CARBOHYDRATES

CARBOHYDRATES- the most abundant class of compounds in the biological world, making up of more than 50% of the dry weight of the Earths biomass. -are polyhydroxy aldehydes such as D-glucose, polyhydroxy ketones such as d-fructose, and compounds formed by linking up polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones.

The most abundant carbohydrate in nature is GLUCOSE. Nearly all the oxygen in the atmosphere has been released by photosynthetic processes.

Monosaccharides- simple sugars Disaccharides two monosaccharides linked together Oligosaccharides- 3-10 monosaccharides linked together Polysaccharides 10 or more monosaccharides linked together

Monosaccharide can be a polyhydroxy aldehyde (ALDOSE) such as D-GLUCOSE (ALDOHEXOSE) or a polyhydroxy ketone(KETOSE) such as D-FRUCTOSE (KETOHEXOSE).

If the OH group attached to the carbon second from the bottom is on the right, the compound is a D-SUGAR (most common sugar). If that OH group is on the left, the compound is an L-SUGAR.

GLUCOSE is the most stable of all the aldohexoses thus, the most prevalend aldohexose in nature.

A sugar is a reducing sugar if it has an aldehyde, a ketone, a hemiacetal, or a hemiketal group. Otherwise, it is a nonreducing sugar.

MALTOSE-disaccharide, composed of 2 d-glucose subunits linked together by an alpha1,4-glycosidic linkage

LACTOSE-disaccharide found in milk, composed of d-galactose and d-glucose. Beta 1,4-glycosidic linkage.LACTOSE INTOLERANCE can be attributed to the lack of the lactase enzyme. LACTASE is an enzyme that specifically breaks the linkage of lactose. Cats and dogs lose their intestinal lactase when they become adults. Lactose intolerance is much more common in people whose ancestors came from non dairy producing countries such as Thailand.

GALACTOSEMIA- After lactose is degraded into glucose and galactose, the galactose must be converted into glucose before it can be used by the cells. Without the enzyme that converts galactose to glucose, galactose accumulates in the bloodstream. This can cause mental retardation and even death in infants.

SUCROSE (table sugar)-most common disaccharide. Composed of d-glucose and dfructose. Hydrolysis of sucrose releases the two subunits. Fructose is sweeter than sucrose. Honeybees have the enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose, so the honey they produce is a mixture of glucose, fructose, and sucrose.

STARCH AND CELLULOSE are the most common polysaccharides.

STARCH- is the major component of flour, potatoes, rice, beans, corn, and peas. Composed of polysaccharides, amylose, and amylopectin. Excess d-glucose is converted to starch by plants.

AMYLOSE-composed of UNBRANCHED CHAINS of d-glucose units joined by alpha1,4-glycosidic linkages.

AMYLOPECTIN- is a BRANCHED polysaccharide. Contains alpha-1,4 glycosidic linkages and alpha-1,6-glycosidic linkages which creates the branches.

GLYCOGEN- energy storage of animals. When animals have more d-glucose than they need for energy, they convert excess d-glucose into a polymer called glycogen. When an animal needs energy, glycogen is broken down into individual d-glucose molecules.

DEXTRAN-10% of the plaque in teeth is composed of it. It is made of glucose units joined mainly by alpha-1,4 glycosidic linkages and alpha-1,6-glycosidic linkages. Product by enzymes of the bacteria in the mouth that converts sucrose.

CELLULOSE- is the structural material of higher plants. Unlike AMYLOSE, cellulose is composed of d-glucose joined together by BETA-1,4-glycosidic linkages.

LINKAGES BETWEEN STARCH AND CELLULOSE- alpha linkages in starch results to form a helix that promotes hydrogen bonding of its OH groups to water molecules, thus, starch is soluble in water. On the other hand, beta linkages in cellulose promote the formation of intramolecular hydrogen bonds consequently, these molecules line up in linear arryas forming hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains. The strength of these bundle of polymer chains makes cellulose an effective structural material. All mammals have the enzyme for alpha linkages which is the alpha-glucosidase but only the grazing animals like cows and horses have the bacteria which has the enzyme BETA-GLUCOSIDASE that makes them able to breakdown and digest cellulose in plants.

CHITIN- is a polysaccharide that is structurally similar to cellulose. It is the major component of the shells of crustaceans and the exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods. It is also the structural material of fungi. A drug, the active ingredient in Program, LUFENURON, interferes with the production of chitin. Because the exoskeleton of a flea is composed primarily of chitin, a flea cannot live if it cannot make chitin.

DEOXY SUGARS- sugars in which one of the OH groups is replaced by a hydrogen. DRIBOSE is the sugar component of RNA and 2-deoxyribose is the sugar component of DNA.

AMINO SUGARS- one of the OH groups is replaced by the amino group. Some important ANTIBIOTICS contain amino sugars.

L-ASCORBIC ACID- synthesized from D-GLUOCSE in plants and in the livers of most vertebrates. HUMANS, MONKEYS, AND GUINEA PIGS do not have the enzymes necessary for synthesis of VITAMIN C. It is an acidic compound, therefore, vitamin C activity is lost when hydrolyzed. This is the reason why not much intact VITAMIN C survives in food that has been thoroughly cooked. Worse, if the food is cooked in water and then drained, the water soluble Vitamin is thrown out with the water! -synthesized first by SIR WALTER NORMAN HAWORTH

GLYCOPROTEINS- proteins bonded to oligosaccharides. Surfaces of many cells contain short oligosaccharide chains that allow the cells to interact with each other, as well as with invading viruses and bacteria, which are linked to the surface of the cell by reaction of an OH or an NH2 group of a protein with the anomeric carbon of a cyclic sugar.

BLOOD TYPE is determined by the nature of the sugar bound to the protein on the surfaces of red blood cells. Each type of blood is associated with a different carbohydrate structure. TYPE O IS THE UNIVERSAL DONOR because type O blood is a component of types A, B, and AB blood type. TYPE AB IS THE UNIVERSAL ACCEPTOR because people with type AB can accept types AB, A, B, and O blood.