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A STATISTICAL PER CELL MODEL TUNING APPROACH FOR
CELLULAR NETWORKS

by

MUKUBWA WANYAMA EMMANUEL

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Field of specialization: Telecommunication Technology

in the

Department of Electronic Engineering

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor: Mr. Anish Kurien
Co-Supervisor: Mr. Damien Chatelain
Co-Supervisor: Mr. Martin Menke Drewes

September 2006

Page 1
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the dissertation submitted for the degree M Tech: Electrical
Engineering, at Tshwane University of Technology, is my own original work and has not
previously been submitted to any other institution of higher education. I further declare
that all sources are indicated and acknowledged by means of a comprehensive list of
references.

Name: Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa

Signature:

Copyright Tshwane University of Technology 2006

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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to
My wife Purity and
My sons Gustave and the late Seth
For the perseverance and support they gave to me while away from home.
And
To the thousands of men and women who painstakingly helped me to answer the myriad
of questions that swirled through my head, I gratefully dedicate this dissertation. Some of
these men and women I had the pleasure of meeting them in person. Others I knew only
as a name on a book or a signature to a magazine article. But through speech or through
the printed word, each helped me to transmit my common-heritage, my civilization. I
fondly hope that in some slight measure I do likewise, and thus repay, in small part the
debt I owe my lecturers.

Page 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to extend my gratitude and appreciation to:
My research study leaders at FSATIE, starting with Mr. Anish Kurien, for
pointing out the importance of the effect of clutter and terrain on the signal
strength in built-up areas, together with Mr. Damien Chatelain whose technical
contributions and academic guidance were indispensable throughout the entire
duration of this study.
TUT for the financial support offered towards the research in this project and in
conference presentations.
COE for the financial support they offered towards the research in this project.
Mr. Martin Menke Drewes, for his cooperation and his expertise extended in
analysis and verification during the calibration and benchmarking of this project.

Page 4
PROLOGUE
I have held many things in my hands and
I have lost them all, but whatever I have
Placed in God hands, that I still posses

Page 5
ABSTRACT
Radio propagation prediction is one of the fundamental procedures in the nominal stages
of radio network planning. It is thus vital that radio propagation predictions are as
accurate as possible taking into account localized features. At times, the predicted and
measurement data for particular cells in the cellular network do not correlate. To resolve
this, various factors that influence radio propagation prediction in cellular communication
networks have to be analysed for each cell. Precise knowledge of these factors is vital in
radio propagation prediction. The approach taken in this study is to identify problematic
cells, characterize such cells taking into account factors that could influence the
inconsistencies, followed by the formulation of a method to tune a typical propagation
model to suit the problematic cell. This could provide a reliable method for the prediction
of results. The project seeks to identify problematic cells based on prediction data
obtained from a radio planning tool, ATOLL, as well as measurement data obtained from
the field. Each of the cells is then characterized based on its clutter and topographic data.
Based on the characteristics of the cell, a method is developed to train the propagation
model from which a correction factor is obtained for adjusting the propagation prediction
model to log the best predication. Although good results were obtained, the study was
limited by the accuracy of the measurement data obtained and inaccuracies in various
data components of the radio propagation prediction software. However, it is shown that
the proper analysis of the factors that impair propagated signals can greatly improve the
radio propagation prediction results. The developed prediction engine show a reduced
mean and standard deviation errors of -0.4508 & 4.0067, -0.5382 & 2.3628, -2.4936
&5.5662 and -0.8497 & 3.0843 respectively for the four sectors considered.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .............................................................................................................. 1
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. 3
PROLOGUE...................................................................................................................... 4
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. 6
LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................ 11
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................... 14
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 15
1.1. Background information ................................................................................... 15
1.2. Problem statement............................................................................................. 16
1.2.1 Sub-problem 1........................................................................................... 16
1.2.2 Sub-problem 2........................................................................................... 17
1.2.3 Sub-problem 3........................................................................................... 17
1.2.4 Sub-problem 4........................................................................................... 17
1.3. Hypotheses........................................................................................................ 17
1.3.1 Hypothesis 1.............................................................................................. 18
1.3.2 Hypothesis 2.............................................................................................. 18
1.3.3 Hypothesis 3.............................................................................................. 18
1.3.4 Hypothesis 4.............................................................................................. 18
1.4. Delimitations..................................................................................................... 19

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1.5. Research Methodology ..................................................................................... 19
1.6. Contribution of the study.................................................................................. 20
1.7. Brief overview of the Dissertation.................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 2: RADIO PROPAGATION..................................................................... 23
2.1. Introduction....................................................................................................... 23
2.2. Wireless Channel .............................................................................................. 23
2.2.1 The Propagation Channel.......................................................................... 24
2.2.2 The Radio Channel ................................................................................... 25
2.2.3 The Modulation Channel .......................................................................... 25
2.2.4 The Digital Channel .................................................................................. 26
2.3. Propagation Phenomenon ................................................................................. 26
2.3.1 Diffraction................................................................................................. 27
2.3.1.1 The Huygens Principle ............................................................................ 28
2.3.1.2 The Fresnel Clearance Zone ..................................................................... 33
2.3.2 Scattering .................................................................................................. 36
2.3.3 Reflection.................................................................................................. 37
2.3.4 Penetration ................................................................................................ 37
2.3.5 Refraction.................................................................................................. 38
2.4. Radio Propagation Models................................................................................ 39
2.4.1 Free-Space Model ..................................................................................... 39
2.4.2 Plane Earth (Two-ray) Model ................................................................... 41
2.4.3 Curved Reflecting Surface Model ............................................................ 43
2.4.4 Land Propagation Models......................................................................... 45

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2.4.4.5 The Fading Model..................................................................................... 56
2.5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 58
CHAPTER 3: PREDICTION MODELS AND TUNING APPROACHES .............. 59
3.1. Introduction....................................................................................................... 59
3.2. Propagation Prediction Models......................................................................... 59
3.2.1 Okumura-Hata Model ............................................................................... 60
3.2.2 The COST 231-Hata Model...................................................................... 63
3.2.3 The COST 231 -Walfisch-Ikegami Model ............................................... 64
3.2.4 The Ibrahim-Parsons Method ................................................................... 68
3.2.5 The Lee Model .......................................................................................... 70
3.2.6 The ITU (CCIR) Model ............................................................................ 71
3.3. Model Tuning Approaches ............................................................................... 73
3.3.1 Statistical Tuning Approach ..................................................................... 73
3.3.2 Deterministic Tuning Approach ............................................................... 74
3.3.3 Semi-Statistical/Semi-Deterministic Tuning Approach ........................... 76
3.3.4 The Per Cell Tuning Approach................................................................. 77
3.4. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 80
CHAPTER 4: CONDUCTING A MEASUREMENT-BASED RADIO PLANNING
STUDY............................................................................................................................. 82
4.1. Introduction....................................................................................................... 82
4.2. Model Tuning Measurement Collection........................................................... 82
4.2.1 Site and Clutter Selection.......................................................................... 83
4.2.2 MTM Data Capture................................................................................... 85

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4.2.3 MTM Data Conversion and Validation .................................................... 88
4.3. Using MTM Data to Calibrate ATOLL Propagation Models........................... 88
4.3.1 Digital Terrain Map Data Validation........................................................ 89
4.3.2 ATOLL Propagation Model Tuning......................................................... 89
4.3.3 Comparison of Predicted Signal to Measured Signal ............................... 96
4.4. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 98
CHAPTER 5: DEVELOPMENT OF BUILDING AND VEGETATION
PROPAGATION MODELS.......................................................................................... 99
5.1. Introduction....................................................................................................... 99
5.2 Terrain Diffraction Factor Design .................................................................... 99
5.3 Building Correction Factor ............................................................................. 102
5.3.1 Defining Building Model Objectives...................................................... 103
5.3.2 Building Diffraction Model .................................................................... 103
5.4 Foliage Correction Factor Design Methodology and Planning ...................... 112
5.5 Additional Terrain Loss Correction Factor Design ........................................ 115
5.6 The Modified Propagation Prediction Model ................................................. 117
5.7 Propagation Prediction Engine Development ................................................. 118
5.7.1 Building Blocks of the Propagation Prediction Engine .......................... 119
5.7.2 Prediction Algorithm Development ........................................................ 120
5.7.3 Initiating a Prediction Session in MATLAB Ver.6.5 ............................. 121
5.8 Propagation Model Calibration and Validation .............................................. 121
5.9 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 123
CHAPTER 6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.......................................................... 124

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6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 124
6.2 Benchmarking Procedure................................................................................ 124
6.2.1 Cases Considered in Model Validation................................................... 126
6.2.2 Comparative Analysis of Model Predictions and Measurements ........... 134
6.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 142
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................. 143
7.1 Objectives and Research Process.................................................................... 143
7.2 Summary of Findings...................................................................................... 144
7.3 Summary of Study Contributions ................................................................... 145
7.4 Recommendations for Further Study.............................................................. 146
7.5 General conclusions ........................................................................................ 147
LIST OF REFERENCES............................................................................................. 148
APPENDIX A................................................................................................................ 154
APPENDIX B................................................................................................................ 155
APPENDIX C................................................................................................................ 166
APPENDIX D................................................................................................................ 168

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Wireless Channel Classification.................................................................... 24
Figure 2.2: Radio Wave Diffraction. ................................................................................ 28
Figure 2.3: Shadowing of Radio Waves by an Object...................................................... 29
Figure 2.4: Signal Levels on the Far Side of the Shadowing Object. .............................. 29
Figure 2.5: Representation of Radio Waves as Wavelets................................................. 30
Figure 2.6: Building of a new Wave Front by Vector Summation. .................................. 31
Figure 2.7: The Cornu Spiral. .......................................................................................... 32
Figure 2.8: The Fresnel Zone for a Radio Link. .............................................................. 34
Figure 2.9: Radio Wave Scattering. ................................................................................. 36
Figure 2.10: Radio Wave Reflection. ............................................................................... 37
Figure 2.11: Radio Wave penetration in to a building..................................................... 38
Figure 2.12: Radio Wave Refraction................................................................................ 39
Figure 2.13: Propagation over plane earth. .................................................................... 42
Figure 2.14: Propagation over curved reflecting surface................................................ 44
Figure 2.15: Knife-edge diffraction.................................................................................. 47
Figure 2.16: Diffraction over a cylinder. ......................................................................... 48
Figure 3.1: Definitions of Factors Neglected in Okumura- Hata Model. ........................ 61
Figure 3.2: Definition of the Parameters used in COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model. 65
Figure 3.3: Definition of the Street Orientation Angle ................................................. 66
Figure 4.1: Building Structure of Area Studied................................................................ 83
Figure 4.2: Trees on Straight Line Along the Street. ....................................................... 84
Figure 4.3: Digital Terrain Map of Studied Area. ........................................................... 86

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Figure 4.4: Scanned Map of the Region Studied. ............................................................. 86
Figure 4.5: ATOLL Model Calibration Process. ............................................................. 90
Figure 4.6: Initial Propagation Model Parameters. ........................................................ 92
Figure 4.7: Initial Best Server Coverage by Transmitter Array. ..................................... 93
Figure 4.8: Initial Best Server Coverage by Signal Level Array. .................................... 93
Figure 4.9: Calibrated Propagation Model Parameters.................................................. 94
Figure 4.10: Calibrated Best Server Coverage by Transmitter Array. ............................ 95
Figure 4.11: Calibrated Best Server Coverage by Signal Level Array. ........................... 95
Figure 4.12: Predicted/Measured Signal Strength Based on Default Model................... 96
Figure 4.13: Predicted/Measured Signal Strength Based on Calibrated Model. ............ 97
Figure 4.14: The ATOLL Statistics Window..................................................................... 98
Figure 5.1: Theoretical Diffraction of Plane Waves over a Building. ........................... 104
Figure 5.2: Point Analysis Window as Displayed in ATOLL Planning Tool................. 116
Figure 5.3: Propagation Prediction Engine building blocks. ........................................ 120
Figure 6.1: First Sample Comparison of Measurement and Prediction........................ 125
Figure 6.2: Second Sample Comparison of Measurement and Prediction. ................... 125
Figure 6.3: Prediction Vs Measurement Based on Point to Point Analysis................... 127
Figure 6.4: Point to Point Analysis Error. ..................................................................... 127
Figure 6.5: Prediction Vs Measurement Based on Non-Linear Regression. ................. 129
Figure 6.6: Non-Linear Regression Error...................................................................... 130
Figure 6.7: Prediction Vs Measurement Based on Fixed Density. ................................ 131
Figure 6.8: Fixed Clutter and Terrain density Error. .................................................... 132
Figure 6.9: Prediction Vs Measurement based on variable Density. ............................ 133

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Figure 6.10: Variable Clutter and Terrain Density Error. ............................................ 134
Figure 6.11: Drive Test Routes of the Area under Study. .............................................. 135
Figure 6.12: T0377- Predicted Versus Measured Signal. .............................................. 136
Figure 6.13: T0377-Error between Measured and predicted signal. ............................ 137

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Site selection and classification. ..................................................................... 85
Table 4.2: Initial Propagation Model Parameters for Area Studied. .............................. 92
Table 4.3: Calibrated Propagation Model Parameters for Area Studied........................ 94
Table 5.1: A Sample of the Diffraction Loss Estimates.................................................. 101
Table 5.2: Averaged Values for the Terrain Exponent................................................... 102
Table5.3: Some of the Clutter Data Used in this Study.................................................. 106
Table 5.4: Building Densities for Region under Study................................................... 112
Table 5.5: Vegetation Loss Data from Field. ................................................................. 114
Table 5.6: Vegetation Densities for Region under Study. .............................................. 115
Table 5.7: A Sample of the Additional Diffraction Loss data. ....................................... 117
Table 6.1: Initial K-Parameters for Non-Linear Regression. ........................................ 128
Table 6.2: Calibrated K-Parameters for Non-Linear Regression.................................. 128
Table 6.3: K-Parameters used in Fixed Clutter and Terrain density............................. 131
Table 6.4: K-Parameters for Variable Clutter and Terrain density. ............................. 133
Table 6.5: Suburban Cell Sites Considered. .................................................................. 135

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background information
Cellular system design has become more challenging in recent years. Increased
competition among operators requires higher levels of performance. Site acquisition is
problematic because of the limited availability of suitable sites and due to the fact that
neighbouring residents generally demand increasingly unobtrusive installations. To meet
these design challenges, engineers must have a "tool box" of techniques for maintaining
design integrity and minimizing capital expenditure. The three dimensions of system
performance of most interest to a network operator are coverage, capacity and
interference [32] (Lempiinen & Manninen, 2001:28). Advanced prediction tools use
digital terrain and clutter databases to generate predictions of signal strength throughout
the coverage area [4] (Parsons, 2000:375). Many radio propagation prediction tools are
developed to take into account propagation prediction algorithms that not only emulate
the real environment, but also help planning engineers to cope with situations where all
the information necessary for prediction is not always available. With the complexity of
cellular networks and the relative lack of specialists, the radio propagation prediction
process becomes difficult. The provision of a radio planning tool with standard correction
factors for particular cell site characteristics could greatly save the inexperienced radio
planners from analysis of clutter and terrain in the determination of correction factors for
particular problematic cells. Thus, the development of standard correction factors on per-
cell basis could be of great importance in cellular network planning.

