited classification of students in public schools by race. 1885: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute]

Entitled all persons regardless of race to full access to inns, restaurants,

churches, barber shops, theaters, etc. Penalty: Violation of the law would be punished by a fine of up to $500, or confinement in the county jail for up to three months, or both.

1908: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriage between Negroes and mulattoes, and whites prohibited. Penalties: Punishable by imprisonment from three months to two years, or a fine of between $50 to $500, or both. Performing a marriage years' imprisonment, or both. 1930: Miscegenation [Statute] Miscegenation declared a misdemeanor. 1930: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. 1949: Barred school segregation [Statute] Racial discrimination in public education prohibited. 1953: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] All persons allowed full and equal enjoyment of places of public accommodation and amusement. Penalty: $50 to $500, or misdemeanor. 1957: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law. ceremony punishable by a fine of $50 to $500, or three months to two

Wyoming A school segregation law passed in 1887 was overturned in 1889 with a constitutional amendment that barred all forms of segregation. However, in 1931, a statute authorized segregated schools in districts with a

miminum of 15 African American children. A 1945 statute made miscegenation illegal.

1887: Education [Statute]

Separate schools could be provided for colored children when there were fifteen or more colored children within any school district. 1889: Voting rights [Constitution] Required electors to read the state Constitution. 1889: Barred segregation [Constitution] Stated that laws affecting the political rights and privileges of its citizens would be formed without distinction of race, color or gender. 1889: Voting [Constitution] An 1889 constitutional amendment required electors to read state constitution. 1908: Intermarriage [Statute] All marriages of white persons with Negroes, Mulattos, Mongolians, or Malaya hereafter contracted in the State of Wyoming are and shall be illegal and void. (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1931: Education [Statute] Schools to be segregated only when fifteen or more colored children were in a district.

1931: Miscegenation [Statute]

Declared miscegenation a misdemeanor. Also prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian, Asian and Malay races. 1945: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriage of whites to Negroes, mulattoes, Mongolians, Malayans void. Penalty: $100 to $1,000 and/or one to five years imprisonment.

1957: Civil rights protection [Statute]

No person of good deportment to be denied life, liberty, pursuit of happiness, or necessities of life because of race, color, creed, or national origin. Penalty: Misdemeanor, up to $100 and/or up to six months imprisonment. Montana Four Jim Crow laws were enacted in Montana between 1871 and 1921. law prohibited marriage between Caucasians and blacks as well as Chinese and Japanese. 1871: Education [Statute] Children of African descent would be provided separate schools. 1895: Barred school segregation [Statute] All public schools open to admission of all children. No mention of separate schools, or of black children. 1897: Voting rights [Statute] Excluded "any person living on an Indian or military reservation" from residency, unless that person had acquired a residence in a county of the state and is in the employment of the government while living on a reservation. Without residency, a person could not vote. 1897: Residency [Statute] An 1897 statute excluded "any person living on an Indian or military reservation" from residency, unless that person had acquired a residence in a county of MT and is in the employ of the government while living on a reservation." 1909: Miscegenation [Statute]

The school segregation act was repealed in 1895. A 1909 miscegenation

Prohibited intermarriage between whites and Negroes, Chinese and of one month, or both. 1921: Miscegenation [State Code]

Japanese. Penalty: Misdemeanor, carrying a fine of $500 or imprisonment

Miscegenation prohibited. Nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where legal. Also prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1953: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law. 1957: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Discrimination prohibited in any place of public accommodation or amusement. Oklahoma 1903: Mining-bath facilities [Statute] "The baths and lockers for the Negroes shall be separate from the white race, but may be in the same building." (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1904: Education-Teaching [Statute] "Any instructor who shall teach in any school, college or institution where members of the white and colored race are received and enrolled as pupils for instruction shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined in any sum not less than ten dollars nor more than fifty dollars for each offense." (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1907: Voting [Constitution] In 1907, an amendment passed requiring electors to read and write any section of the state constitution. Exempted were those who were enfranchised on Jan. 1, 1866, and lineal descendants of such persons. (Declared unconstitutional in 1915; however, the provision for literacy was upheld.)

Persons of Indian descent allowed to vote as noted in 1907 amendment. 1907: Funerals [Statute]

Blacks were not allowed to use the same hearse as whites. 1908: Voting [State Code] In 1907, inmates of institutions were excluded from voting. "Any person kept in a poorhouse at public expense, except federal, Confederate, and Spanish-American ex-soldiers or sailors."

1928: Recreation--Fishing, Boating, and Bathing [Statute] "The [Conservation] Commission shall have the right to make segregation of the white and colored races as to the exercise of rights of fishing, boating and bathing." (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1937: Telephone Booths [Statute] "The Corporation Commission is hereby vested with power and authority to require telephone companies...to maintain separate booths for white and colored patrons when there is a demand for such separate booths. That the Corporation Commission shall determine the necessity for said separate booths only upon complaint of the people in the town and vicinity to be served after due hearing as now provided by law in other complaints filed with the Corporation Commission." (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) Kansas Although the state barred school segregation in some districts beginning in 1874, by 1905 a law was passed allowing for schools in Kansas City to be segregated. An 1874 statute barred public accommodations segregation.

1868: Education [Statute]

In cities of more than 150,000 persons, separate schools for black or mulatto persons were to be established.

