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MRI produces high-resolution, high-contrast cross-sectional images throughout the head and body. Like ultrasound, it is non-invasive, limited mainly by power deposition. MRI is also limited by the fact that the signal is generated by the nuclei in the tissue and the only way to increase this signal is to increase the magnetic field, which is very expensive. Beyond imaging, MRI has functional aspects such as chemical species sensitivity, microscopic blood flow sensitivity that makes brain neuronal activity accessible and diffusional sensitivity to evaluate tissue microstructure. This section will cover the basics, without delving into imaging schemes. Later sections will cover imaging methods.
Microscopic Magnetization Macroscopic Magnetization Precession and Larmor Frequency Transverse and Longitudinal Magnetization RF Excitation Relaxation Bloch Equations Spin Echoes Contrast Mechanisms
intrinsic
(magnetic moment)
non-zero
(magnetic moment)
(its not really spinning! If so it would have surface velocities > c! The existence of magnetic properties implies some internal angular momentum that must be considered intrinsic)
J = g =gvr
g
r
v
if g also has a charge q then we really have a current I=q/T=qv/2r where T is the period. This current loop acts like a magnetic dipole with dipole moment: m=IA where A is the area of the loop m=qJ/2g
In a magnetic field, the energy of a magnetic dipole is: U=-mBcos where is the angle between m and B U=2mB (parallel to antiparallel to B)
Stern-Gerlach Experiment
Stern and Gerlach devised methods to examine magnetic moments
source: http://www.kent.ac.uk/physical-sciences/local/undergrad/physics_notes/Ph503/STERN%20GERL_SPIN%20HYP.pdf
source: wikipedia
S-G were looking to test quantum theory, which predicts quantized orbital angular momentum and magnetic moments. Unfortunately, they thought the silver atoms were in an L=1 state. Quantum theory predicts 3 spots (L=-1,0,1). Further, the silver atoms are actually in an L=0 state (one spot in their theory). This was solved when Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit (1925, 1926) proposed that the electron had an intrinsic angular momentum or spin equal to h/4. In an atom the electron will have a total angular momentum J = L + S, where L is the orbital angular momentum and S is the spin of the electron. For silver atoms in an L = 0 state the electron would have only its spin angular momentum and one would expect the beam to split into two components. From:Franklin, Allan, "Experiment in Physics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) The proton magnetic moment was measured by Stern and Frisch in 1933 using molecular hydrogen, confirming its spin status.
Electron Spin
For the electron in an atom with orbital angular momentum L the magnetic moment is:
eL 2me
L mB
This can result in an energy difference, for a field of 1T, of: U=2mBB=1.85x10-23Joule
At normal temperature of T=300K, the typical thermal energy kT is kT=(1.38x10-23J/K)(300K)=4.14x10-21Joule So the magnetic moments will be aligned only a short time as they become randomized by thermal energy
where J is the angular momentum, is an empirically determined factor for each nucleus called the magnetogyric ratio. J=I, where I is the dimensionless angular momentum operator. We expect the proton to have a magnetic moment due to its charge and spin, but even the neutron has a magnetic moment I has components of Ix, Iy, Iz It is only possible (quantum mechanics) to specify I2 and one component simultaneously. The eigenvalue of I2 is I(I+1) and those of the specifiable component are m=I, I-1, ,-I. So, =(I(I+1))
z Bo
J
(I(I+1)
+
Iz (max)=I
Nuclear Spin
Similar to electrons, protons and neutrons have a spin angular momentum that can either be +1/2 or -1/2. Protons and neutrons in a nucleus also separately fill orbitals using a model similar to electron orbitals Shells are filled according to the Pauli Exclusion Principle until full. These shells become full at what are defined as the magic numbers 2,8,20,28,50,82, for both protons and neutrons.
2p1/2 2p3/2 1s
Spin Rules
If an atoms # of protons and neutrons are both even, then the spin number is 0.
If the # of protons or the # of neutrons is odd and the other is even, the spin number will be a half-number (1/2, 3/2, 5/2, ) If the # of protons and the # of neutrons are both odd, then the spin number is an integer value.
The magnetic moment is related to the angular momentum configuration, but the relationship is not simple, except if spin=0, the magnetic moment=0
isotope
1H 2H 12C 13C 14N 15N 16O 17O 19F 23Na
1/2
0 5/2 3/2
0.37
98.9 0.037 100 100
-4.32
--5.77 40.04 11.25
1.04 10-3
-2.91 10-2 0.83 0.093
3.85 10-6
-1.08 10-5 0.83 0.093
31P
1/2
100
17.26
6.63 10-2
6.63 10-2
relative sensitivity~3I(I+1)B02
Net magnetization
In a voxel, the magnetic moments have random phase, . Thus the transverse components cancel, leading to a net magnetization that is aligned with B0
Bo
fL
has units of Amp*m2 while M is per unit volume and thus has units of A/m
Boltzmann Statistics
If the number of atoms at the lower energy state is N+ and the number of atoms at the higher energy level is N-, then
N-/N+ = e-E/kT
(Curies Law)
Bulk magnetic properties of materials There are both atomic and nuclear components to the bulk magnetic properties of a material when it is placed in a magnetic field. Typically the atomic (electron) effects dominate. The orbital magnetic moment of an electron is:
e L 2me
L mB
where mB is the Bohr magneton, mB=9.27x10-24A m2. For comparison the nuclear moment is much smaller, being multiples of =2.6x10-26Am2 The induced magnetization is related to the applied field by the magnetic B0 susceptibility,
The bulk magnetic properties of most materials are determined by the electronic structure. The major categories of materials are: Diamagnetic: materials that have closed shell structure, paired electrons, zero or very small orbital angular momentum. These materials oppose the applied field, weakly, reducing the induced magnetization. < 0. An example is water, = -9.04x10-6=9.04ppm
Paramagnetic: materials that have unpaired electrons who tend to lineup and increase the induced field. > 0. Thermal effects tend to limit the amount of alignment, keeping amount of increase small. An example is blood, oxygenated blood is diamagnetic, deoxygenated blood is paramagnetic. Paramagnetic metals such as gadolinium are used in MR contrast agents. Ferromagnetic: larger domains of magnetic moments are aligned and develop a very strong induced field. regions that have differing values of will thus distort the field locally where B= B0. The amount of the effect also depends on the orientation and shape of the object.
max
F = IBL Force
sin
(z)
dM
Joseph Larmor (1857-1942) Irish Physicist (there can be a lot of confusion about units of , rad/sec-T for unitless situations, Hz/T for frequency calculations)
Bo
Mi Mi
One voxel
rf coil
precessing dipole
0=20
(for uniform Mxy and Br)
note that 0 is proportional to B0 as is M0. Thus V~ B02 and the tip angle (max at /2) and the sample volume Vs
time dependence and thus B0 disappears in this frame rotating at the local Larmor frequency
Lab Frame
Bo
fL
Mi
Rotating Frame
fL-fr
Mi
Br
z Mi Br B1eff x B1 y
Rotating Frame
(at the B1 frequency)
In this frame, if there is residual B0, spins will appear to precess slowly at a frequency determined by Br
Example: Consider a sample of water in equilibrium with the B0 field. What should the strength of an RF pulse be to tip the proton magnetization into the xy plane in 3msec?
Ans: Assuming a constant amplitude pulse, we use the formula from the tip angle expression: =B1 p,