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1.2. Problem statement
To design a cellular network for a particular region efficiently and accurately, precise
prediction of the received radio signal is a crucial step. While terrain has a profound
effect on the propagation of radio signals (especially at higher frequencies), more
localized features of the environment such as trees and structures (buildings, houses, etc.)
can also have a substantial impact on propagation. The received signal prediction
accuracy depends to a great extent on the level to which these localized features in the
area under study are taken into consideration by the prediction method. The major
problem for the region under consideration, which is characterized as hill type of
environment with mixed trees and structures, is the estimation of the effect of terrain
type, trees and constructions on the total path loss between a transmitter and a receiver.
This research work attempts to model the localized features, develop, test and optimize a
radio propagation model that takes into consideration the hilly terrain, vegetation and
constructions of the region. Consequently, a standard correction factor is established for
each cell which can be applied to other cells with similar characteristics.

The following sub-problems were identified and formed the basis of the study.

1.2.1 Sub-problem 1
To conduct a comparative study of coverage prediction and field measurement data of
cells in a cellular network. Based on this study, the problematic cells are identified and
characterized based on the factors that influence propagation of radio signals in each cell.

Page 17
This would include a critical look at how terrain and land use / land cover factors
influence radio propagation.

1.2.2 Sub-problem 2
To test various propagation predictions models and select one which gives least deviation
between the predicted and the measured data. This model would be tuned to log the best
prediction relative to the measured data.

1.2.3 Sub-problem 3
To formulate a method based on the problematic cell characteristics and tune the
propagation prediction model to suit the problematic cell.

1.2.4 Sub-problem 4
To establish standard correction factors as per the tuning results. These could be used by
inexperienced cellular network planners in areas with similar characteristics as the cell
under study.

1.3. Hypotheses
From the above sub-problems, the following hypotheses were formed.

Page 18
1.3.1 Hypothesis 1
It is possible to develop a clear understanding of the factors that influence radio
propagation by conducting a comparative study of predicted coverage and field
measurements of a cellular network. It is assumed that a number of factors will be
generated based on different terrain types and land use / land cover types.

1.3.2 Hypothesis 2
A number of standard propagation prediction models are available for evaluation. An
appropriate propagation prediction model is selected for further tuning.

1.3.3 Hypothesis 3
A methodology is developed to facilitate the process of tuning the propagation prediction
model based on the cell characteristics. This methodology is developed based on the
terrain and clutter types.

1.3.4 Hypothesis 4
Once the tuning is complete, correctional factors are extracted from these results for
terrain and clutter types as well as model coefficients. These correctional factors are then
verified by using them on cells with similar characteristics upon which they are adopted
as standard correctional factors.

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1.4. Delimitations
This study is not intended to replace the role of expert planners but to act as an
added tool in the propagation prediction process for less experienced planners.
Though most crucial characteristics of the cell are taken into consideration, there
are some minor characteristics which are assumed hence some of the factors
derived from this study might be inaccurate to some extend.
The formulation arrived at in this study can only be applied to cells with similar
characteristics as the ones under consideration.
The unavailability of diffraction coefficients for many indoor structures may also
compromise the accuracy of the study results.

1.5. Research Methodology
The research methods employed in this study were both quantitative as well as
experimental in nature and consisted of four phases. The first phase consisted of
conducting a comparative analysis of the prediction and field measurement data to
identify problematic cells. The characteristics of the problematic cell were then analysed
and modelled. Field measurements were consequently done to establish the contribution
of each cell characteristic to the path loss and used to calibrate the propagation model.
Lastly the calibrated model was simulated and the results compared with the measured
data and minor adjustments conducted where necessary. From the above phases,
correctional factors relative to the cell under consideration were extracted for the cell.

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1.6. Contribution of the study
The potential benefit of the per cell model tuning is to improve the quality of the network
as it considers a small section of the network and in more detail. The provision of well
calculated correctional factors for cells with particular characteristics makes it possible
for inexperienced network planners to accomplish their tasks. The defined correctional
factors may be used to characterize new cells where no real data for the new region is
available. The integration of this method into a statistical model provides a model that
approximates closely to the physical environment under consideration for both macro and
micro cells compared to their individual capabilities.

1.7. Brief overview of the Dissertation
The following section gives a brief overview of how the report is presented.

1. Background of the Project- This chapter gives the background of the project and define
the statement problem. It also gives the hypothesis and methodology to be used.

2. Literature Review on Path Loss Model Theory This chapter covers an important
portion of the research whereby basic principles of radio wave propagation and
applicable laws of physics are established.

Page 21
3. Theoretical Consideration of Mathematical Models In this chapter, an overview of
selected propagation models and prediction methods in the latest literature is given as key
to a good identification of a model design approach likely to give more reliable results.

4. Conducting a Measurement-based Propagation Prediction Study This chapter
presents the preliminary steps towards the actual model design, from field measurements
collection to updating and validating the computational databases in the existing
propagation prediction system (ATOLL planning tool). Furthermore a thorough
calibration process of the ATOLL propagation model using the field measurements is
presented in this chapter.

5. Development of Terrain and Clutter Model This chapter presents the objective,
design methodology and procedures of the proposed propagation model and the
supporting prediction engine for testing purposes. The main components of the entire
propagation engine are presented and their inter-working mechanism with the proposed
model is described. The model computational rules used in the MATLAB algorithm as
well as the model testing, optimization and validation method are explained.

6. Results and Discussions In this chapter, the results of the study are presented and a
benchmark-based discussion is made with reference to the comparison between the
measurements and predictions from the proposed model.

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7. Conclusions and Recommendations In this chapter, an overview of the robustness
and validity of the proposed model is given with respect to applicable area of the study.
The achievement of the set goals is quantified and a number of recommendations for
future work are given.

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CHAPTER 2: RADIO PROPAGATION
2.1. Introduction
The radio channel places fundamental limitations on performance of mobile
communication system. The transmission path between the transmitter and the receiver
can vary from simple direct line of sight to one that is severely obstructed by buildings
and foliage [1] (Gibson, 1997:1182). Thus, there is a significant incentive to devise
engineering tools that can accurately and efficiently design and plan such systems. In this
chapter, mobile radio propagation is described using appropriate statistical and
deterministic techniques. This chapter covers the wireless channel and more so the
propagation channel and models of the impairments a radio signal encounters as it
propagates from the transmitter to the receiver.

2.2. Wireless Channel
A wireless mobile channel is modelled as a time-varying communication path between
two stations such as from one terminal to another terminal. The first terminal is the fixed
antenna at a base transceiver station (BTS), while a moving mobile station (MS) or a
subscriber represents the second terminal. This becomes a multi-path propagation
channel with fast fading. Hence propagation in a multi-path channels depends on the
actual environment, such as the antenna height, the profile of the buildings, the trees, the
roads, and the terrain [8] (Agrawal and Zeng, 2003: 59) [36] (Aguiar and Gross, 2003).
Figure 2.1 represents the most commonly referenced channels to clarify different notions
related to the concept of wireless channels in digital communication systems.

Page 24

Figure 2.1: Wireless Channel Classification.

2.2.1 The Propagation Channel
The propagation channel lies between the transmitter and receiver antennas and is
influenced only by the phenomena that influence the propagation of electromagnetic
waves. It is almost always linear and reciprocal, and hence, these characteristics will be
assumed. The phenomena of this channel only effect the attenuation of the transmitted
signal and, therefore, this channel has a multiplicative effect on the signal. The signal
transmitted consists of the information modulated on top of the carrier frequency [36]
(Aguiar and Gross, 2003).
0100100100111010011010 0100100100111010011010
Base band
symbols
Base band
symbols
Digital/analogue
Modulator
IF/FR stages IF/FR stages
Demodulator
Digital/analogue
Transmitter Receiver
Packets
Bits
Antenna Antenna
Radio channel
Propagation channel
Modulation channel
Digital channel

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2.2.2 The Radio Channel
The radio channel consists of the propagation channel and both the transmitter and
receiver antennas. As long as the antennas are considered to be linear, bilateral and
passive, the channel is also linear and reciprocal. The signal is only affected by
attenuation, but the attenuation of the propagation channel might be different depending
on antennas used, where the antenna influence is strictly linear. The signal transmitted is
the same as with the propagation channel but might be scaled by the use of antennas [36]

2.2.3 The Modulation Channel
The modulation channel consists of the radio channel plus all system components (such
as amplifiers and different stages of radio frequency circuits) up to the output of the
modulator on the transmitter side and the input of the demodulator on the receiver side.
The linearity of the system depends on the transfer characteristics of the components
between demodulator or modulator and the antennas. The channel is non-reciprocal
because amplifiers (the system component added to the radio channel) are considered to
be non-reciprocal. Due to the amplification of the received signal at this point, additive
effects damaging the signal come into play. These include noise and interference. Some
of these additive effects might already be present in the radio channel; however, noise
from electric circuits is added at this channel level. Hence, complete characterization of
the additive effects can not be done at the radio channel level. The signal consists of base

Page 26
band symbols which are modulated on top of the carrier frequency (refer to next section)
[36] (Aguiar and Gross, 2003).

2.2.4 The Digital Channel
The digital channel consists of the modulation channel plus the modulator and
demodulator. It relates the digital base band signal at the transmitter to the digital signal
at the receiver, and describes the bit error patterns. The channel is non-linear and non-
reciprocal. At this channel level, no further effects come into play. Instead, the corrupted
signal is interpreted at this level as a bit sequence. If the signal has been corrupted too
heavily, the interpreted bit sequence differs from the true bit sequence intended to be
conveyed. The inputs to this channel are bit streams, which might stem from information
packets. The bits are grouped and then turned into analogue representations, referred to as
symbols. These symbols belong to the base band. This analogue signal is then passed to a
modulator which modulates the base band signals on top of the carrier frequency [36]
2.3. Propagation Phenomenon
Propagation mechanisms are very complex and diverse. Firstly, because of the separation
between the receiver and the transmitter, attenuation of the signal strength occurs. In
addition, the signal propagates by means of diffraction, scattering, reflection,
transmission, refraction, etc [37] (Neskovic, Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002). These
mechanisms renders propagation phenomenon to be non-line-of-sight and hence impairs
direct signals from the transmitter to the receiver. This means that the signal from the

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transmitter arrives at the receiver from various directions with different time delays. This
results in multi-path effects or fading of the signal as well as the problem of reception due
to different time delays.

2.3.1 Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when the direct line-of-sight (LoS) propagation between the
transmitter and the receiver is obstructed by an opaque obstacle whose dimensions are
considerably larger than the transmitted signal wavelength. The diffraction occurs at the
obstacle edges where part of the wave appears to bend into shaded areas behind the edge ,
and as a result, they are additionally attenuated. The diffraction mechanism allows the
reception of radio signals when the LoS conditions are not satisfied (non-LoS case),
whether in urban or rural environments [1] (Gibson, 1997:1183) [37] (Neskovic,
Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002) [8] (Agrawal and Zeng, 2003: 60). This is well illustrated
in figure 2.2;

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Figure 2.2: Radio Wave Diffraction.

2.3.1.1 The Huygens Principle
Refraction and reflection of radio waves are mechanisms which are fairly easy to picture,
but diffraction is much less intuitive. To understand diffraction and radio propagation in
general, it is very helpful to have an understanding of how radio waves behave in an
environment which is not strictly "free space". Consider figure 2.3, in which a wave front
is travelling from left to right, and encountering an obstacle which absorbs or reflects
most of the incident radio energy. Assume that the incident wave front is uniform; i.e., if
we measure the field strength along the line A-A, it is the same at all points. To quantify
the field strength along a line B-B on the other side of the obstacle, we provide an axis
in which zero coincides with the top of the obstacle, and negative and positive numbers
denote positions above and below this, respectively (The parameter used on this axis is
defined later) [49] (McLarnon, 1997).

Transmitter Receiver
Radio
waves

Page 29

Figure 2.3: Shadowing of Radio Waves by an Object.

The behaviour of the signal after the obstacle can be graphically visualized as in figure
2.4.

Figure 2.4: Signal Levels on the Far Side of the Shadowing Object.
Advancing wave
front
A B
A B
-2
-1
0

1
2
3

Page 30
The explanation for the non-intuitive behaviour of radio waves in the presence of
obstacles in their path is described in Huygens Principle [4] (Parsons, 2000: 33-34). This
suggests that each point on a wave front acts as a source of a secondary wave-front
known as a wavelet, and a new wave-front is then built up from the combination of the
contributions from all of the wavelets on the preceding wave-front.

Figure 2.5: Representation of Radio Waves as Wavelets.

The secondary wavelets do not radiate equally in all directions - their amplitude in a
given direction is proportional to (1 + cos ), where is the angle between that direction
and the direction of propagation of the wave-front. The amplitude is therefore maximum
in the direction of propagation and zero in the reverse direction. The representation of a
wave front as a collection of wavelets is shown in Figure 2.5 [49] (McLarnon, 1997). At
Radio energy from
wavelets enters
shadowed region

Page 31
a given point on the new wave-front (point B), the signal vector (phasor) is determined by
vector addition of the contributions from the wavelets on the preceding wave front, as
shown in Figure 2.6 [49] (McLarnon, 1997). The largest component is from the nearest
wavelet, and we then get symmetrical contributions from the points above and below it.
These latter vectors are shorter, due to the angular reduction of amplitude described
above, and also the greater distance travelled. The greater distance also introduces more
time delay, and hence the rotation of the vectors as shown in figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Building of a new Wave Front by Vector Summation.

As we include contributions from points farther and farther away, the corresponding
vectors continue to rotate and diminish in length, and they trace out a double-sided spiral
path, known as the Cornu spiral [49] (Hall et al as quoted in Mclarnon, 1997).

A
B
+
A
+2
+1
0
-2
-3
Vector -2
Vector -1
Vector 0
Vector sum
Vector +1
Vector +2

Page 32

Figure 2.7: The Cornu Spiral.

The Cornu spiral, shown in figure 2.7, provides the tool we need to visualize what
happens when radio waves encounter an obstacle. In free space, at every point on a new
wave-front, all contributions from the wavelets on the preceding wave-front are present
and un-attenuated. So, the resultant vector corresponds to the complete spiral (i.e., the
endpoints of the vector are X and Y) [49] (Hall et al as quoted in Mclarnon, 1997).

Considering the situation shown in figure 2.3, each location on the wave front B-B,
visualize the makeup of the Cornu spiral (note that the top of the obstacle is assumed to
be sufficiently narrow that no significant reflections can occur from it). At position 0,
level with the top of the obstacle, we will have only contributions from the positive half
of the preceding wave-front at A-A, since all of the others are blocked by the obstacle.
Therefore, the received components form only the upper half of the spiral, and the
resultant vector is exactly half the length of the free space case, corresponding to a 6 dB

Page 33
reduction in amplitude. As we go lower on the line B-B, we start to get blockage of
components from the positive side of the A-A wave-front, removing more and more of
the vectors as we go, and leaving only the tight upper spiral. The resulting amplitude
diminishes monotonically towards zero as we move down the new wave front. But, there
is still signal present at all points behind the obstacle [49] (Mclarnon, 1997).