1874: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Prohibited state universities, or other public schools, inns, hotels, boarding houses, places of public amusement, and public transportation from discriminating based on race, or previous condition of servitude. Penalty: Misdemeanor. Fines between $10 and $1,000; liable for damages to be paid to the injured person. Fines would be allocated to the public school fund.

1879: Barred school segregation [Statute] Cities larger than 150,000 could separate students by race, except in the high schools, where no discrimination would be allowed on the basis of color. 1889: Barred school segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination in Wichita's public high school based on race or color. 1905: Education [Statute] Schools in Kansas City, Kansas, may organize and maintain separate schools for education of white and colored children, including high schools; "but no discrimination on account of color shall be made in high schools, except as provided herein." 1923: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination, including racial discrimination in any state university, college or other school of public instruction. Penalty: Criminal prosecution and damages. 1949: Education [Statute] Upheld 1862 and 1868 statutes providing for separate schools for black or mulatto students.

1949: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Prohibited discrimination within state universities, hotels, public entertainments, public carriers. Penalties: $10 to $1,000 and liable to pay damages to injured persons. Nebraska Although Nebraska outlawed segregation of all public facilities beginning in 1885, the state passed four miscegenation laws between 1865 and 1943.

1865: Miscegenation [Statute] Declared marriage between whites and a Negro or mulatto as illegal. Penalty: Misdemeanor, with a fine up to $100, or imprisonment in the county jail up to six months, or both. 1885: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] All persons entitled to equal access to inns, public transportation, barber shops, theaters, and other places of amusement. Penalty: Misdemeanor, fined between $10 and $25, and court costs paid. 1893: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Amended 1895 law to include restaurants. Increased penalty from $25 to $100, and payment of court costs. 1911: Miscegenation [Statute]

Marriages between a white and colored person declared illegal. Also noted that marriages between whites and those persons with one-quarter or more Negro blood were void.

1929: Civil rights protection [Statute]

Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty:Criminal prosecution 1929: Miscegenation [Statute]

Forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian race and those persons with one eighth or more Asian blood. 1943: Miscegenation [Statute]

Prohibited marriage of whites with anyone with one-eighth or more Negro, Japanese or Chinese blood. 1957: Barred National Guard segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination within National Guard. South Dakota Enacted three miscegenation laws between 1809 and 1913, and a 1952 statute that required adoption petitions to state the race of both the petitioner and child. A 1913 miscegenation law broadened the list of races unacceptable as marriage partners for whites to include persons belonging to the "African, Korean, Malayan, or Mongolian race." This law reflected the nation's growing tension over the massive waves of immigrants entering the country during the early twentieth century. The miscegenation law was repealed in 1957. 1909: Miscegenation [Statute] Intermarriage or illicit cohabitation forbidden between blacks and whites. Penalty: Felony, punishable by a fine up to $1,000, or by imprisonment up to ten years, or both. 1913: Miscegenation [Statute] Law expanded to prohibit marriage between whites and persons belonging to the "African, Corean, [Korean] Malayan, or Mongolian race." state prison up to ten years, or both. 1929: Miscegenation [Statute] Miscegenation declared a felony. Also forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian, Asian and Malay races.

Penalty: Felony, punishable by a fine up to $1,000, or by imprisonment in

1952: Adoption [State Code] Adoption petitions must state race of petitioner and child. 1957: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law. North Dakota The state passed three Jim Crow laws. A 1943 statute barring miscegenation was repealed in 1955. An 1899 Constitutional amendment gave the legislature authority to implement educational qualificaitons for electors. 1899: Voting rights [Constitution] Gave legislature authority to establish an educational qualifying test for electors. 1899: Voting [Constitution] In 1899, a constitutional amendment passed declaring "The legislature shall, by law, establish an educational test as a qualifier for suffrage should such a measure be deemed necessary." (Legislature declined to do so.) 1933: Education [Statute]

Law stated that "it would not be expeident to have the Indian children the vastly different temperament and mode of living and other differences and difficulties of the two races.

mingle with the white children in our educational institutions by reason of

1943: Miscegenation [State Code] Cohabitation between blacks and whites prohibited. Penalty: 30 days to one year imprisonment, or $100 to $500 fine.

1955: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law. Minnesota Ranks as one of the most progressive states in the nation regarding civil rights. The state passed eight anti-segregation laws between 1877 and facilities. Reflecting the state's egalitarian spirit, the 1877 statute that to schools based on "color, social position, or nationality." In 1917, a constitutional amendment was adopted denying the right to vote to all Native Americans who maintained tribal relations. 1877: Barred school segregation [Statute] Unlawful to deny children admission to public schools based on "color, social position, or nationality." Penalty: $50 for each offense. Offending district would lose public school funds. 1885: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] All persons entitled to full access to inns, public transportation, theaters, restaurants, barber shops and places of public amusement. Penalty: Fine from $100 to $500, or imprisonment from 30 days to one year. 1897: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] 1947, giving minorities full access to public schools, transportation and barred school segregation states that children could not be denied access

Strengthened 1885 law to include soda fountains and ice cream parlors. county jail from 30 to 90 days. Damages from $25 to $500 awarded to the injured party.

Penalty: Misdemeanor with a fine from $25 to $100, or confinement in a

1899: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Restatement of 1885 and 1887 laws.