To explain the mysterious ripples on graph points along line B-B above the obstacle,
looking at the Cornu spiral again, as we move up the line, we begin to add contributions
from the negative side of the A-A wave front (vectors -1, -2, etc.). By observing the
effect on the resultant vector, as we make the first turn around the bottom of the spiral, it
reaches its maximum length, corresponding to the highest peak in the graph of Figure 2.4.
As we continue to move up B-B and add more components, we swing around the spiral
and reach the minimum length for the resultant vector (minimum distance from point Y).
Further progression up B-B results in further motion around the spiral, and the
amplitude of the resultant oscillates back and forth, with the amplitude of the oscillation
steadily decreasing as the resultant converges on the free space value, given by the
complete Cornu spiral (vector X-Y) [49] (Mclarnon, 1997).

2.3.1.2 The Fresnel Clearance Zone
A Fresnel zone is the volume of space enclosed by an ellipsoid, which has two antennas
at the ends of a radio link at its foci [4] (Parsons, 2000). The two-dimensional
representation of a Fresnel zone is shown in Figure 2.8 [49] (McLarnon, 1997). The
surface of the ellipsoid is defined by the path ACB and exceeds the length of the direct

Page 34
path AB by some fixed amount. This amount is n/2, where n is a positive integer. For
the first Fresnel zone, n = 1 and the path length differs by l/2 (i.e., a 180 phase reversal
with respect to the direct path). For most practical purposes, for NLOS, only the first
Fresnel zone needs to be considered.

Figure 2.8: The Fresnel Zone for a Radio Link.

A radio path has first Fresnel zone clearance if, as shown in Figure 2.8, no objects
capable of causing significant diffraction penetrate the corresponding ellipsoid. We then
recall how we constructed the wave-front behind an object by vector addition of the
wavelets comprising the wave-front in front of the object, and apply this to the case
where we have exactly first Fresnel zone clearance. We wish to find the strength of the
direct path signal after it passes the object [49] (Hall et al as quoted in Mclarnon, 1997).
Assuming there is only one such object near the Fresnel zone, we can look at the resultant
wave-front at the destination point B. In terms of the Cornu spiral, the upper half of the
B
A
C
B
d
d1
d2

Page 35
spiral is intact, but part of the lower half is absent, due to blockage by the object. Since
we have exactly first Fresnel clearance, the final vector to be added to the bottom of the
spiral is 180 out of phase with the direct-path vector - i.e., it is pointing downwards.
This means that we have passed the bottom of the spiral and are on the way back up, and
the resultant vector is near the free space magnitude (a line between X and Y in Figure
2.7). In fact, it is sufficient to have 60% of the first Fresnel clearance, since this will still
give a resultant that is very close to the free space value [4] (Parsons, 2000). In order to
quantify diffraction losses, they are usually expressed in terms of a dimensionless
parameter v, given by the following expression [4] (Parsons, 2000).

d
v

= 2
(2.1)

Where d is the difference in lengths of the straight-line path between the endpoints of
the link and the path which just touches the tip of the diffracting object, that is d = (d1 +
d2-d) as in figure 2.8. By convention, v is positive when the direct path is blocked (i.e.,
the obstacle has positive height), and negative when the direct path has some clearance
("negative height"). When the direct path just grazes the object, v = 0. Since in this
section we are considering LoS paths, this corresponds to specifying that is negative (or
zero). For first Fresnel zone clearance, we have d = /2, so from equation (2.1), v = -1.4.
From figure 2.4, we can see that this is more clearance than necessary. In fact, we get
slightly higher signal level (and path loss less than free space value) if we reduce the
clearance to v = -1, which corresponds to d = /4. The (v = -1) point is also shown on
the Cornu spiral in Figure 2.7. Since d = /4, the last vector added to the summation is

Page 36
rotated 90 from the direct-path vector, which brings us to the lowest point on the spiral.
The resultant vector then runs from this point to the upper end of the spiral at point Y. It
is shown that this vector is a bit longer than the distance from X to Y (we have a slight
gain of about 1.2 dB over the free space case) and that 60% of the first Fresnel Zone
clearance (v = -0.85) can be secured without suffering significant loss [49] (Mclarnon,
1997).

2.3.2 Scattering
Scattering occurs when the propagation path contains obstacles whose dimensions are
comparable to the wavelength. The nature of this phenomenon is similar to the diffraction
except that the radio waves are scattered in a greater number of directions. Of all the
effects mentioned, scattering is the most difficult to predict [1] (Gibson, 1997:1183) [37]
(Neskovic, Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002) [8] (Agrawal and Zeng, 2003: 60). This is
illustrated in the figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Radio Wave Scattering.

x
T

Page 37
2.3.3 Reflection
Reflection occurs when the radio wave impinges the obstacle whose dimensions are
considerably larger than the wavelength of the incident wave. A reflected wave can either
decrease or increase the signal level at the reception point. In cases where many reflected
waves exist, the received signal level tends to be very unstable. This phenomenon is
commonly referred to as multi-path fading, and the signal is often Rayleigh distributed
[1] (Gibson, 1997:1183) [37] (Neskovic, Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002) [8] (Agrawal and
Zeng, 2003: 60). This is shown in the figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Radio Wave Reflection.

2.3.4 Penetration
Penetration occurs when the radio wave encounters an obstacle that is to some extent
transparent for the radio waves. This mechanism allows the reception of radio signals
inside buildings as shown in figure 2.11 in cases where the actual transmitter locations
are either outdoors or indoors [3] (Hess, 1998: 181) [37] (Neskovic, Neskovic and
Paunovic, 2002).

x
T

Page 38

Figure 2.11: Radio Wave penetration in to a building.

2.3.5 Refraction
Since the refractive index of the atmosphere is not constant, the radio waves do not
propagate along a straight line, but rather along a curved one. Therefore, the coverage
area of an actual transmitter is usually larger. However, as a result of the fluctuations of
the atmosphere parameters, the received signal strength level fluctuates as well. This
needs to be considered in macro-cell radio system design [4] (Parsons, 2000:26-31) [37]
(Neskovic, Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002). The concept is illustrated in figure 2.12;

x
T

Page 39

Figure 2.12: Radio Wave Refraction.

2.4. Radio Propagation Models
As the radio waves travel from the transmit antenna to the receive antenna, they suffer
attenuation due to propagation loss [38] (Communication research centre, 2005). This
loss can be modelled using a variety of methods, some of which are discussed below.

2.4.1 Free-Space Model
The power received P
r
by an antenna of gain G
r
due to a source of P
t
watts and antenna
gain G
t
at wavelength and free space distance d is given by the Friis transmission
formula [3] (Hess, 1998: 157):
Signals with increasing
frequency
Signals pass into the
outer space
F2 Layer
F1 Layer
E Layer
D layer
Ionosphere
Earth
Stratosphere

Page 40
[ ]
2
4 d G G P P
r t t r
=
(2.2)

Since wavelength equals the speed of propagation divided by frequency, the propagation
loss (or path loss) is conveniently expressed as a positive quantity and equation (2.2) can
be rewritten as [4] (Parsons, 2000:16-17):

) ( log 10
10 r t F
P P L
dB
=
k d f G G
KM MHZ r t
+ + + = ) ( log 20 ) ( log 20 log 10 log 10
10 10 10 10

(2.3)

Where ( )
8
10
10 3 4 log 20 = k ? It is often useful to compare path loss with the basic
path loss between isotropic antennas [4] (Parsons, 2000:21-22);

4 . 32 ) ( log 20 ) ( log 20
10 10
+ + =
KM MHZ dB
d f L
(2.4)

The relations in equation (2.4) do not apply to small path lengths. For applicability, the
transmitting antenna must be located in the far field of the receiving antenna. A
commonly applied criterion is ) 2 (
2
a
d d , where
a
d is the major antenna dimension?
This criterion is based on limiting the phase difference at distance d over a plane to one-
sixteenth of the wavelength [3] (Hess, 1998: 157) [39] (Mishra, 2004: 27).

Page 41
2.4.2 Plane Earth (Two-ray) Model
In a practical mobile channel, a single direct path between the base station and the mobile
seldom exists, and hence, the free space propagation model is of little use. The two-ray
reflection model shown in the figure 2.13 is a useful propagation model based on
geometrical optics and considers both the direct and ground reflected propagation path.
This model assumes that the wavelength is much smaller than the dimensions of any
obstacle encountered in the propagation channel.

The total received electromagnetic field
r
E is the resultant of direct line of sight
component
LOS
E and a ground reflected component
g
E , and is referenced to an
electromagnetic field measured over a small distance d
o
. From figure 2.13,
t
h

is the
height of the transmitter and
r
h is the height of the receiver. According to the laws of
reflection,

0
=
i
and
i
E E =
0

(2.5)

Page 42

Figure 2.13: Propagation over plane earth.

Where is the reflection coefficient for the ground? As
i
approaches 0
o
the reflected
wave is equal in magnitude and 180
o
out of phase with the incident wave. It can be shown
that, the received field in volts per meter is;

) 2 sin( ) 2 (
0
d d E E
LOS r

(2.6)

Where the phase difference is related to the path difference d between the direct
and ground reflected paths and is given by;

) 2 ( d =
(2.7)

At large values of d,
) (receiver R
x

d
t
h
r
h
) ( r transmitte T
x

LOS
E
i
E
g
E E =
0

i

0

g LOS r
E E E + =

Page 43
) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 sin( d h h
r t
=
(2.8)

and the received electric field in volts per meter is given by

) 2 ( 2
0
d d h h E E
r t LOS r

(2.9)

The power received at d is related to the square of the electric field and can be expressed
approximately as

) (
4 2 2
d h h G G P P
r t r t t r
=
(2.10)

For large distances, the received power drops at a rate of 40dB per decade. The received
power and path loss become independent of frequency (fourth power distance law.) The
path loss in decibels for the two-ray model is approximated as given below [1] (Gibson,
1997:1184-1186)

d h h G G PL
r t r t dB 10 10 10 10 10
log 40 log 20 log 20 log 10 log 10 + =
(2.11)

2.4.3 Curved Reflecting Surface Model
The above model is only considered for distances less than a few tens of kilometres.
However, for long distances, the earths curvature needs to be considered. The case of

Page 44
two visible antennas sited on smooth earth of effective radius r
e
is illustrated in the figure
2.14 below.

Figure 2.14: Propagation over curved reflecting surface.

The heights of the antenna above the earths surface are
t
h and
r
h . The antenna heights
above the tangent plane through the point of reflection are
'
t
h and
'
r
h . If
d
E is the field
strength at the receiving antenna due to direct wave, the total received field E is given by

)]] ( exp[ 1 [ + = j E E
d

(2.12)

Where is the reflection coefficient of the earth and j exp = , ] 4 [
' '
d h h
r t
= ;
Thus;
)]} ( exp[ 1 { + = j E E
d

(2.13)

x
T
x
R
1
r
2
r
'
r
h
'
t
h

t
h

r
h
1
d 2
d
e
r

Page 45
This equation can be used to calculate the received field strength at any location, but the
curvature of the spherical earth produces a certain amount of divergence of the ground
reflected wave. This is corrected by multiplying the value of for a plane surface by
divergence factor D given by the following formula [4] (Parsons, 2000:21-22)

2 1 ' '
2 1
]} ) ( ) 2 ( [ 1 {

+ +
r t e
h h r d d D
(2.14)

2.4.4 Land Propagation Models
A land mobile radio channel is characterized by a multi-path propagation channel with
fading. The signal reaches the destination using many paths as a result of diffraction,
scattering, reflection, transmission, and refraction from various objects along the path of
propagation. The signal strength and quality of received radio waves also varies
accordingly as the time to reach the destination changes. This implies that the wave
propagation in a multi-path channel depends on the actual environment, including factors
such as the antenna height, profiles of buildings, roads, and terrain. Therefore, we need to
describe the behaviour of mobile radio channels using a good and relevant statistical
mechanism. Hence, the received signal power is expressed as follows.

] [ L P G G P
t r t r
=
(2.15)

Page 46
Where L represents the propagation loss in the channel? Wave propagation in a mobile
radio channel is characterised by three aspects namely path loss, slow fading, and fast
fading. Therefore, L can be expressed as follows.

f s p
L L L L =

(2.16)

Where
p
L ,

s
L , and
f
L represent the path loss, slow fading loss, and fast fading loss,
respectively [8] (Agrawal and Zeng, 2003: 62-63)?

2.4.4.1 Diffraction Models
The real world propagation paths often involve obstructions like trees, buildings, and
terrain. The additional loss associated with such obstructions is called diffraction loss.
To cater for this situation, the following models were formulated [3] (Hess, 1998: 162);

2.4.4.1.1 Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
When the free-space condition is not satisfied, one means of quantifying the additional
path loss is to treat the obstacle as a diffracting knife-edge [3] (Hess, 1998: 164). The
diffraction path loss in this case can be readily estimated using classical Fresnel solution
for the field behind a knife-edge or half plane. Figure 2.15 below illustrates this
approach.

Page 47

Figure 2.15: Knife-edge diffraction.

The field strength at a receiver point
x
R in the shadowed region is a vector sum of the
fields due to all of secondary Huygens sources in the plane above the knife-edge. The
field strength
d
E of a knife-edge diffracted wave is given by the following formula.

+ = =
v
d
dt t j j E v F E E ) 2 exp( ] 2 ) 1 ( [ ) (
2
0 0

(2.17)

Where E
0
is the free space field strength in the absence of the knife-edge and F (v) is the
complex Fresnel integral which is a function of the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction
parameter v.

2 1 2 1
) ( 2 d d d d h v + =
(2.18)

Where h is the knife-edge height, d
1
and

d
2
are the distances of the knife-edge from the
transmitter and the receiver respectively. The diffraction gain in decibels due to the
x
R
x
T
h
1
d
2
d

Page 48
presence of knife-edge is given by the following expression [40] (Wireless
Communication, 1996) [4] (Parsons, 2000:36-39).

) ( log 20
10
v F G
d
=
(2.19)

2.4.4.1.2 Rounded-Edge Diffraction Model
Real-world obstructions are seldom as abrupt as knife-edges; hence a diffraction solution
wherein the knife-edge is replaced with a cylinder of radius R is of interest. Such a
solution can be given in terms of the dimensionless parameter:

2 1
2 1
2 1 3 1
6 1
|
|
\
| +
|
\
|
=
d d
d d
R

(2.20)

Where
1
d and
2
d are as shown in the figure 2.16 below.