1905: Barred school segregation [Statute]

School districts prohibited from classifying students according to race or Forfeiture by a district of its share of public school funds. 1917: Voting rights [Constitution] Denied the right to vote to all "tribal Indians." To vote, Indians had to sever relationships with their tribes. 1917: Voting [Constitution]

color, nor separate them into different schools for these reasons. Penalty:

In 1917, a constitutional amendment denied the right to vote to all "tribal Indians." To vote, Indians had to sever relationships with their tribes. 1927: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty:Criminal prosecution and damages. 1946: Barred school segregation [Statute] Prohibited racially classifying pupils. Penalty:Forfeiture of public funds; $50 to injured party. 1947: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Unlawful to exclude persons from places of public accommodation, amusement, refreshment or entertainment. Penalty: Gross misdemeanor, civil damages up to $500. 1957: Barred residential segregation [Statute]

Discrimination in housing redevelopment plans prohibited. Iowa No record of segregation laws enacted in this state after the Civil War. In in 1892 with additional statutes passed in 1931 and 1946. 1884: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

1884, Iowa barred segregation of public facilities. The law was expanded

Entitled all persons to enjoy public accommodations such as inns, public transportation, barber shops, theaters and other places of amusement. Penalty: Misdemeanor. 1892: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Strengthened 1884 civil rights law to include "restaurants, chop-houses, lunch counters, and all other places where refreshments are served and bath houses." 1931: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution and damages. 1946: Barred public accommodations segregation [State Code] All persons may use public places of accommodation. Penalty: Misdemeanor, up to $100 and up to 30 days imprisonment.

Wisconsin Barred segregation of public accommodations and public transportation in 1895, and passed three additional civil rights statutes by 1957. An 1893 statute restricted the voting rights of Native Americans. 1893: Voting rights [Statute]

Voting rights were to include "any civilized person being a descendant of the Chippewa's of Lake Superior, or any other Indian tribe, who does not he is not a member of any Indian tribe, and has no claim upon the U.S. receive any aid from the United States." 1893: Voting [Constitution] reside on an Indian reservation and who shall subscribe to an oaththat for aid and assistance and he relinquishes all tribal relation, and right to

A statute passed in 1893 noted that voting rights were to include "any

civilized person being a descendant of the Chippewas of Lake Superior, or any other Indian tribe, who does not reside on an Indian reservation and who shall subscribe to an oath...that he is not a member of any relinquishes all tribal relation, and right to receive any aid from the United States." Indian tribe, and has no claim upon the U.S. for aid and assistance and he

1895: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Those who denied access to public accommodations or public transportation to persons based on race or color, or who required any person to pay a larger sum than the regular rate charged were liable. Penalty: Payment of at least $5 with costs to the injured party and a fine of up to $100, or confinement in the county jail up to six months, or both. 1931: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. 1956: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Unlawful to deny full and equal advantage of public places of accommodation. Penalty: $25 to $200 and/or six months imprisonment. 1957: Barred residential segregation [Statute] Illegal to discriminate in low income housing. 1957: Barred National Guard segregation [Statute] Prohibited denial of membership within state militia on account of race.

Illinois Fourteen anti-segregation statutes banning separation in schools and public facilities were enacted between 1865 and 1958, marking the state's legislative record as one of the most progressive in the nation.

However, Illinois, beginning in the 1920s, became a leader in using restrictive covenants to maintain residential segregation. 1865: Barred residency segregation [Statute] Illinois. 1874: Barred school segregation [Statute] Boards of education prohibited from excluding any child on account of color from the public schools. Penalty: Those who excluded children based on race would be fined between $5 and $100. Those who threatened a child from attending a public school were subject to a fine up to $25. 1885: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Made inns, restaurants, barber shops, public transportation, theaters and places of public amusement available to all persons. Penalty: Violators of the act would be fined between $25 and $500, paid to the victim, and would also be guilty of a misdemeanor, and subject to a fine of up to $500. 1896: Barred school segregation [Statute] Prohibited school officers from excluding children from public schools on the basis of color. Penalty: $5 to $100. 1897: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute]

Repealed 1853 act making it a misdemeanor for a Negro to move to

1885 law amended to include hotels, soda-fountains, saloons, bathrooms, theaters, skating-rinks, concerts, cafes, bicycle rinks, elevators, ice cream parlors, railroads, stages, streetcars and boats. 1903: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] available to all persons. 1911: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