Figure 2.16: Diffraction over a cylinder.
x
T
x
R
1
d
2
d

r
d

Page 49
The diffraction loss in decibels is the sum of the usual knife-edge diffraction loss in
decibels plus curvature and correction losses in decibels [3] (Hess, 1998: 166) and is
given approximately by the following formula:

2 , 7 . 6 6 ) 1 ( log ) 5 . 23 6 . 43 (
4 . 1 , 75 . 0 63 . 3 02 . 2 19 . 7 6
10
4 3 2
< + +
< + +

v v v v L
L
corr
cur

2 , 13 . 14 ) ( log 20 22
10
v v
(2.21)

2.4.4.1.3 Multiple knife-edge diffraction model
In practical scenarios, obstructions are seldom singular. When two or more obstructions
exist along the propagation path, approximate methods are used [3] (Hess, 1998: 166). A
number of methods exist. Perhaps the simplest is the Bullington equivalent knife-edge
method in which the real terrain is represented by a single knife-edge located at the point
of intersection of the optical paths from both the transmitter and receiver to their
respective horizons. Because intervening obstacles may be ignored, large errors can result
[3] (Hess, 1998: 166) [9] (Holbeche, 1985: 15-16). The Epstein-Peterson method
calculates loss on multiple obstructed paths by adding the losses relative to free-space
loss produced by each knife-edge in turn. This method runs into problems when obstacles
are closely spaced [3] (Hess, 1998: 166) [9] (Holbeche, 1985: 16). A method proposed by
the Japanese postal service referred to as the Japanese method has been shown to be
identical to the Epstein-Peterson method with the Millington correction [3] (Hess, 1998:
166) [9] (Holbeche, 1985: 16-17). The Deygout method is based on the concept of main

Page 50
edge. Here, the losses due to each obstruction / knife-edge are evaluated in the absence
of the others. The edge yielding the highest loss is termed as the main edge. The
diffraction losses over the remaining edges are then found with respect to the main edge
and the visible transmitter and receiver. For more than three knife-edges, the total loss is
set to the sum of the individual losses for edges in the order of decreasing loss. The above
procedure is conducted recursively [3] (Hess, 1998: 166-167) [9] (Holbeche, 1985: 17-
18). The Edwards and Durkin method is identical to that of Epstein-Peterson for up to
three obstacles. For four or more obstacles, they construct a Bullington-like path between
the outer two obstacles. This method is more accurate than Bullington and requires at
most three diffraction calculations [3] (Hess, 1998: 167).

The Bullington method produces results that underestimate the path loss. The Epstein-
Peterson and Japanese methods are better when considering three or more obstacles but
provide path loss predictions that are too low. The Deygout method shows good
agreement with the rigorous theory for two edges, but overestimates the path loss in
circumstances where the other methods produce underestimates. The pessimism of the
Deygout method increases as the number of obstructions is increased; hence calculations
are often terminated after consideration of three edges. Giovaneli devised an alternative
technique which remains in good agreement with values obtained by Volger even when
several obstructions are considered [4] (Parsons, 2000: 50-52).

Page 51
2.4.4.2 The Scattering Model
The measured path loss in a mobile radio environment is often less than what is predicted
by reflection and diffraction alone. This is because when a radio wave impinges on a
rough surface, the reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to
scattering. The roughness of a surface is often tested using the Rayleigh criterion, which
defines a critical height
c
h of surface protuberances for a given angle of incidence
i
as
follows.

] cos 8 [
i c
h =
(2.22)

A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance h is less than
c
h

and is considered rough if the protuberance is greater than
c
h
.
For rough surfaces, the
reflection coefficient needs to be modified by a scattering loss factor to account for
diminished specularly reflected field.

] ) cos ( 8 exp[
2

i h s
=
(2.23)

Where
h

is the standard deviation of the surface height about the mean surface height?
To give better agreement with the measured results this was modified to;

] ) cos ( 8 [ ] ) cos ( 8 exp[
2
0
2

i h i h s
I =
(2.24)

Page 52
Where I
o
is the Bessel function of the first kind and zeroth order [1] (Gibson, 1997: 1187-
1188)? Analysis based on the geometric theory of diffraction and physical optics can be
used to determine the scattered strength. For urban mobile radio system, models based on
a bistatic radar equation may be used to compute the scattering losses in the far field. The
radar cross section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the power
density of the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the
radio wave incident upon the scattering object and has units of square meters. The bistatic
radar equation (2.25) describes the propagation of a wave travelling in free-space and
intercepted by a scattering object, and then radiated in the direction of the receiver,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 4 log 30 log 20 ) (
10
2
10
+ + + = dBm RCS dBi G dBm P dBm P
t t r

r t
d d
10 10
log 20 log 20
(2.25)

Where
t
d and
r
d are the distance from the scattering object to the transmitter and
receiver, respectively. This model can only be applied to scattered waves in the far field
of both the transmitter and the receiver [1] (Gibson, 1997: 1187-1188).

2.4.4.3 The Penetration Model
The penetration loss of a signal depends on a number of factors. Central among them is
the carrier frequency, the propagation condition along the path and the height of the
receiver within the building. However, there are other influencing factors which include
the orientation of the building with respect to the base station, the building construction
and the internal building layout [4] (Parsons, 2000: 192). A simple two-parameter model

Page 53
is used to calculate building penetration loss. When a ray penetrates a building, it first
suffers losses due to the external wall. But between the external wall and the prediction
point there is additional distance dependent losses which have to be also added.

Building penetration loss can be quantified as follows. First, a number of local mean
values are established inside the first enclosed floors of the building under consideration.
Each mean should be based on a large number of instantaneous signal strength samples
collected while moving over a distance of approximately 40 wavelengths. In cases where
room and hallway sizes may preclude such linear movement, an S- or U- shaped
pattern of movement can be used. To mitigate against measurement errors due to
saturation of the signal strength detector or signal fading below the detector noise floor,
the median level of all instantaneous signal strengths is suggested as the value to
represent each local mean. The process is then repeated to obtain a number of local mean
values around the outside perimeter of the building at ground level. The difference
between the decibel-averaged inside median values and the decibel-averaged outside
median values is then taken as the mean building penetration loss for the building under
consideration.

When data for several buildings of the same type are available, the mean penetration loss
for that class of buildings can be taken as the decibel average of the individual building
penetration losses. However, building loss decreases with increasing frequency, at least
up to 3 GHz [3] (Hess, 1998: 181-182). The path loss
dB
L includes the value of the
clutter loss ) (v L and is expressed as

Page 54
w w f f dB
a n a n d v L L + + + =
10
log 20 ) (
(2.26)
Where
f
a is the attenuation in dB of the floors and
w
a is the attenuation in dB of the
walls and
f
n and
w
n are the number of floors and walls along the line d respectively. The
results vary from building to building depending on the type of construction of building,
the furniture and equipment it houses, and the number and deployment of people who
populate it [7] (Freeman, 1989: 891).

2.4.4.4 The Refraction Model
The atmosphere has a profound effect on signal propagation. At frequencies above
30MHz, there are three effects worthy of mention [4] (Parsons, 2000: 26).
Localized fluctuations in refractive index, which can cause scattering
Abrupt changes in refractive index as a function of height, which can cause
reflection
A more complicated phenomenon known as ducting.
Variations in the climatic conditions within the atmosphere cause changes in the
refractive index of the air. Large-scale changes of refractive index with height cause radio
waves to be refracted, and at low elevation angles the effect can be quite significant at all
frequencies. Refraction has greatest effect on VHF and UHF point-to-point systems and
is therefore worth discussing. Ideally, the dielectric constant of atmosphere is unity and
there is zero absorption. In practice, the dielectric constant of air is greater than unity and
depends on the pressure and temperature of the air and the water vapour. It therefore
varies with weather condition and with height above the ground. A change in the

Page 55
atmospheric dielectric constant with height implies that electromagnetic waves are bent
in a curved path that keeps them nearer to the earth than would be the case if they truly
travelled in a straight line. In a standard exponential atmosphere, it can be shown that the
radius of curvature is given by

|
\
|
=
dn
dh
P
(2.27)

Where h is the antenna height and n is the atmospheric index. The distance d, from an
antenna of height h to the optical horizon can be obtained. The maximum LoS range d is
given by the following formula [4] (Parsons, 2000: 29).

hr hr h r r h d 2 2 ) (
2 2 2 2
+ = + =
(2.28)

so that hr d 2 when h << r . For a curved surface, the modified radius can be found
from the following relationship.

)] ( ) 1 [( ) 1 ( dh dn r r
e
+ =
(2.29)

Where ) ( dh dn is the rate of change of refractive index with height? If ) ( dh dn = -
e
r 1 ,
we have the interesting situation of zero relative curvature. The value of ) ( dh dn that
would cause this is -157 Nepers per Km. In certain parts of the world, it is often found
that the refraction index has a rate of decrease with height over a short distance that is

Page 56
greater than this critical rate, and is sufficient to cause the rays to be refracted back to the
surface of the earth. These rays are then reflected and refracted back again in such a
manner that the field is trapped or guided in a thin layer of the atmosphere close to the
earths surface. This phenomenon is known as trapping or ducting. The waves will then
propagate over a long distance with much less attenuation than for free-space propagation
[4] (Parsons, 2000: 27-30).

2.4.4.5 The Fading Model
Substantial variations occur in the signal amplitude during propagation. The signal
fluctuations are known as fading. Short-term fluctuations are known as fast fading and
the long-term fluctuations are known as slow fading. Of the two, slow fading is of
profound effect. Mobile terminals moving into the shadow of hills or buildings cause
slow fading with the variations in signal strength and hence, slow fading is often referred
to as shadowing. The mean path loss due to slow fading closely fits a log-normal
distribution with a standard deviation that depends on the frequency and environment.
Thus, the term log-normal fading is also used [4] (Parsons, 2000: 114-116).

The simple path-loss model given in equation 2.30 is generally used. The exponent is a
parameter that needs to be determined from measurement data. The terms
w
m and k are
defined as the mean powers at distances d and
0
d respectively.

= ) (
0
d d k m
w

(2.30)

Page 57
Where is the path loss coefficient.
w
m and k expressed in dB are given as follows [41]
(Gibson, 1997: par. 21.7.1).

w w
m M
10
log 10 =
(2.31)

k K
10
log 10 =
(2.32)

Using the above expressions,
w
m can be expressed as follows.

) ( log 10
0 10
d d K M
w
=
(2.33)

The received signal power with the combined effect of path loss and shadowing in dB is
given by the following expression.

dB w
d d K M + = ) ( log 10
0 10

(2.34)

Where is the correction factor for log-normal shadowing? The above expression
defines the log-normal shadowing path loss model. Measurement supports the log-normal
distribution for [42] (Goldsmith, 2004) as follows.

] 2 ) ( exp[ ] 2 1 [ ) (
2 2
dB dB dB
dB dB
P

=
(2.35)

Page 58
Where ) (
dB
P is the log-normal distribution,
2
dB
is the variance and

dB
is the mean of
the log-normal shadowing?

2.5. Conclusion
The wireless channel has been well discussed in this chapter to set the precedence for
both propagation mechanisms and models. The propagation mechanisms have been
elaborated well to address the signal impairment factors during signal propagation. The
propagation models ranging from simple ones for the line-of-sight scenario to complex
ones for non line-of-sight scenario have been illustrated to facilitate the quantification of
the signal impairment factors and hence be able to devise a mechanism to mitigate them.

From this chapter, it is clearly shown that radio signal propagating from the transmitter to
the receiver encounters impairments. However, it remains a subject of discussion as to
what extent these impairments are accounted for in radio planning. Most of the models
discussed here are accounted for just by providing an overall multiplying factor to the
propagation loss estimation algorithms as will be shown in chapter three. However, this
does not account fully as to what extent each of the models affect a propagating radio
signal. Thus, it is important that each impairment factor be examined separately and its
effects to the propagating radio signal accounted for independently to be able to
approximate real propagation environment. This inefficiency in accounting for
propagation losses stands out as the main objective of this project.

Page 59
CHAPTER 3: PREDICTION MODELS AND TUNING
APPROACHES
3.1. Introduction
The basic elements of propagation path loss models were described in chapter 2. The
application of each model varies according to frequency, link range, terrain type, land
use/land cover, etc. As an indication of the manner in which transmission loss calculation
may be made, an examination of the more notable irregular terrain prediction models as
well as clutter prediction models is given in the following section.

3.2. Propagation Prediction Models
A radio propagation prediction model is a set of mathematical expressions, diagrams and
algorithms used to represent the radio characteristics of a given environment [37] (Neskovic,
Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002). A number of approaches have been developed to predict
coverage that makes use of propagation path loss models. While all these models try to
approximate signal strength at a particular receiving point or in a specific local area referred
to as a sector, the methods used generally vary in their approach and accuracy. In general,
propagation models can be either empirical (referred to as statistical) or theoretical (referred
to as deterministic), or a combination of these two (also called semi-empirical) [39] (Mishra,
2004: 93). On the basis of the radio environment to be studied, the radio propagation models
can be classified into two main categories, outdoor and indoor propagation models. Further,
in respect of the size of coverage area, the outdoor propagation models are subdivided into
two additional classes, macro-cell and micro-cell propagation models [37] (Neskovic,

Page 60
Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002). The following sections consider various propagation
models from these categories.

3.2.1 Okumura-Hata Model
The Okumura-Hata model [23] (Hata, 1980: 317325) or a variation of it is used by most
of the propagation tools. The model is based on an empirical relation derived from
Okumuras report on signal strength and variability measurements [24] (Okumura et al,
1968: 825-873). The model is parameterized for various environments, namely urban,
suburban and open areas. It is applicable to:
Frequency f (150...1500 MHz)
Distance between transmitter and receiver d (1...20 km)
Antenna height of the transmitter h
t
(30...200 m)
Antenna height of the receiver h
r
(1...10 m)
Since the model only requires four parameters for the computation of path loss, the
computation time is very short. This is the primary advantage of the model. However, the
model neglects the terrain profile between transmitter and receiver, i.e. hills or other
obstacles between the transmitter and the receiver are not considered. However, Hata and
Okumura made the assumption that the transmitter would normally be located on hills
and could ignore basic terrain losses. Also, phenomena such as reflection and shadowing
are not included in the model [43] (AWE Communications, S.a.).

Since the height of the transmitter and the receiver is measured relative to the ground, an

Page 61
effective antenna height h
eff
is additionally used and added to the antenna height of the
transmitter to improve the accuracy of the prediction. The parameters marked green in the
figure 3.1 are the parameters considered by the Okumura- Hata model.

Figure 3.1: Definitions of Factors Neglected in Okumura- Hata Model.

In this example, the prediction would be too optimistic since the model assumes line-of-
sight transmission and does not consider that the actual path is obstructed by two hills
[43] (AWE Communications, S.a.). The basic prediction of the median field strength is
obtained for the quasi-smooth terrain in an urban area. The correction factor for either an
open area or a suburban area has to be taken into account. The additional correction
factors, such as for a rolling hilly terrain, the isolated mountain, mixed land-sea paths,
street direction, general slope of the terrain etc., make the final prediction closer to the
actual field strength values. The following equations show the computation of the basic
path loss L
dB
of the Okumura-Hata model.

eff
h
x
T
x
R

t
h
r
h
d

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d h h c h f L
eff r eff dB 10 10 10 10
log ) log 55 . 6 9 . 44 ( ) ( log 82 . 13 log 16 . 26 55 . 69 + + =
(3.1)

Where ) (
r
h c is the correction factor for mobile antenna height in dB? In addition to the
basic loss formula, ) (
r
h c is defined as follows to characterize different environments:

) 8 . 0 log 56 . 1 ( ) 7 . 0 log 1 . 1 ( ) (
10 10
= f h f h c
r r
(for small or medium sized cities)
(3.2.a)

97 . 4 )) 75 . 11 ( (log 2 . 3 ) (
2
10
=
r r
h h c (for large cities with f 400 MHZ)
(3.2.b)

Some modifications to the equations for rural or open environment are necessary since
they are undeveloped or partially developed with conventional small dwellings and barns,
and sparsely populate areas. Thus, the loss due to buildings and other factors that impair
propagation in urban areas may not have the same effect in the rural and open areas. They
are taken into account in the following formulae:

4 . 5 )) 28 ( (log 2 ) (
2
10
= f urban L L
dB dB

(3.3)
94 . 40 log 33 . 18 ) (log 78 . 4 ) (
10 10
+ = f f urban L L
dB dB

(3.4)

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In quasi-open areas, losses were found to be 5 dB more than indicated by equation (3.4)
[4] (Parsons, 2000: 114-116). However, many authors [2] (Lee, 1993: 68-69) [44]
(Parsons and Gardiner, 1989: 84) [26] (D. Paunovic, Stojanovic and Stojanovic, 1984)
show certain reserve toward the application of the Okumura model. They note that
extensive data regarding its performance must be obtained before the use of the model
can be advocated. In addition, more careful interpretation of the definitions of various
parameters needs to be made. When assessing the values of the model's parameters, the
influence of the subjective factors such as weather conditions, electromagnetic
interference, etc. is not easy to avoid, thus yielding different results for the same problem.