1885 law extended to include funeral hearses as list of public services

Amendment to 1885 Civil Rights law stating that cemeteries could not discriminate based on race the choice of burial plots for burying the dead. 1917: Antidefamation [Statute] Unlawful to "manufacture, sell or offer for sale, advertise or publish, drama or sketch, which publication or exhibition portrays depravity, criminality, unchastity, or lack of virtue of a class of citizens, of any race, color, creed or religion...which exposes the citizens of any race, color, creed or religion to contempt, derision, or obloquy or which is productive of breach of the peace or riots." Penalty: Misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of between $50 and $200. 1927: Housing [Municipal Code] Chicago adopted racially restrictive housing covenants beginning in 1927, although other tactics had been used in earlier years to maintain a segregated city. At one time, as much as 80 percent of the city may have been covered by restrictive covenants. In 1924, Nathan MacChesney, a prominent Chicago attorney and a member of the Chicago Planning Commission, drafted an addition to the Code of Ethics of the National Association of Real Estate Boards that "forbade realtors to introduce members of any race or nationality" into neighborhoods where their presence would damage property values. In 1927, MacChesney drafted a model racial restrictive covenant for the Chicago Real Estate Board, solely covenant to YMCAs, churches, women's clubs, PTAs, Kiwanis clubs, Woodlawn, Park Manor, South Shore, and other neighborhoods on targeting African Americans. The Chicago Real Estate Board promoted the chambers of commerce and property owners' associations. Hyde Park, Chicago's South Side adjacent to the so-called "black belt," responded as well as outlying Chicago neighborhoods and suburbs. Additionally, the University of Chicago was a strong supporter of the covenant campaign in Washington Park, although they denied their affiliation for many years. In 1948, the United States Supreme Court ruled that enforcement of racial restrictive covenants was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court's ruling, prsent or exhibit in any public place any lithograph, moving picture, play,

however, did not put an end to the problem of blacks finding adequate housing. Homeowner associations continued to push for segregation. Shortly after the court decision, the Woodlawn Property Owners wrote: If the colored people are convinced that life in Woodlawn would be unbearable, they would not want to come in. There must be ways and means to keep whites from selling, causing colored not to want to come in because life here would be unbearable. We are going to save Woodlawn for ourselves and our children! 1900-1950) 1933: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution and damages. 1933: Barred employment discrimination [Statute] Prohibited discrimination and intimidation on account of race or color in employment under contracts for public buildings or public works. Penalties: $100 for each offense. Fines up to $500 and or imprisonment up to 30 days. 1953: Housing [Municipal Code] In August 1953, the first black family to move into Trumbull Park, an allwhite project of the Chicago Housing Authority, came under attack by nearly fifty teenagers who hurled stones, bricks and racial slurs at their (Deeds of Mistrust: Race, Housing, and Restrictive Covenants in Chicago,

apartment. Venturing outside of their home was equally frightening, and required a police escort. Additionally, blacks traveling through the area now became targets of violence. As more black families moved into the

project, they, too, were harassed daily. When blacks received a permit to organize a baseball game at the neighborhood park, tensions intensified. A hostile crowd gathered at the park. When a firecracker tossed from the crowd hit a player, the police sat motionless. A player who went to retrieve a foul ball was attacked by the crowd and a fight broke out. When the police arrested the white who started the fight, the crowd quickly

turned their frustrations on the police. Reactions intensified after the

fight and there was talk among whites to "burn the dirty bastards out." Another disturbing incident occurred in July 1954 when three black

women attended mass at a local Catholic church. After the mass the women waited until most of the crowd had left and exited from a side door. A crowd of about thirty awaited the women as they left the church. One white woman was so incensed that she attacked the black women with her umbrella. Father Michael Commins, the rector of the church, reproached his parishioners in a bulletin later that month, saying, "Hissing, hooting and assaulting anyone for going to Mass is very unChristian like." Although there was much less violence within Trumbull Park by the early 1960s, anti-black sentiments were still firmly in place. Neighborhood taverns featured Members Only signs, African Americans stayed away from the park, the public swimming pool and local churches. As Arnold R. Hirsch wrote in a journal article published on Trumbull Park, "The decade of resistance that prevented all but a token of African American presence maintained South Deering as a white domain even as King negotiated the desegregation of Birmingham, Alabama." (Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966, The Journal of American History, Sept. 1995) 1956: Barred health care segregation [Municipal Code] No hospital to deny to any person admission for care or treatment on account of race, color, creed or national origin. 1957: Barred housing segregation [Statute] Neighborhood redevelopment corporations must not discriminate. 1957: Barred school segregation [Statute] No exclusion or segregation in districts of fewer than 1,000 persons. Penalty: $5 to $100.

1958: Barred National Guard segregation [Statute]

Prohibited segregation or discrimination within state National Guard.

Indiana Enacted seven Jim Crow laws in the areas of education and miscegenation between 1869 and 1952. Persons who violated the miscegenation law segregation in 1877, followed by a law giving equal access to public facilities in 1885. 1869: Education [Statute] Separate schools to be provided for black children. If not a sufficient number of students to organize a separate school, trustees were to find other means of educating black children. 1877: Barred school segregation [Statute] If separate schools could not be provided for black children they were to be admitted to public schools with white children. If a child in a colored school made sufficient advancement to be in a higher grade than offered by colored schools, he would be entitled to enter a school for white children, with no distinction made on account of race or color. 1885: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Enabled all persons to enjoy inns, restaurants, barber shops, public transportation, theaters, public amusement. Penalty: Misdemeanor that both. Victims were to be paid a sum of up to $100. 1905: Miscegenation [Statute] Miscegenation prohibited. carried a fine of no more than $100, or imprisonment up to 30 days, or could be imprisoned between one and ten years. The state barred school

1947: Antidefamation [Statute] Prohibited spread of hatred by reason of race, color, or prison. Penalty: disfranchisement for ten years and fines up to $10,000 and imprisonment for two years.

1949: Barred school segregation [Statute] Prohibited separate schools organized on the basis of race, color or creed. Also prohibited discrimination in the transportation of public school students.

1950: Barred housing segregation [Statute] Prohibited excluding citizens from zoned areas because of race. 1952: Barred National Guard segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination or segregation within state National Guard. 1952: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriage between whites and Negroes void. 1955: Adoption [Statute] Required that due regard be given to race on adoption petitions. 1956: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Unlawful for places of public accommodation to display advertising intended to discriminate. Penalty: Up to $100 and/or 30 days imprisonment. 1957: Barred school segregation [Statute] Defined unfair educational practices. 1957: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Innkeepers and restaurants shall provide food and lodging to travelers. Penalty: Up to $50. Michigan Although no segregation laws were passed in Michigan after the Civil War, a 1957 statute required that race be used as a consideration in adoption petitions. The state banned school segregation in 1871,

followed by a statute that made miscegenation legal in 1883. Eleven civil rights statutes were passed by the state between 1871 and 1957. 1871: Barred school segregation [Statute]

Prohibited separate schools or departments based on race or color. Allowed for the grading of schools according to the intellectual progress of pupils.

1883: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] of African descent to be legal.

Declared all marriages between white persons and those wholly or partly

1885: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Entitled all persons to full and equal access to inns, restaurants, barber shops, public transportation, theaters, and all other places of public amusement. Penalty: Misdemeanor punished by a fine up to $100, or imprisonment up to 30 days, or both. 1899: Anti-miscegenation [Statute] Marriage law of 1883 reconfirmed. 1933: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution. 1948: Civil Rights [Statute]

All persons entitled to full and equal access to public accommodations, public educational institutions, transportation, recreation, etc. 1954: Barred National Guard segregation [Constitution] Prohibited segregation within state militia.

1954: Barred National Guard segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination within state National Guard. 1957: Barred school segregation [Statute]

Prohibited discrimination in schools at all levels. Penalty: $50 to $250, 30 days to six months imprisonment, or both.

1957: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Penalty: $100 to $500, misdemeanor.

All persons have equal rights in all places of public accommodation.

Ohio Enacted a miscegenation statute in 1877 and a school segregation law in 1878. Segregation of public facilities was barred in 1884, and the earlier miscegenation and school segregation laws were overturned in 1887. However, in 1953, the state enacted a law requiring that race be considered in adoption decisions. 1877: Miscegenation [Statute] Unlawful for a person of "pure white blood, who intermarries, or has illicit carnal intercourse, with any Negro or person having a distinct and visible admixture of African blood." Penalty: Fined up to $100, or imprisoned up to three months, or both. Any person who knowingly officiates such a marriage charged with misdemeanor and fined up to $100 or imprisoned in three months, or both. 1878: Education [Statute]

School districts given discretion to organize separate schools for colored do so." 1884: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

children if "in their judgment it may be for the advantage of the district to

All persons of every race and color entitled to full and equal enjoyment of public accommodations, facilities, inns, public transportation, theaters paid to injured party, and fine of $100 or imprisonment of 30 days, or both. and other places of public amusement. Penalty: Misdemeanor, with $100

1887: Barred miscegenation and school segregation [Statute] Repealed separate school law of 1878 and 1877 law that banned intermarriage. 1934: Civil rights protection [State Code] damages. 1953: Adoption [Statute] Race to be taken into account on adoption petitions. 1953: Barred public accommodations segregation [State Code] Prohibited denial of full enjoyment of accommodation in public places. Penalty $50 to $500, 30 to 90 days imprisonment.

Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution and

Pennsylvania A school segregation law passed in 1869, but was overturned in 1872. Segregation of public transportation was banned in 1867; discrimination within public facilities was outlawed in 1887. The state passed eight civil rights statutes between 1867 and 1950. A 1956 statute required adoption petitions to state the race or color of prospective adopting parents. 1867: Barred public carrier segregation [Statute] Unlawful to exclude any person on account of color or race from riding on railroads. Penalty: $500 to be paid to injured party. Employees who and $500, or be imprisoned between 30 days and three months. 1869: Education [Statute] Black children prohibited from attending Pittsburgh schools. violated the law guilty of misdemeanor, and could be fined between $100

1872: Barred school segregation [Statute] schools in Pittsburgh. 1881: Barred school segregation [Statute]

Repealed law of 1869 that prevented black children from attending public

Unlawful for any teacher or school administrator to discriminate against students based on race or color.

1887: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Denial to use restaurants, hotels, railroads, streetcars, theaters, concert halls, or places of amusement to a person based on race or color was unlawful. Penalty: Misdemeanor, punishable by a fine between $50 to $100. 1911: Barred school segregation [Statute] Banned school segregation 1935: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution. 1945: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] All persons entitled to equal advantages of places of public accommodation. Penalty: Up to $100 and/or up to 90 days imprisonment. 1950: Barred school segregation [Statute]

Unlawful for school officials to discriminate. 1956: Adoption [Statute]

Petition must state race or color of adopting parents. 1957: Barred residential segregation [Statute] Barred segregation within public housing.

New York Enacted 15 anti-segregation laws between 1873 and 1953 barring school segregation and giving full access to public facilities, transportation, entertainment arenas and cemeteries. Violations of the law carried monetary penalties or imprisonment from 30 to 90 days. In 1921, the state restricted voting to those proficient in English with at least an eighth grade education, reflecting the state's growing nativism.A statute passed in 1930 authorized segregated schools to be established. This law was repealed in 1938.