3.2.2 The COST 231-Hata Model
The COST 231-Hata model [20] (COST 231, 1999) extends the Okumura-Hata model to
a frequency range of 1500- 2000 MHz. It is thus applicable to GSM1800 network
planning. In urban areas the path loss (dB) is given by

m eff r eff dB
C d h h c h f L + + + =
10 10 10 10
log ) log 55 . 6 9 . 44 ( ) ( log 82 . 13 log 9 . 33 3 . 46
(3.5)

Where ) (
r
h c is defined in Equation (3.2.a). For medium sized city and suburban centres
with moderate tree density, C
m
= 0 dB and for metropolitan centres, C
m
= 3 dB. Despite
the improvements made on the Okumura-Hata model as seen in equation (3.5), there are
still some problems in the definition of environments for countries other than Japan. For
instance, Okumuras definition of urban areas is based on the type and density of building
in Tokyo and may not be directly applicable to cities in South Africa. Thus, some

Page 64
attempts have been made to expand the concept of degree of urbanization to embrace
continuum of values [13] (Ibrahim and Parsons, 1983: 377-384). A ground cover factor
has been proposed by Akeyama et al [4] (Akeyama et al, as quoted by Parsons, 2000: 87)
to account for values of less than 50 % in a continuous way. The deviation from
Okumuras reference median curve is given by the following expression.

26 log 19
10
= =
dB
S ) % 5 (
(3.6.a)

20 log 74 . 3 ] [log 75 . 9
10
2
10
+ =
dB
S %) 5 % 1 ( < <
(3.6.b)

20 =
dB
S %) 1 (
(3.6.c)

The path loss with the Akeyama et al correction is the given by;

L
dB
= L
dB
given by equation (3.5) S
dB
(3.7)

3.2.3 The COST 231 -Walfisch-Ikegami Model
In urban environments, a model that takes the characteristics of the city structure into
account increases the accuracy of the propagation estimation. Since the Okumura-Hata
model and the COST 231-Hata model are suitable only for distances over 1 km, a
propagation model for shorter distances is also needed. The COST 231 - Walfisch-
Ikegami [20] (COST 231, 1999) is a combination of empirical and deterministic models.
It presumes that the base station antenna is mounted below the average building height.

Page 65
The model uses the same notations as the Okumura-Hata model. In addition, the
following parameters are used to describe the propagation environment. These are
depicted in Figure 3.2:

Figure 3.2: Definition of the Parameters used in COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model.

Where
Height of buildings h
roof
(m),
Width of road w (m),
Building separation b (m),
Another parameter that is used to characterize the propagation environment for COST
231 - Walfisch-Ikegami model is depicted in figure 3.3. The model takes into
consideration a street orientation angle .

r
h
d
b w
t
h
roof
h

Page 66

Figure 3.3: Definition of the Street Orientation Angle .

The usage of the model is restricted to
f: 800 - 2000 MHz,
h
t:
4 - 50 m,
h
r
: 1 - 3 m,
d: 0.02 - 5 km.

Because the parameters are only characteristic of the propagation environment and does
not take into account the topographical data about the buildings used, the model is still
statistical and not fully deterministic. The model distinguishes between line-of-sight
(LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) situations. In a LOS case within a street canyon, a
simple loss formula is applied as follows.

f d L
dB 10 10
log 20 log 26 6 . 42 + + =
(3.8)

In a NLOS case, the propagation loss is defined as follows.

Page 67
msd rts dB
L L L L + + =
0
for
msd rts
L L + > 0
(3.9.a)

0
L L
dB
=

for
msd rts
L L + < 0
(3.9.b)

Where
0
L the free space loss is defined by Equation 3.1;
rts
L is the roof to street
diffraction loss and
msd
L is the multi-screen diffraction loss over the roofs between MS
and BTS. The roof to street diffraction loss is given by equation (3.10).

ri m roof rts
L h h f w L
0 10 10 10
) ( log 20 log 10 log 10 9 . 16 + + + =
(3.10)

Where

0 0
0 0
0 0
90 55
55 35
35 0
<
<
<

(3.11)

ori
L is a factor which has been estimated from only a very small number of
measurements. The multiple screen diffraction loss was estimated for the case when the
base antenna is above the roof tops. This was also extended in COST to the case when the
antenna is below roof top height, using an empirical function based on measurements.
The relevant equations are

b f K d K K L L
f d a bsh msd 10 10 10
log 9 log log + + + =
(3.12)

+
+
=
) 55 ( 114 . 0 0 . 4
) 35 ( 075 . 0 5 . 2
354 . 0 10
ori
L

Page 68
Where

roof t
roof t
h h
h h
>

(3.13)

and

km andd h h
km andd h h
h h
roof t
roof t
roof t
5 . 0
5 . 0
<

>

(3.14)

Where
a
K represents the increase in the path loss when base station antenna is below the
rooftop heights? The terms
d
K and
f
K allows for the dependence of the diffraction loss
on range and frequency, respectively [4] (Parsons, 2000: 93-95).

3.2.4 The Ibrahim-Parsons Method
In the Ibrahim-Parsons model [4] (Parsons, 2000: 93-95), two modelling approaches are
considered. The first is derived from an empirical expression for the path loss based on
multiple regression analysis. The second starts from the theoretical plane earth equation
and correlate the excess path loss with the parameters likely to influence it. The main
difference between the two is that a fourth-power range dependence law is assumed prior
to calculation in the second approach. The first is an empirical method and uses two
+
=
0
)] ( 1 [ log 18
10 roof t
bsh
h h
L

=
2 . 0
) ( 54
) ( 54
54
d
h h
h h K
roof t
roof t a

Page 69
parameters (land usage factor (
a
L ) and degree of urbanization (U)) to reflect the
environmental conditions. The median path loss is given by the following formula.

] 156 ) 100 ( [ log 86 ) 40 ( log 26 ) 40 ( log 8 ) 7 . 0 ( log 20
10 10 10 10
+ + + = f f f h h L
r t dB

u g a
K H L d f + + + + + 37 . 0 26 . 0 log ]} 156 ) 100 ( [ log 15 . 14 40 {
10 10

(3.15)

Where
g
H is the correction term for average ground height, and 5 . 5 087 . 0 = U K
u
, for
highly urbanized areas, otherwise 0 =
u
K .

The second is a semi-empirical model based on the plane earth equation. It expresses the
median path loss as the sum of the theoretical plane earth loss and an excess clutter loss
. The following mathematical model is used:

+ = ) ( log 20 log 40
10 10 r t dB
h h d L
(3.16)

where
u g a
K H L f + + + = 18 . 0 ) 40 ( 20
(3.17)

and
9 . 5 094 . 0 = U K
u

(3.18)

The application range of the formula is given by:
f: 168-900 MHZ

Page 70
h
r
: 3 m
d: 1-10 km

3.2.5 The Lee Model
This model was proposed by W.C.Y. Lee in 1982 [2] (Lee, 1993: 61). In the Lee model
the parameters of the model can be easily adjusted to the local environment by additional
field measurements. By doing so, greater accuracy of the model can be achieved. In
addition, the prediction algorithm is simple and fast. The model consists of two parts. In
the first part, an area-to-area prediction is used to predict a path loss over a general flat
terrain without taking into account the particular terrain configuration. The area-to-area
prediction alone is generally found to be inadequate for hilly regions. The second part of
the Lee model uses the area-to-area prediction as a basis and then develops a point-to-
point prediction, thus resolving the above problem. Based on a terrain profile database,
the point-to-point prediction considers whether LoS conditions exist or not. In the case of
LoS existence, the influence of the reflected radio waves is carefully examined. On the
other hand, when LoS existence is missing, the obstructions are modelled in the form of
"knife-edges" and diffracted waves are computed. Hence the median loss at a distance d
is given by the following expression.

0 10 0
log F d L L
dB
+ + =
(3.19)

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Where
0
L is the median transmission loss at a range of 1 km, the slope of the path loss
curve in dB / decade, and
0
F is an adjustment factor [2] (Lee, 1993: 61-65) [4] (Parsons,
2000: 95-98).

3.2.6 The ITU (CCIR) Model
The CCIR (Comit Consultatif International des Radio-Communication, now ITU-R)
[37] (CCIR as quoted in Neskovic, Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002) method is based on the
statistical analysis of a considerable amount of experimental data obtained by
measurements in many countries. The curves for the field strength prediction refer to the
kind of rolling irregular terrain found in many parts of Europe and North America, for
which a value of parameter h, defining the degree of terrain irregularity of 50m is
considered representative. Parameter h is defined as the difference in the heights
exceeded by 10 percent and 90 percent of the terrain over propagation paths in the range
of 10km to 50km from the transmitter. To determine the field strength over any irregular
terrain, the attenuation correction factor dependent upon h and given in the form of
diagrams should be subtracted from the value read from the reference field strength
curves. However, many papers have demonstrated the single parameter h to be
inadequate for precise determination of the attenuation correction factor. In addition, the
local terrain effects in the region of the receiving area are in no way taken into account
when applying the CCIR method. The original curves are intended for use in planning
broadcasting services for the solution of interference problems over a wide area and not
for point-to-point communications. Therefore, for rural environments it is not unusual to
find that the median field strength differs by more than 20dB with respect to the predicted

Page 72
value. In urban areas the error can be even greater. As a consequence, the ITU model is
rarely used in its basic form. However, due to the simplicity of the model, it is used for
frequency coordination and frequency planning purposes in cell border areas [37]
(Neskovic, Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002).

An empirical formula for the combined effects of free-space path loss and terrain-induced
path loss was published by the CCIR and is given by the following expression.

B d h h c h f L
t r t dB
+ + =
10 10 10 10
log ) log 55 . 6 9 . 44 ( ) ( log 82 . 13 log 16 . 26 55 . 69
(3.20)

Where
t
h and
r
h are base station and mobile antenna heights in meters, respectively, d
is the link distance in kilometres, f is the centre frequency in megahertz, and

) 8 . 0 log 56 . 1 ( ) 7 . 0 log 1 . 1 ( ) (
10 10
= f h f h c
r r

buildings) by covered area of (% log 25 30
10
= B
(3.21)

This formula is the Hata model for mediumsmall city propagation conditions,
supplemented with a correction factor, B. B = 0 is applied for an urban area, where 15 %
of the area is covered by buildings [45] (Lee and Miller, 1998: 4).

Page 73
3.3. Model Tuning Approaches
Model tuning is a process in which a theoretical propagation model is tuned with the help
of measured values obtained from test drive data. The models have several parameters
that can be changed as need arises. The aim is to get the predicted field strength as close
as possible to the measured field strength [32] (Lempiinen & Manninen, 2001: 107). A
number of approaches for model tuning may be defined. The following sections describe
the basic model tuning approaches.

3.3.1 Statistical Tuning Approach
This method uses predictors or "specifiers in general statistical modelling theory.
These are parameters that have been found through statistical analysis to bear relationship
to the quantity that is to be predicted [46] (Anderson, 1997). In this approach, the first
step is the selection of an appropriate statistical model. Subsequently, the model is used
to predict the field strength of a given network. Drive tests are then carried out to collect
measurement data of the network. The data is then analysed to identify trends and errors
before converting it into a suitable format to calibrate the predictors coefficients. The
iterations are repeated several times to minimize the error between the predicted and the
measured field strengths [32] (Lempiinen & Manninen, 2001: 94-133). In the statistical
tuning approach, all environmental influences are implicitly taken into account regardless
of whether they can be separately recognized. Thus, the accuracy of this approach
depends not only on the accuracy of the measurements, but also on the similarities
between the environment to be analyzed and the environment where the moments are

Page 74
carried out. Their computational efficiency is found to be effective [37] (Neskovic,
Neskovic and Paunovic, 2002).

However, the inability to explicitly account for particular features of the propagation
environment is perhaps the greatest limitation of statistical tuning measurement-based
approach. The accuracy and usefulness of such an approach also depends on the
environment where the original data was taken and how universally applicable the
environment is. In spite of its limitations, the statistical tuning approach is widely used
because it is simple and allows rapid computer calculation. It also has a certain "comfort"
factor in that planners using the method over time have come to know what to expect and
to make their own ad-hoc "corrections" to the prediction values provided by this
approach. When the propagation environment is fairly homogeneous and similar to the
environment where the measurements were taken, a statistical tuning approach can
achieve reasonably good prediction results.

With the recent advent of automated field strength measurement systems with GPS
position logging, it is now relatively easy to acquire vast amounts of measurement data.
In spite of their heavy reliance on measurement data, such customized approach will still
fail to adequately account for propagation environment features [46] (Anderson, 1997).

3.3.2 Deterministic Tuning Approach
In this method, physical laws governing the interaction of electromagnetic waves with the
physical elements of the propagation environment are focused on. Fundamentally, all

Page 75
these interactions can be derived from Maxwell equations [47] (Jordan and Balmain,
1968: 100-159). It begins with the selection of a propagation model. Detailed data on
morphology, topology, street orientation, etc. are then used to model the physical
environment to adjust the coefficients of the model chosen. This process is repeated to
minimize the errors in the model approximating the real physical environment [32]
(Lempiinen & Manninen, 2001: 109, 119). The physical environment model is
simplified by the use of path loss approximation models for diffraction, reflection,
refraction, and absorption. Depending on the obstacles on the propagation path the
appropriate path loss model of each of the impairments is used [4] (Parsons, 2000: 32-
101).

To be effective, the deterministic approach requires detailed descriptions of the elements
of propagation environment for their predictions. For this reason, the weakness of
deterministic approach is that it requires extensive databases of information (such as
terrain elevations, building wall locations or surface material characteristics) that in turn
require significant computer resources to take all this information into account to perform
the required propagation calculations.

A typical example is representing an obstructing mountain ridge as a single isolated
"knife-edge." The effect of a single knife-edge on the signal is readily found from classic
diffraction theory to provide a field strength prediction at the receiver. The problem is
whether a real mountain ridge can be accurately modelled as a knife-edge. Clearly, no
mountain ridge is really a knife-edge. Other methods to more accurately represent the

Page 76
mountain ridge have been used. In each case where a new model of the obstacle was
employed, the physical principles governing the effect of the "model" obstacle on the
radio waves were known.

The important aspect of deterministic tuning approach (and its primary distinction from
statistical tuning approach) is that it attempts to predict the field strength at a precise
point in space by considering the specific propagation environment circumstances
involved. For this reason, it can be regarded as site-specific approach [46] (Anderson,
1997.).

3.3.3 Semi-Statistical/Semi-Deterministic Tuning Approach
Semi-statistical or semi-deterministic approach is based on the application of
deterministic methods to generic rural or urban models. It uses calibrations to improve
the models agreement with the measurement data. It requires more information than the
statistical approach but less than the deterministic approach [48] (Newfield, S.a.). It is
actually a compromise between the two approaches discussed above. It tends to have both
the advantages of the statistical and deterministic approaches. The inclusion of
deterministic correction factors improves the accuracy of the statistical models. It looks at
environmental factors that influence propagation in a more detailed form and facilitates
the statistical propagation model to simulate the real environment as close as possible.
Thus it may seem to be the best option for prediction purposes. However, this approach is
also prone to the inherent limitation of the above two approaches. In essence these
models are easy to implement than the deterministic models but offers less efficiency of

Page 77
use as compared to statistical models. Nevertheless, they remain the optimal choice if the
tradeoffs between accuracy and ease of use are considered.

3.3.4 The Per Cell Tuning Approach
Predictions can be carried out on an individual cell or for groups of cells intended to
cover a given area [4] (Parsons, 2000: 376), the per cell model tuning approach stems
from this statement. This approach is aimed at improving system design integrity and the
accuracy for better planning and maintenance of the network. However, this approach is
based on the three approaches discussed earlier. The idea here is to establish a method of
being able to tune propagation models for a single cell as opposed to the current cluster
tuning approach. This approach is of great importance to network operators in situations
where only particular cells are experiencing problems. It is clear that this prediction
method will be environment dependent and can only be used for cells within a similar
environment. Many factors are included in the determination of signal path loss to a
specific point within the cell. According to [4] (Parsons, 2000: 15-24, 32-64, 71-100,
114-127) the three main concerns are transmission, environment, and losses due to
multiple signal paths (multi-path) causing self-destructive interference.

Transmission modelling [4] (Parsons, 2000: 15-31, 52-68) is used to predict the power
available from the antenna at locations within the intended cell site coverage space. In
general, the amount of power at the output of the antenna is a function of the amount of
power provided to the antenna and the antenna radio frequency radiation pattern. These

Page 78
two factors (power output and antenna gain) sometimes expressed as Effective Isotropic
Radiated Power (EIRP), are crucial in determining the signal strength along various
radials from the antenna. Methods for calculating ideal transmission loss are well known.
Transmitter power output, transmission cable loss, antenna gain, free space propagation
loss, antenna and receiver gain can all be calculated and used to predict a theoretical, best
case cell coverage.

Environment modelling [4] (Parsons, 2000: 32-52, 73-95) involves determining the
effects of the terrain features between the cell site and the specific position within the
cell. While signal path losses attributable to dispersion increase as the inverse square of
the distance from the cell site increases, environment factors can greatly affect these
losses. Modelling of the environment includes the signal reduction due to the distance
from the cell site as well as diffraction losses caused by buildings or other terrain features
between the cell site and the specific point within the cell. Furthermore, since radio
propagation conditions vary significantly in typical operating environments, signal path
loss models normally account for the statistical variability of the received signal by
incorporating suitable power margins for the purpose of system planning.

A third type of modelling [4] (Parsons, 2000: 114-162) predicts the effects of multiple
signal paths and resultant destructive interference at the received location, namely multi-
path fading. Multi-path fading results from multiple paths taken by a signal from the cell
site to a specific point within a cell. When two or more signal components arrive at a
particular reception point in space after travelling different distances, the resultant signals

Page 79
may no longer be in phase. Thus, when these signals are combined, the difference in the
phase shifts may combine destructively and produce a degraded sum signal at the specific
point. Unfortunately, precise modelling of destructive interference is very difficult
because of the number of variables involved and the relatively short wavelengths(15.1 to
31.2 centimetres) used by cellular services. Accordingly, for system planning purposes,
power margins (offsets) are normally included in path loss predictions to account for the
effects of multi-path fading.

Once selected, the propagation models must be calibrated to accurately model a specific
cell site. The calibration process involves modifying the model parameters to accurately
approximate relevant measurement data. Typically the propagation models include
parameters that account for the geographical environment, e.g. whether the environment
is urban or rural, the ground height relative to the transmitter and the terrain between the
transmitter and receiver [32] (Lempiinen & Manninen, 2001: 107-119). This
environmental information can be obtained from a Geographical Information System
(GIS) and should be included in the analysis.

Propagation measurement data is used to calibrate these propagation models. Propagation
measurement data is obtained through actual field measurements taken at various
locations throughout the cell. Precise measurement locations may be determined using a
Global Positioning System (GPS). Typically, a large number of field measurements may
be required to accurately calibrate a modelling equation. Once the raw data is collected, it

Page 80
is converted to the appropriate format and used to characterize the cell site to its location
[32] (Lempiinen & Manninen, 2001: 103-104).

The calibration process uses the field data collected to define parameters, variable
coefficients and constants of equations used to model cell coverage. The calibration is a
laborious procedure requiring significant time and effort. Several iterations are carried
out to obtain the predicted field and measured field strength as close as possible [4]
(Parsons, 2000: 380-382).

3.4. Conclusion
In general, the models described are a mixture of empirical formula and the application of
propagation theory. Their applicability depends to a great extent on the type of terrain
covered, the form of prediction, the ease of implementation and accuracy. The need for
further investigations of path loss prediction methods for increasing accuracy and decreasing
computational time has been clearly established in this chapter. The various tuning
approaches have been examined thoroughly and the need for a different tuning approach has
been evidently shown. It is evident that most of the propagation prediction models try to
account for the propagation environment but in a generalised form. Thus there is a need to
modify some of these models to account for the propagation environment with a view to
account for individual factors separately rather than lumping them together. For instance, the
Okumura-Hata model, which is commonly used, does not account for clutter factors and
though it accounts for the diffraction factors it does not take into account specific features

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like rounded hill tops. Hence necessitating the need to model these factors and incorporate
them in this model to improve its performance in hilly and suburban or urban areas.

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CHAPTER 4: CONDUCTING A MEASUREMENT-BASED
RADIO PLANNING STUDY
4.1. Introduction
Radio system planning can be seen as a process that defines the stages required to
provide a desired radio network plan for a given geographical area. To achieve a desired
radio network, it is important to capture critical factors that influence the choice of base
transceiver station locations. It is important to note that the parameters that affect radio
system planning also define the radio propagation environment that specifies the
characteristics of the radio propagation which furthermore has a significant effect on the
coverage and capacity of radio network. This chapter presents the preliminary steps
towards the actual model design from field measurements collection to updating and
validating the computational databases. Furthermore a thorough calibration process of
propagation models available in a radio planning tool (ATOLL) using field
measurements is presented.

4.2. Model Tuning Measurement Collection
Normally, propagation model tuning measurements (MTM) are only carried out when
planning is done for a new network and, if there is an area with changes in the
propagation environment such as new buildings, new roads, or if a new frequency band is
taken into consideration [32] (Lempiinen & Manninen, 2001: 103). It was established in
the previous chapter that statistical models are based on measurement data and have high

Page 83
computational efficiency as opposed to deterministic models. Practically, the accuracy of
statistical models depends not only on the accuracy of the measurements, but also on the
similarities between the propagation environments of the area where the measurement
campaign is performed and the environment that the calibrated model is to be applied. To
obtain such data, radio frequency (RF) measurements campaigns were performed in a
suburb of Pretoria for various sites that contained buildings and vegetation.

4.2.1 Site and Clutter Selection
Since the measurement campaign was required to establish the effect of vegetation and
buildings on radio signal propagation, the sites for measurement were selected to ensure
that the sites were representative of the clutter types being considered. At first, built areas
were considered. The sites chosen were initially analysed in the ATOLL radio planning
tool using both the clutter and digital terrain maps with base transceiver stations positions
marked. The cell characteristics were analysed to verify that the cell contained over 80%
of built clutter.

Figure 4.1: Building Structure of Area Studied.

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One of the typical built-type clutters in the area studied is shown in figure 4.1. For the
vegetation type clutter, the same procedure was considered. However, only trees in a
straight line were considered as it was evident that in such areas, trees were almost
always along streets except for those in parks and a few in individual compounds.

Figure 4.2: Trees on Straight Line Along the Street.

The base stations had calibrated power output of 43-45dBm. The antenna types used were
Katrein 739 624 and Katrein 732 433, they were 35m above the ground and some were
located on masts while others were on rooftops. The signal transmitted had a bandwidth
of 806-880MHz/880-960MHz and 806-960MHz respectively. The type of modulation
used was Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK) with time division multiple access
(TDMA)/frequency division multiple access (FDMA). This was chosen as a compromise
between fairly high spectrum efficiency (1 bit/Hz) and a reasonable demodulation
complexity. The table below summarises some of the sites considered in this study.

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Table 4.1: Site selection and classification.

Site ID Site Category
T0051 Suburban
T0052 Suburban
T0056 Suburban
T0269 Suburban
T0364 Suburban
T0377 Suburban
T0396 Suburban
T0876 Suburban
T0877 Suburban
T0894 Suburban
T0929 Suburban
T1079 Suburban

4.2.2 MTM Data Capture
The MTM data capture requires a good measurement system and a well-prepared
measurement plan. The amount of measurement depends on the resolution of the digital
terrain map and size of the target area. Since this was a specific clutter factor
measurement, the target area was small and based on the fact that the resolution of the
digital terrain map used was low (20m), an extremely large amount of measurement data
was not collected. The following diagrams in figure 4.3 and figure 4.4 depict the area
where the measurement was carried out.

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Figure 4.3: Digital Terrain Map of Studied Area.

Figure 4.4: Scanned Map of the Region Studied.

Page 87
The TEMS Investigator handset was used to collect samples of the measured signal. The
handset was used with precaution as it is known to have a typical accuracy of 4 dBm.
The calibrated power was -100 - <-40dBm. The antenna used was external at a height of
2.5m and mounted on the vehicle with the handset given time to settle on a particular
range of values. The readouts were in digital format. A geographical positioning system
(GPS) receiver was used to collect the location information. The data captured included:
logical channel 1 with information on BCCH, serving cell BCCH ARFCN, Base station
identity code, received signal strength (RxLev), Traffic channel, Timeslot number,
Transmit power-graphic, carrier-to-interference ratio in dB, Timing advance, cell identity
and the neighbour list. The GPS had an accuracy of 15m. This accuracy is much better
compared to previous values of 200-300m. This is due to the fact that selective
variability was switched off in the recent past which improved the accuracy of the GPS
dramatically [32] (Lempiinen & Manninen, 2001: 103-104).

The network cells within the area being studied were measured for model tuning since all
relevant parameters such as effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP), antenna type,
direction and height were known. The drive routes were selected for the sites that had
over 80% of the clutter type under consideration. The data was recorded manually as
there was no available interface to the computer. An average value of the range within
which the handset settled was recorded.

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4.2.3 MTM Data Conversion and Validation
The model tuning measurement data format used by the GPS is not directly compatible
with the formats that ATOLL can read. Thus, the data had to be first converted into x-y
coordinates system for ease of use in ATOLL. The conversion was performed using
MATLAB software after the data had been entered into a spread sheet. Since the
conversion only involved format changes, it did not affect the information contained in
the source data. The transmitter configuration (location, antenna type, power, etc.) was
entered concurrently with the captured data into the spread sheet (Comma Separated
Values (CSV) files). Each measurement run was analysed for trends and errors to ensure
that it was a true representation of the target area. The data was then loaded into ATOLL
and displayed.

4.3. Using MTM Data to Calibrate ATOLL Propagation Models
It has been discussed in chapter three that propagation models used in radio planning
tools need to be validated using measurement data. To get reliable radio coverage and
interference predictions, it is necessary to tune the propagation model of ATOLL
planning tool to the land usage code (legend) as defined in the clutter maps. This was
done using drive test tools such as TEMS Investigator to perform radio frequency (RF)
measurements in the different areas of the planned mobile communication system. Data
was collected, converted into required format and stored in log-files that are imported
into the ATOLL planning tool to tune the propagation model parameters.

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4.3.1 Digital Terrain Map Data Validation
The first task having confirmed the base transceiver stations (BTS) parameters was to
import model measurements into the planning system. The measurements were linked to
the existing sites and cells using BTS IDs. After importing the measurements into the
planning system, the alignment with the digital terrain map was checked for inaccuracies
in coordinate conversion parameters. It was found that some BTS positions were shifted
on the other side of the road directly opposite to their real positions. The problem was
solved by shifting the BTS coordinate points back to the expected positions, as the error
in geographical positioning system (GPS) within a short time period is almost constant.
This correction was used for entire measurements with similar problems.

4.3.2 ATOLL Propagation Model Tuning
Propagation modelling aims at representing real-world propagation phenomena by a
mathematical model that calculates the expected propagation loss between the transmitter
and receiver. There is no correct or absolute method of calibrating a model and the
process described in the following sections is just one of the many suggestions available
as explained in ATOLL user manual. Model calibration is an iterative process involving
recursive tuning of the model equations based on the path loss analysis. The calculated
results of the model can be adjusted by varying parameters within the model equations.
The core process can be summarized as shown in the figure 4.5.

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Figure 4.5: ATOLL Model Calibration Process.

The process in figure 4.5 is described as follows:
Perform model calibration using the model tuning measurements which uses two
inputs in its analysis the MTM data and the prediction model to calibrate.
Perform appropriate filtering on the survey data, for example, filter out all LoS
data.
MTM data

Prediction model
Perform appropriate filtering
Change model parameter
Document change
Use MTM measurement
analysis tools
Analysis results
Error acceptable?
Go to next parameter
Is filtering necessary?
Yes
No
No

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After analysis of the MTM data a parameter is changed on the prediction model
Using MTM tools (graphs, reports and Map view display) quantify the effect that
the new change has made to the prediction model.
The aim is to minimize the standard deviation between predicted and measured
signal strength values and to get minimal overall mean error. If this change has
been beneficial in that respect, then keep it and move to another parameter of the
model to tune. If not, make another adjustment to the parameter under
consideration.

The prediction model most commonly used in ATOLL for macro-cellular models is the
Okumura-Hata formula and is expressed as follows:

d H K K H a H K f K K L
b r b dB 10 10 5 4 10 3 10 2 1
log ) log ( ) ( log log + + + + + =
(4.1)

Where:
d is the distance from the base station to the mobile station (km).
r
H is the height of the mobile station above ground (m).
b
H is the effective base station antenna height (m).
f is the frequency of operation (MHz)
) (
r
H a is the correction factor for mobile antenna height (dB).
1
K ,
2
K ,
3
K ,
4
K and
5
K are the multiplying factors to be tuned for the best fit path loss
model. Figure 4.6 shows the ATOLL default model parameters that were used before the
model tuning was done.

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Figure 4.6: Initial Propagation Model Parameters.

Based on the initial model parameters shown in the figure 4.6, the parameters were tabulated
as shown in table 4.2 for ease of analysis.

Table 4.2: Initial Propagation Model Parameters for Area Studied.
K
1
69.55
K
2
26.16
K
3
-13.82
K
4
44.9
K
5
-6.55

The fact that the default parameters were being used for a live network required optimal
calibration of the model parameters for the specific environment being studied. Figures
4.7 and 4.8 depicts the best server coverage by transmitter and coverage by signal level
respectively generated by ATOLL with the above default model parameters for the area
being studied.
.

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Figure 4.7: Initial Best Server Coverage by Transmitter Array.

Figure 4.8: Initial Best Server Coverage by Signal Level Array.
Model tuning was done for the 900MHz band-suburban model. The digital elevation map
used had a resolution of 20m and after several tuning iterations, the following parameters
and hence arrays were found to be the optimal values for the propagation model.