1873: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] No citizen of New York could by reason of race or previous condition of servitude be excluded from public access to inns, public transportation, theaters, or other places of amusement, schools and cemeteries. Penalty: Misdemeanor, with a fine of $50 to $500. Repealed all laws, statutes, ordinances, or regulations existing in New York that discriminated against any citizen on account of color. 1881: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Strengthened law passed in 1873 to include hotels, taverns, restaurants, theaters and other places of public resort or amusement. Penalty: Misdemeanor. 1894: Barred school segregation [Statute]

Black schools in the city of New York would be continued as ward schools and be open for the education of all pupils, regardless of race or color. Only qualified teachers would be employed. 1895: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Entitled all persons to equal rights in places of public accommodation or amusement. Included inns, restaurants, hotels, bath houses, barber shops, theaters, music halls, and public transportation. Penalty: Misdemeanor, with payment of $100 to $500 to injured party as well as a fine of $100 to $500, or imprisonment for 30 to 90 days, or both.

1900: Barred school segregation [Statute] Repealed previous school separation law of 1864 making it unlawful to refuse admission to any public school in New York on account of race or color.

1908: Voting [State Code] In 1908 New York City held voter registration on the Jewish Sabbath and on the Yom Kippur holiday. 1910: Barred school segregation [Statute] Prohibited exclusion of any person to any public school in New York on the basis of race or color. 1913: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Entitled all persons no matter their race or color to full access of any place of public accommodation, resort, or amusement. Production of any written or printed notice advertising a discriminatory policy could be used as evidence in a civil or criminal action. Penalty: misdemeanor, $100 to $500 to be paid to the injured party. Fine of $100 to $500, or imprisonment from 30 to 90 days, or both. 1921: Voting [Constitution] Constitution amendment passed in 1921 stating that no person would not be entitled to vote by attaining majority, by naturalization, or otherwise, unless able to read and write in English. It did not apply to those with physical disabilities that prevented them from reading or writing or those who were electors prior to Jan. 1922. Prospective voters evidence that they had at least an 8th grade education in an approved

had to pass a stringent literacy reading and writing test or had to present school. This had the potential to disfranchise countless foreign-born Jews who spoke Yiddish. The amendment passed, backed overwhelmingly by upstate voters and also receiving a majority in New York City. 1921: Voting rights [Constitution]

Required electors to be able to read and write in English. Did not apply to those with physical disabilities that prevented them from reading or writing, or those who were electors prior to January 1922. Prospective voters had to pass a stringent literacy reading and writing test or present evidence that they had at least an 8th grade education in an approved born Jews who spoke Yiddish. The law was backed overwhelmingly by upstate voters and received a majority in New York City. 1930: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination by cemeteries. 1930: Education [Statute] Trustees of a school district had the authority to establish separate schools. 1930: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution and damages. 1938: Barred school segregation [Statute] Repealed the establishment of separate schools for colored children originally enacted in 1841. 1945: Civil rights protection [Statute] school. This statute had the potential to disfranchise countless foreign-

Strengthened earlier civil rights laws listing places of public

accommodations accessible to all persons. Included beauty parlors, clinics, hospitals, bathhouses, skating rinks, golf courses, pool parlors, public libraries, schools, colleges, public transportation and elevators. $500, 30 to 90 days imprisonment, or both. 1947: Housing [Municipal Code] William Levitt, the developer of the nation's first modern-day suburb of tract housing in Long Island, NY, believed that segregation was good for Also noted right to serve on juries regardless of race. Penalties: $100 to

business and used restrictive covenants to maintain racial homogeneity.

Following the Federal Housing Administration's lead which recommended against "inharmonious racial or nationality groups," he used the following covenant in 1947 to create a segregated community: The tenant agrees not to permit the premises to be used or occupied by any person other than members of the Caucasian race. But the shall be permitted. employment and maintenance of other than Caucasian domestic servants Although Levitt eliminated the racial covenants after the 1948 Supreme Court decision declaring such provisions as "unenforceable and contrary to public policy," he continued to practice discrimination in his housing developments in New Jersey and Maryland. The original Levittown never had more than a handful of black families well into the 1980s, and remains 97 percent white today. Ironically, though Levitt was the grandson of a rabbi, he also agreed to use restrictive covenants to ban Jews from his early developments. In his mind, it was strictly business. (LI History) 1948: Barred school segregation [Statute] Students who were otherwise qualified were to be admitted to educational institutions without regard to race, color, religion, creed, or national origin. 1948: Civil rights protection [Constitution]

No person shall be discriminated against in their civil rights. Penalty: $100 to $500, misdemeanor, 30 to 90 days, or both.

1953: Barred National Guard segregation [Military Law]

Called for equality of treatment within state militia without regard to race. 1953: Barred school segregation [Statute] Prohibited exclusion from public schools on account of race. 1955: Barred residential segregation [Statute]

Provided for equal rights to publicly assisted housing accommodations. 1960: Education [Judicial Order] After a suit brought by black parents in 1960, the school system of New Rochelle, N.Y., was in 1961 ordered by a federal judge to be desegregated. (Learning Network)

Washington, D.C. 1928: Pets [Municipal Code] Blacks could not bury their dead dogs or cats in the same pet cemeteries used by whites. (Kenneth Gamerman, Executive Editor, Afro-American History Series, Vol. 3)

Delaware As a border state to the Confederacy, Delaware enacted nine segregation laws impacting nearly every facet of public life between 1874 and 1953. One of the most unusual and inhumane laws on record was passed in 1893, requiring black servants to obtain the permission of their master before marrying. Failure to obtain written consent resulted in a $30 fine. 1874: Miscegenation [Statute]

Prohibited marriage between white persons and Negroes. Penalty: A fine of $100 imposed on offenders and upon the minister performing the ceremony. 1875: Public carriers [Statute] Passenger carriers may assign customers to a particular place if their presence elsewhere would be offensive to the majority of travelers. 1875: Public accommodations [Statute]

Innkeepers, hotel, tavern and restaurant managers, and theater owners were allowed to refuse service to persons whose "reception" or customers and would injure his business." 1877: Education [Statute] entertainment by him would be offensive to the major part of his

Separate tax on blacks established to fund colored schools. 1893: Miscegenation [Statute]

Reconfirms intermarriage law of 1852. Notes that Negroes or mulattoes may be married without a license if they produce a certificate offering satisfactory proof of freedom; or if a servant -- shall produce written consent of master. A free person marrying a servant without consent must pay the master $30 if male and $15 if female. This practice dated back to an 1874 statute that allowed indigent black children under the age of 15 to be bound as servants until the age of 21 for males and 18 for women. 1911: Miscegenation [Statute] Marriage unlawful between a white person and a Negro or mulatto. Penalty: Punishable by a fine of $100, or imprisonment for 30 days. If the marriage was contracted outside of the state, persons would still be charged with a misdemeanor with the same penalty as if the marriage had occurred in the state. 1915: Miscegenation [State Code]

Declared miscegenation a misdemeanor. Interracial marriages would be nullified if parties went to another jurisdiction where such marriages were legal.

1915: Education [State Code]

Required racially segregated schools. 1917: Housing [Municipal Code]

As early as 1917, Wilmington's suburban developers included in their developments limited sales to "members of the Aryan branch of the Caucasian race." (Abstract of Chase Dissertation on Suburbanization) 1953: Health Care [State Code]

deeds restrictions against sales to non-Caucasian buyers. At least two

Separate tuberculosis hospitals to be established for blacks. 1953: Miscegenation [State Code]

Marriage between whites and Negroes or mulattoes illegal. Penalty: Misdemeanor, fine and/or imprisonment.

New Jersey Twelve statutes barring segregation were passed in the state between 1881 and 1957. No segregation laws were enacted during this period. 1881: Barred school segregation [Statute] No child between the age of five and 18 years of age would be excluded from public school on account of religion, nationality, or color. 1884: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Entitled all persons equal access to inns, public transportation, theaters and other places of public amusement regardless of race, color and to pay the injured party $500. Fined between $500 and $1,000, or imprisonment between 30 days and one year. 1898: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Cemeteries prohibited from refusing to permit the burial of any deceased person on account of color. Penalty: Misdemeanor. 1903: Barred school segregation [Statute] previous servitude. Penalty: Misdemeanor. Offenders would be required

No child between the age of four and 20 years could be excluded from any public school on account of religion, nationality, or color. Penalty: Misdemeanor, with a fine between $50 and $250, or by imprisonment in county jail, workhouse, or penitentiary between 30 days and six months, or both.

1911: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination by cemeteries. 1924: Civil Rights Protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution and damages. 1929: Education [Statute] Segregated schools authorized for Negroes. 1945: Civil Rights Protection [Statute] Established the Division Against Discrimination in the State Department of Education. Agency had the power to enforce an anti-discrimination law containing many of the same provisions included in the 1884 civil rights law. 1953: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Unlawful to refuse admission in an air raid shelter because of race, creed, or color. Penalty: Not more than $1000 and /or imprisonment for up to one year.

1954: Barred residential segregation [Statute]

Declared discrimination in public housing illegal. 1957: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination in all public accommodations

Rhode Island

The 1872 state code prohibiting intermarriage was repealed in 1881. School segregation was barred in 1882, and public accommodation segregation banned in 1885. The state passed eleven civil rights statutes between 1881 and 1956. A 1928 statute gave non-property owners the right to vote in city elections for the first time. 1872: Miscegenation [State Code] Prohibited intermarriage. Penalty: $1,000 fine, or up to six months' imprisonment.

1881: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repeal of 1872 code prohibiting intermarriage. 1882: Barred school segregation [Statute] Exclusion from school on account of race or color prohibited. 1956: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] No persons shall be barred from full and equal enjoyment of public accommodations. 1957: Barred residential segregation [Statute] Barred housing segregation within public housing, which was covered by public accommodations statute. 1960: Voting [Statute]

Not until 1928 did Rhode Island permit men and women who did not own property to vote in city elections.

Connecticut Passed only one segregation law in 1879 authorizing a separate black militia. In 1905 the state barred segregation of public facilities. Seven additional civil rights statutes were passed between 1925 and 1958.