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Figure 4.9: Calibrated Propagation Model Parameters.

Based on figure 4.9 the calibrated model parameters were tabulated as in table 4.3 below.
This was done for ease of analysis in comparison with table 4.2 above.

Table 4.3: Calibrated Propagation Model Parameters for Area Studied.
K
1
49.55
K
2
22.15
K
3
-8.82
K
4
38.9
K
5
-2.55

Based on these parameters, the following arrays for coverage by transmitter and coverage
by signal level were obtained as shown in figures 4.10 and 4.11 respectively.

Page 95

Figure 4.10: Calibrated Best Server Coverage by Transmitter Array.

Figure 4.11: Calibrated Best Server Coverage by Signal Level Array.

Using the measurement data set, a standard deviation error of 6.4 and a mean of 2.4 was
achieved.

Page 96
4.3.3 Comparison of Predicted Signal to Measured Signal
Having completed the model tuning process, the MTM data was used to validate the
predictions obtained using the tuned model parameters in order to ascertain the level of
accuracy and improvement from the initial model parameter settings.

T0056/1 dBm
-87
-77
-67
-57
Measurements
Predictions

Figure 4.12: Predicted/Measured Signal Strength Based on Default Model.

One MTM and live site (T0056) was taken as an example for comparison purposes. The
MTM signal level and the predicted signal level for the site were superimposed in a
measurement window in ATOLL to show any discrepancies clearly as shown in figure
4.12. The predicted signal level along the sample route was stronger than the MTM signal
level. This gives an indication of a possible signal strength overestimation. To harmonize
the difference between the two signal levels, generic tuning was performed on the model
as illustrated in section 4.3.2. This gave the results as shown in figure 4.13.

Page 97
T0056/1 dBm
-87
-77
-67
Measurements
Predictions

Figure 4.13: Predicted/Measured Signal Strength Based on Calibrated Model.

It is shown from the above figure that the discrepancies between the MTM signal level
and predicted signal level was reduced. However, to qualify and quantify this, ATOLL
provides an error assessment tool. This is the statistics window under measurements as
shown in figure 4.14. For this particular site and route, the standard deviation error
between the measured and the predicted signal levels was found to be 6.4 while the mean
was 2.4. However, as can be seen from the figure 4.13 the agreement between the
predicted signal and the measured signal was compromised at some points where the
predicted signal strength exceeded the measured signal strength by more than 10dB. The
signal discrepancies were linked to the fact that the area considered is characterised by
non-flat terrain with constructions and trees along streets. However, Okumura-Hata
model in ATOLL does not take into account the effect due to diffraction and scattering
from the structures and the trees while calculating the signal strength along the desired
route.

Page 98

Figure 4.14: The ATOLL Statistics Window.

4.4. Conclusion
Model calibration has been discussed in detail and the generic model tuning employed in the
calibration process. The discrepancies between the predicted and measured signal strength
reduced when using the generic tuning approach. But as noted earlier, this resulted in some
measurement points with discrepancies of more than 10dB. Hence, it is evident that a new
approach to tune the propagation prediction models is necessary since the generic tuning
approach does not account for the real radio signal propagation environment. To be able to
account for this discrepancies the diffraction and scattering due to terrain and clutter has to be
modelled and incorporated into Okumura-Hata model. This will then be able to compensate
for all points in their respective proportions, and hence, approximate the loss due to real
propagation environment as illustrated in chapter five.

Page 99
CHAPTER 5: DEVELOPMENT OF BUILDING AND
VEGETATION PROPAGATION MODELS
5.1. Introduction
Based on the results obtained in the previous chapter, it was important for the path loss
calculation to be corrected taking into consideration the attenuation due to structures and
vegetation. This was done with the view to minimize the residual error between the
predictions and measurements in the medium hilly terrain with mixed structures and
vegetation type environments. This chapter presents the design methodology and steps
used in building propagation models that consider buildings and vegetation. The main
objectives and implementation of development steps are presented. A propagation
prediction engine was developed in MATLAB and used to test and provide a statistical
analysis of the propagation model results.

5.2 Terrain Diffraction Factor Design
To account for terrain diffraction factor, an empirical approach was employed. This was
due to the fact that the MATLAB software used could not accept the file format of the
digital terrain map available. It was based on the fact that with clear analysis using other
radio planning tools, it is possible to calculate terrain diffraction factor for wireless access
systems theoretically. Looking at the equation for the least square (LS) regression
analysis, the path loss at a point d can be written as below.

Page 100
|
|
\
|
+ =
0
10 0
log 10 ) ( ) (
d
d
n d PL d PL
(5.1)

Where
0
d is the reference point at 0.1km and n is known as the path loss exponent. The
path loss exponent is valuable since it shows the rate of increase of path loss with respect
to distance. This means that the second term in the equation (5.1) is actually associated
with the level of terrain roughness and hence acts as the terrain correction factor. To
increase the statistical significance of the LS method, results from various sectors with
similar environments have been combined to give measurements typical of a suburban
environment.

To achieve this, the terrain was divided into three types, namely hilly, medium and low.
Hilly terrain type is associated with maximum path loss and is appropriate for hilly
terrain. Medium terrain is characterised by medium hilly terrain. Low terrain is associated
with minimum path loss and applies to almost flat terrain. Based on this, the second part
in equation (5.1) is redefined as follows.

|
|
\
|
=
0
10
log 10 _
d
d
n DiffLoss TERR
(5.2)

Where d is the distance in km between the base transceiver station (BTS) and the mobile
station (MS) antennas and
0
d is the reference point at 0.1km and n is assumed to be the

Page 101
terrain type factor which can be obtained from measurements as illustrated in equations
(5.3) and (5.4).

To cater for the terrain diffraction factor, the diffraction loss for various points in
different sectors was analyzed. This was obtained by calculating purely free space loss
then subtracting it from the path loss where terrain diffraction is taken into consideration
from ATOLL planning tool. Based on equation (5.2) the value of n was then estimated.
The following table 5.1 gives the values calculated from the prediction done in ATOLL
with diffraction loss accounted for and the free space loss as calculated with no
diffraction or other correctional factors.

Table 5.1: A Sample of the Diffraction Loss Estimates.

Free space loss
(F
dB
)
Predicted loss
(M
dB
)
Diffraction loss
(M-F)
dB
d(km)
-94.2324 -68 26.2324 0.289
-93.149 -68 25.149 0.269
-100.956 -67 33.9559 0.451
-92.0423 -64 28.0423 0.25
-91.1717 -61 30.1717 0.236
-100.445 -68 32.4449 0.436
-90.4506 -67 23.4506 0.225
-100.13 -73 27.1297 0.427
-99.9518 -68 31.9518 0.422
-89.8339 -64 25.8339 0.216
-99.7717 -67 32.7717 0.417
-88.5955 -67 21.5955 0.199
-99.4791 -66 33.4791 0.409

From table 5.1, various diffraction losses were equated to equation (5.2), and from these,
the value of n was obtained. This is illustrated below.

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19 . 5
9559 . 33
1 . 0
451 . 0
log 10
10
=
= |
\
|
n
n

(5.3)

72 . 7
8339 . 25
1 . 0
216 . 0
log 10
10
=
= |
\
|
n
n

(5.4)

Based on these values, the average values for n was obtained for high, medium and low
terrain profiles and are shown in table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Averaged Values for the Terrain Exponent.

Hilly Medium Low
5.13 4.70 4.42

5.3 Building Correction Factor
The building correction factor model proposed here employs both empirical and
deterministic model types. This is deliberately done to explore the advantages of both
modelling types. As seen earlier, empirical models present a computational efficiency
based on measurement accuracy, whereas deterministic models present a close
relationship with principles of physics. This renders the deterministic models more
flexible to be applied to different environments without affecting their accuracy.

Page 103
5.3.1 Defining Building Model Objectives
As seen in chapter 4, propagation of radio signals in suburban environment is mostly
affected by buildings. It was also shown that the loss in suburban areas exceeded the
theoretical loss obtained through prediction. The challenge is to find an optimal
estimation of the amount of attenuation the buildings have on a given radio path and
hence on the given radio network coverage.

The main objective of this building model development is to propose an optimal way to
take into account the building attenuation in accordance to its density as opposed to
hypothetical clutter correctional factors employed in the propagation models used in the
ATOLL radio planning tool. This can be achieved by modelling the building loss as close
as possible to the actual building loss. The mathematical models used to express building
loss are verified and presented.

5.3.2 Building Diffraction Model
Buildings have been considered as opaque at radio frequencies used for land mobile
communication. But recent studies have shown that transmission occurs through
buildings obstructing line-of-sight to the base station. However, in this study an
assumption was made that the buildings are opaque and only diffraction taken into
account. This is because of the fact that we are dealing with outdoor propagation
scenarios. The building can be electrically considered as an infinite obstacle at land

Page 104
mobile propagation frequencies as in figure 5.1 below. When a plane wave comes across
obstructions, there is diffraction around the barrier as shown with some exaggeration.

Figure 5.1: Theoretical Diffraction of Plane Waves over a Building.

The Huygens principle of wavelets can be used to explain this - Each point on a wave-
front acts as a source of secondary wavelets. The combination of these secondary
wavelets produces the new wave-front in the direction of propagation. We can express
this principle using the following integral.

+
=
dt e
j
E
E
t j
2
2
0
2
) 1 (

(5.5)

Where E is the real field strength, E
0
is the theoretical field strength, and is the
Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter and is defined as follows.
Propagation
Infinite barrier

d
1
d
2

Page 105
2 1
2 1
) ( 2
d d
d d
h
+
=
(5.6)

h is the height of the obstruction and is taken to be an averagely of 12m in this study,
1
d
is the distance from the transmitter station to the obstacle and
2
d is the distance from the
obstacle to the receiver station as in the figure 5.1 above.

To obtain the relative height of the obstruction, the following methodology was used. The
difference between the clutter height and the transmitter and the clutter height and the
receiver was obtained as below.

t ke
h h num = 1
(5.7)
r ke
h h num = 2
(5.8)

ke
h ,
t
h and
r
h are the clutter height, transmitter height and receiver height respectively.
Equation (5.7) is then multiplied by
1
d while equation (5.8) is multiplied by
2
d and the
two products are then added together as shown below.

2 * 1 *
2 1
num d num d num + =
(5.9)

The total distance between the transmitter and the receiver is calculated which is the sum
of
1
d and
2
d as shown below.

Page 106
2 1
d d den + =
(5.10)

To get the effective height of the obstacle, equation (5.9) is divided by equation (5.10) as
shown below.

den num h / =
(5.11)

To illustrate this, the following table 5.3 gives a sample of the data obtained and it was
used to obtain a sample of the h used in this study.

Table5.3: Some of the Clutter Data Used in this Study.

From table 5.3, if we consider the first row, we can be able to calculate the relative
obstruction height taking transmitter antenna height of 35m and the receiver height of
2.5m.
Clutter Type
Clutter
Height(m)
Clutter
length(m) d1(m) d2(m) d (m)
Building 12 1400 700 2050 2750
Building 12 250 1625 1125 2750
Building 12 850 2325 425 2750
Building 12 1414 707 1993 2700
Building 12 270 1615 1085 2700
Building 12 723 2338.5 361.5 2700
Building 12 1408 704 2064 2768
Building 12 282 1607 1161 2768
Building 12 816 2360 408 2768
Building 12 1414 707 2118 2825

Page 107

09 . 16
2750 / )] 5 . 2 8 ( * 2050 ) 35 8 ( * 700 [
=
+ =
h
h

(5.12)

We can now substitute this in equation (5.6) to get the value of the Fresnel-Kirchoff
diffraction parameter v as below.

07 . 1
2050 * 700 * 10 3
2750 * 10 900 * 2
09 . 16
8
6
=

=
v
v

(5.13)

Equation (5.5) is solvable equation with a few substitutions as shown.

dt t j dt t dt e
t j
)
2
sin( )
2
cos(
2 2
2
2

(5.14)

To be able to integrate equation (5.14), we consider each of the two parts of the equation
separately. Considering the sine part, we first change the range of integration from v to
to - to v which is actually the same since the function is periodic. This can be further
broken down as - to 0 and then from 0 to v as in equation (5.15).

0
2
0
2 2
)
2
sin( )
2
sin( )
2
sin( dt t dt t dt t
(5.15)

Page 108
From [22] (Master, 2002) it can be shown that when limits become large then the Fresnel
integrals then approximate to the following.

|
\
|
+ = |
\
|
2
0
2
2
cos
1
2
1
) (
2
cos u
u
u C t
u

(5.16)

|
\
|
= |
\
|
2
0
2
2
sin
1
2
1
) (
2
sin u
u
u S t
u

(5.17)

By observation of the above approximation for ) (u S , we see that as u goes to infinity, the
second term in the approximation goes to zero. Since ) (u S is odd symmetric, we then
have the following convenient fact.

2
1
) ( = S
(5.18)

However, from equation (5.15) we are integrating the first part from - to 0 and this
means that the value in the equation (5.18) above becomes positive. The second part of
equation (5.15) can be rewritten in a short but convenient form as in equation (5.17).
Hence, equation (5.15) can be rewritten as follows.

=
v
S dt t ) (
2
1
)
2
sin(
2

(5.19)

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Considering the cosine part, we first change the range of integration from v to to - to
v which is actually the same since the function is periodic. This can be further broken
down as - to 0 and then from 0 to v as in equation (5.20).

0
2
0
2 2
)
2
cos( )
2
cos( )
2
cos( dt t dt t dt t
(5.20)

By observation of equation (5.16), which is an approximation for ) (u C , it is seen that as
u goes to infinity, the second term in the approximation goes to zero. Since ) (u C is odd
symmetric, we then have the following convenient fact.

2
1
) ( = C
(5.21)

However, from equation (5.20) we are integrating the first part from - to 0 and this
means that the value in the equation (5.21) above becomes positive. The second part of
equation (5.20) can be rewritten in a short but convenient form as in equation (5.16)
above. Hence, equation (5.20) can be rewritten as follows.

=
v
C dt t ) (
2
1
)
2
cos(
2

(5.22)

The above simplification results into the following equation.

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[ ] )) (
2
1
( )) (
2
1
(
2
) 1 (
0
S j C
j
E
E

+
=
(5.23)

This is tricky to solve and further complicates the prediction model. Fortunately, we can
approximate the above equation as follows assuming v >1.

2
2
0
=
E
E

(5.24)

Thus, the loss due to diffraction due to buildings can be expressed as follows.

|
|
\
|
=
2
2
log 20
10 r
L
(5.25)

The equation (5.25) can be rewritten as follows.

) 2 log( 20 2 log 20
10
v L
r
+ =
(5.26)

This reduces to

( ) 2 log 20 01 . 3
10
+ =
r
L
(5.27)

V is taken to be negative as the transmitters are above the normal height of the buildings.

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Having found the building loss expression, this was applied on the building data obtained
from the area under study. To begin with, all buildings were assumed to have the same
diffractive properties which meant same reflective, attenuation and conduction properties
as exemplified in [50] (Jong, Koelen and Herben, 2004: 498). From the available data
then the building loss corresponding to each radio path for the chosen sectors was then
calculated. An average of these losses gave the average building loss that was used in this
study. The loss was found on average to be 20dB.