1879: Military [Statute] Authorized state to organize four independent companies of infantry of "colored men." Companies were to receive same pay as other companies, including one company parade in the Spring and one in September. 1905: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Unlawful to deprive another person of full and equal enjoyment of any place of public accommodation, amusement or transportation on the basis of race. Penalty: Double damages awarded to the injured person. 1908: Miscegenation [Statute] Prohibited intermarriage between white persons and those persons having one-eighth or more Negro blood. Penalty: Performing such a ceremony subject to a fine between $100 to $1,000. If the white person knows the other is of Negro or mixed blood, subject to a fine between $100 and $1,000. Could be imprisoned in state prison between one and ten years. 1925: Antidefamation [Statute] Prohibited motion picture theaters from showing any film which ridiculed the Negro race. 1933: Miscegenation [Statute] Miscegenation declared a felony. 1933: Education [Statute] Allowed the establishment of separate schools for Negroes if the authorities believe that such separation is necessary or proper. 1933: Civil rights protection [Statute] Outlawed racial discrimination.

1933: Civil rights protection [Statute]

Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution.

1935: Education [Statute] Upheld school segregation as originally authorized by statute of 1869. 1947: Barred employment segregation [Statute] Fair Employment Practices Act passed. An inter-racial commission was and violations of civil liberties. 1949: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination in places of public accommodations, resorts or amusements. Penalty: $25 to $100, 30 days imprisonment, or both. 1949: Barred military segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination against blacks in the National Guard. 1951: Barred public accommodation segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination in public accommodations such as hotels and restaurants. 1958: Barred National Guard segregation [Statute] Prohibited discrimination within state National Guard. appointed by the governor to investigate discrimination in employment,

Massachusetts As early as 1843, Massachusetts began repealing segregation laws passed earlier in the state's history. Twelve statutes barring segregation were enacted between 1865 and 1957, making Massachusetts' legislative record one of the most progressive in the nation. The state did, however, impose a language requirement for electors in 1892, and ordered that race be considered in adoption petitions in 1955.

1865: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Discrimination in any inn, public place of amusement, public carrier, or public meeting prohibited. Penalty: Fine up to $50.

1866: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] public place of amusement. Penalty: Fine up to $50. 1885: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Unlawful to exclude persons or restrict them from entering any theater or

Prohibited discrimination on account of color or race, or "except for good cause," in admission to any theater, skating rink, or other public place or amusement. Penalty: fine up to $100. 1892: Voting rights [Statute] Required voters to be able to read state Constitution in English and write their name. 1892: Voting [Statute] The state passed a statute in 1892 declaring that voters be able to read the state constitution in English and write their name. 1893: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Expanded 1885 law to include barber shops and other public places open for "hire, gain, or reward." 1894: Barred school segregation [Statute]

No person shall be excluded from a public school on account of race, color, or the religious opinions of the applicant.

1895: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Prohibited discrimination or restriction on account of color or race to $300 or imprisonment up to one year, or both, and shall pay injured party between $25 and $300. 1933: Civil rights protection [Statute] relative to the admission of any person in a public place. Penalty: Fine up

Outlawed racial discrimination. Penalty: Criminal prosecution and damages.

1948: Barred public housing segregation [Statute] creed, or religion.

Discrimination within public housing prohibited on account of race, color,

1957: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] All persons entitled to full and equal accommodations in public places. Penalty: Minimum fine $100 and/or at least 15 days imprisonment. License could be suspended or revoked. 1957: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] Repealed anti-miscegenation law. 1957: Adoption [Statute] Race to be given consideration in adoptions. 1957: Barred school segregation [Statute] No segregated schools to be maintained. 1957: Barred housing segregation [Statute] "Government housing" was to be included within law barring public accommodations segregation.

New Hampshire Franchisement was limited to English speaking voters beginning in 1902. Although a law passed in 1955 barring public accommodations considered in adoption decisions. segregation, another statute passed that same year requiring that race be

1902: Voting rights [Constitution]

Required voters to be able to read the Constitution in English and to years old and those with physical disabilities. 1902: Voting [Constitution]

write. Exceptions were made for those currently enfranchised; those 60

A constitutional amendment passed in 1902 required voters to be able to read the constitution in English and to write. Exceptions made for those currently enfranchised; those 60 years old and those with physical disabilities. 1910: Voting rights [Constitution] Excluded those Indians not taxed from voting. 1910: Voting [Constitution] 1910 constitutional amendment excluded Indians not taxed from voting. 1955: Adoption [Statute] Race to be considered in adoption petitions. 1955: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Unlawful to publish or post notices that discriminated in place of public accommodations. Penalty: $10 to $100 and/or 30 to 90 days imprisonment 1957: Barred National Guard segregation [Statute] regard to race.

Called for equality of treatment within state National Guard without

Vermont Passed no segregation laws between 1865 and 1957. A 1957 statute barred public accommodations segregation. 1957: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute]

Banned public accommodations segregation. Penalty: $500 or imprisonment up to 30 days, or both.

Maine Made miscegenation legal in 1883, making it one of the first states in the nation to pass such legislation. A statute passed in 1893 required electors to be able to read the Constitution in English. 1883: Barred anti-miscegenation [Statute] 1821 law prohibiting intermarriage between whites and blacks repealed. 1893: Voter rights [Constitution] Required an elector to be able to read the Constitution in English and write his name. 1893: Voting [State Code] A Constitutional amendment was passed in 1893 requiring electors to be able to read the Constitution in English and write his name. 1954: Barred public accommodations segregation [Statute] Advertisements intended to discriminate in places of public accommodation unlawful. Penalty: Up to $100 and up to 30 days imprisonment.