Once this was obtained, the task was to formulate the building densities in the area under
study. To be able to do this, first the length occupied by buildings on each radio path to
respective measurement points for all the selected sectors was established. Next, the total
radio path length to the respective measurement points in the selected sectors was noted.

The total building distance to a given measurement point was divided by the
corresponding total radio path length to the same measurement point. Then an average of
these ratios was calculated based on MATLAB statistical tool box. This average was
taken to represent the density of the building in the area under study. This was based on
the fact that the longer the distance occupied by the building on the given radio path the
more are the building in the sector and hence, reflects the density of the building.

However, in nature the building density is high in some areas and low or medium in
others. Thus the next step was to come up with a sliding scale density to be able to cater
for the difference in building densities in the sectors under consideration. This was

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achieved by considering sectors which could be classified as having high, medium or low
building densities. Based on these, the building data for these sectors was then obtained
and the procedure above utilized to establish the respective densities for the three density
types. This analysis yielded the following results in table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Building Densities for Region under Study.

High Medium Low
0.94 0.54 0.24

To get the loss due to buildings on each radio path, the average building loss was
multiplied by respective densities of the sectors under consideration.

5.4 Foliage Correction Factor Design Methodology and Planning
Foliage loss is complex and has many parameters and variation to be considered. The size
of the leaves, branches, trunks, the density, the distribution of leaves, branches, and
trunks and the height of the trees relative to the antenna heights have all to be considered.
The modelling of all these factors is quite complex and will furthermore complicates the
propagation prediction model hence reducing its computation efficiency. Another factor
to consider is that it will give a propagation prediction model that is environmental
dependent, hence making it hard to be adapted to other environments since it would
require re-evaluating all the factors mentioned above to be able to use it in environments
with different types of foliage.

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To be able to model the foliage loss for this study, first the trees were considered as
knife-edge obstacle. Knife-edge Diffraction model is one of the simplest diffraction
models that is used to predict losses when diffraction shadowing is caused by a single
object such as a tree or a line of trees. The model is as shown earlier in section 5.3. It is
also known that the diffraction losses increase with a decrease in the wavelength or
increase in the frequency of the propagating electromagnetic wave. Thus, basically
equation (5.27) is used in this case. The same method as in section 5.3 was used to
formulate the height and the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v.

In the second instance, an additional loss was added for penetration through the
vegetation in an empirical form:

=
=
m
i
i m dB Veg
d L
1
/

(5.28)

Where
i
d represent the individual propagation distances in metres in within each
vegetation group (tree or a group of trees) and
m dB /
is the average vegetation loss per
metre in dB. To determine
m dB /
, measurements from the field were used. First, a site
with vegetation clutter was selected with the help of the clutter map. Then the particular
site was located for field measurements. In the field, the trees were mostly along the
streets. Thus the appropriate site sector was chosen for measurement. To begin with, the
transmitter position was noted and then the measurements were carried out along the line
of trees with the position of the measurement point and the signal strength being

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recorded. Based on these, the distance of the measurement point from the transmitter
could be calculated. The signal strength at that point was then divided by the distance
between the transmitter and the measurement point to give the loss in dB per metre. This
was done for selected sectors and an average of these values found as a representative of
the vegetation loss per metre for that sector and eventually for that cell and region. The
following table 5.4 is a sample of the data collected and consequently was used in this
project.

Table 5.5: Vegetation Loss Data from Field.

This data is loaded in MATLAB from where the distance is calculated and consequently
the vegetation loss encountered as per the source code in (Appendix A). This was done
for more sectors and an average of these losses was then calculated in MATLAB and
became the value of
m dB /
computed. This was found to be 0.343dBm
-1
.

Latitude Longitude ARFCN BSIC RxLev Reference
25 42 19.7 28 14 20.8 103 21 -51 TX-Position
25 42 20.1 28 14 21.2 103 21 -52 Rx-Position
25 4220.3 28 14 21.1 103 21 -56 Rx-Position
25 43 20.5 28 14 21.0 103 21 -59 Rx-Position
25 42 20.7 28 14 20.9 103 21 -60 Rx-Position
25 42 20.8 28 14 21.0 103 21 -62 Rx-Position
25 42 21.7 28 14 21.1 103 21 -63 Rx-Position
25 42 22.2 28 14 20.9 103 21 -64 Rx-Position
25 42 22.8 28 14 21.0 103 21 -66 Rx-Position
25 42 23.4 28 14 21.0 103 21 -68 Rx-Position
25 42 23.0 28 14 22.1 103 21 -68 Rx-Position

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The two values obtained from the knife-edge part and the empirical part are then added
together to get the total vegetation loss. The average of all the losses obtained was
assumed to be the vegetation loss. To be able to get the vegetation density, a similar
procedure was used as explained in the building density development. This also gave
three density scenarios: high, medium and low. These are tabulated in table 5.6.

Table 5.6: Vegetation Densities for Region under Study.

High Medium Low
0.10 0.07 0.04

To get the loss due to vegetation on each radio path, the average vegetation loss was
multiplied by respective densities of the sectors under consideration.

5.5 Additional Terrain Loss Correction Factor Design
To be able to account for terrain correction factor, the radio path to each measurement
point was analysed based on the point analysis window in ATOLL planning tool as
shown in the figure (5.2). This was done for a good number of sectors upon which an
average additional terrain loss was established for the area under study.

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30.3 dB
1,260
1,280
1,300
1,320
1,340
1,360
1,380
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400

Figure 5.2: Point Analysis Window as Displayed in ATOLL Planning Tool.

After establishing the average additional terrain loss, the task was to come up with the
additional terrain loss coefficient. This was achieved by looking at the collected data
from the point analysis window and finding how many of the measurement points had
zero value and how many of them had non-zero value as illustrated in table 5.5, from
which, the ratio of those measurement points with non-zero values to the total
measurement points considered was taken as the coefficient of the additional terrain
correction loss. Based on this, a value of 0.354 was found as the average coefficient for
this region.

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Table 5.7: A Sample of the Additional Diffraction Loss data.

Latitude Longitude Measurement(M) Prediction(P) P-M Distance ADLoss
620,996 -2,846,225 -65 -77.65 -12.65 1,105 0
621,005 -2,846,259 -66 -78 -12 1,130 0
621,005 -2,846,281 -62 -78.16 -16.16 1,142 0
621,015 -2,846,336 -69 -78.68 -9.68 1,181 0
621,015 -2,846,347 -71 -78.86 -7.86 1,187 0
620,563 -2,846,377 -52 -90.93 -38.93 880 9.6
620,593 -2,846,377 -57 -88.35 -31.35 898 7.4
620,774 -2,846,378 -34 -96.63 -62.63 1,020 17.3
620,613 -2,846,377 -52 -91.78 -39.78 910 12.1
620,693 -2,846,378 -43 -90.12 -47.12 963 12.7
620,764 -2,846,378 -32 -95.75 -63.75 1,013 18.5
620,673 -2,846,378 -53 -91.35 -38.35 950 11.1
620,733 -2,846,378 -45 -93.55 -48.55 991 17.5
620,844 -2,846,379 -27 -89.44 -62.44 1,072 9.3
620,894 -2,846,380 -41 -83.2 -42.2 1,111 3.5
620,914 -2,846,380 -44 -80.3 -36.3 1,126 0
620,974 -2,846,380 -42 -78.68 -36.68 1,173 0
621,044 -2,846,381 -47 -79.41 -32.41 1,230 0
621,074 -2,846,381 -49 -79.72 -30.72 1,255 1.4
621,125 -2,846,382 -54 -80.14 -26.14 1,298 3.5

ADLoss is the additional diffraction loss as obtained from the ATOLL planning tool.

5.6 The Modified Propagation Prediction Model
Having modelled terrain factor and all the clutter factors mostly encountered in suburban
areas, the next step was to incorporate them into the propagation prediction model given
in equation (3.1). This resulted in the following equations.

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) (
) _ ( ) _ ( log log
6
5 4
0
10 3 10 2 1
ADLoss K
Loss VEG K Loss BLDG K
d
d
K d K K L
dB
+
+ +
|
|
\
|
+ + =

(5.28)

Where
2
K ,
3
K ,
4
K ,
5
K and
6
K are the multiplying factors and
1
K is the intercept value
(which introduces a constant offset in dBm to lower the mean error as close as possible to
0) and these are the tuneable parameters, BLDG_Loss, VEG_Loss and ADLoss are the
building correction factor, the vegetation correction factor, and additional terrain loss
correction factor respectively. This is the propagation prediction model that is
implemented in this study and as it will be shown in the following section that it gives
good agreement with the measured data.

5.7 Propagation Prediction Engine Development
A prediction engine is basically a supporting system for the entire prediction process.
This includes reading measurement data files, other input data gathering mechanisms and
conversion of the input data to a standard format before the path loss model is called, and
the path loss algorithm itself. The complete prediction engine development is as critical
as the model development itself. Furthermore, since the prediction engine is developed
for model testing purposes, it must be incorporated with a statistical analysis routine for
every set of predicted signal level.

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5.7.1 Building Blocks of the Propagation Prediction Engine
A functional block diagram of the proposed propagation model is shown in figure 5.3 and
can be summarized as follows:
The algorithm receives the transmitter data file, the receiver data file,
clutter information and terrain information as inputs stored on the same
work folder supporting the prediction tool.
From the transmitter and receiver data files, the algorithm extracts the
distance between the transmitter position and each receiver position.
The distance information is then used to calculate the free space loss and
the calculation of diffraction and clutter losses between the two points.
The total path loss is then calculated by combining the free space,
diffraction, terrain loss correction and clutter losses and is deducted from
the transmitted power (including the antenna gain) in order to determine
the predicted signal level at the receiver position.
The prediction results are then presented in a CSV format for further
statistical analysis.

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Figure 5.3: Propagation Prediction Engine building blocks.

5.7.2 Prediction Algorithm Development
The entire prediction process is shown in figure 5.3. The building blocks making the
actual developed prediction algorithm are illustrated below the parallel bus. The
propagation engine building blocks were developed in this project. Furthermore, the
results and statistics table is also populated by the prediction engine. Using a file
manipulation algorithm, the input data in the Measurement files is read, reorganized and
passed to the prediction engine as required.

Computerized System
Measurement Data
Tx Data.xls
Rx Data.xls
Terrain/clutter data
Results and statistical
data
Clutter
Data
Clutter Loss
calculation
Terrain Loss
calculation
Terrain
Data
Tx/Rx site data
Input mechanism
Tx/Rx data
Free space
path loss
Path loss
calculation
Received power
prediction
Distance
calculation
Terrain Loss Correction
Parallel Bus

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5.7.3 Initiating a Prediction Session in MATLAB Ver.6.5
The program was developed using MATLAB version 6.5. The first step is to pass input
arguments to the application. For the purpose of file and MATLAB project organization,
all predictions and results are to be held in the work folder of the MATLAB where the
propagation model project is stored. The number of arguments names must be four: The
Executable file (mukfina.m), the transmitter data file (txdata.xls), the receiver data file
(rxdata.xls), and the output file (output.csv). After the arguments have been passed, the
application is run and the results are tabulated in an output CSV format file located in the
same folder as the project folder.

5.8 Propagation Model Calibration and Validation
After the complete model has been fully developed and incorporated into the prediction
engine, the first iteration prediction were made and the statistical table results give a feel
of the model performance, which is a basis for model optimization. The model was then
optimized using the tuneable parameters defined in section 5.7. As mentioned before,
there is no universal or absolute method of calibrating a model as prediction systems are
not designed with the same conventions. Each system designer will propose the best
suited calibration method for his system. Referring back to the ATOLL calibration
process described in section 4.3.2, one can appreciate the fact that it is a time consuming,
highly iterative process requiring care in the preparation on the definition of procedures.
The validation of the model is made by benchmarking the prediction results of the best

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calibrated model to the measured data with a satisfactory residual standard deviation error
and mean error.

MATLAB has statistical analysis capability, and based on this, the error between the
measured and the predicted data was used to calibrate the model. First, the clutter
information was obtained from the ATOLL planning tool. This information was then
loaded in the MATLAB work space. Based on this, the clutter loss was calculated for
both vegetation and building for each measurement point. This was then averaged to get
the clutter losses for vegetation and buildings separately.

In the clutter information file, each clutter type length between the BTS and the MS was
included. This clutter length was divided by the total distance between the BTS and MS
for each measurement point. The overall length of given clutter type on any radio path
was the sum of the individual clutter type length encountered on the radio path under
consideration. Thus the longer the total clutter length is, then the more times that clutter
type is encountered on a given radio path and hence the more times it occurs in the area
under study. This in turn reflects on how often the clutter type occurs in the region under
study and hence its density. From this, the ratio of clutter length to the BTS-MS distance
for all the measurement points under consideration was averaged and the results gave the
clutter type density in the region under consideration. This became the multiplying factor
for the building and vegetation losses respectively.

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However, this was an optimistic approximation since the clutter density varies from one
cell to another in the same region. To cater for this, we had to define whether the clutter
density was high, medium or low. Based on this, the above procedure was repeated and
each of the density types derived upon which the clutter loss calculation was based.

5.9 Conclusion
An overview of the terrain and clutter propagation model design process was given in this
chapter. A description of the various design methods and planning as well as the
important development steps was shown. The terrain diffraction loss model was
developed and its exponential factor given from a series of calculation. After this,
building diffraction loss and vegetation loss was developed with their respective losses
derived from the series of the measurement data as well as their densities. Finally,
additional terrain correction factor loss was also developed with its coefficient. The
propagation prediction engine was built and optimized using these concepts. In chapter 6,
an overview of the main results obtained from the complete system and conclusions are
presented.

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CHAPTER 6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 Introduction
In this chapter, a number of testing scenarios are presented together with a set of results
for the simulation method discussed in chapter 5 with their description and discussion.
This chapter presents the statistical averages of the coefficients of several path loss
factors, the iteration consideration issues and the validation of the clutter-terrain
propagation model. Measurement data from four cells are used to compare the
performance of the proposed clutter-terrain propagation model.

6.2 Benchmarking Procedure
The data processing file provides all important benchmarking parameters which are then
manipulated for performance assessment using basic graphical analysis tools in
MATLAB. The following graphs in figure 6.1 and figure 6.2 depict a plot of the
measured and predicted signal at the same points of reference prior to clutter-terrain
correction.

In figure 6.1, the predicted signal strength and the measured data for a sector in one of the
sites considered is plotted with no clutter or terrain correction factors implemented.

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Figure 6.1: First Sample Comparison of Measurement and Prediction.

To be able to ascertain the need for further correctional factors, a second sector was also
considered and the prediction verses the measured signal strength is shown in figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2: Second Sample Comparison of Measurement and Prediction.

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From the two figures above, it was concluded that the prediction did not correspond well
with the measured signal. Based on this, it was resolved that clutter and terrain
correctional factors were crucial to be incorporated into the propagation model to
improve its performance.

6.2.1 Cases Considered in Model Validation
To validate the clutter-terrain Correction Model, a number of scenarios were used to test
the model. The main objective was to be able to appreciate the impact of a clutter
correction factor in the coverage optimization process. Four cases are presented as a
benchmark to assess whether the impact of the clutter loss implementation is of effect on
prediction model training.

6.2.1.1 Case 1: Point to Point Analysis Method
The first iterations were obtained by point to point analysis with the help of the ATOLL
radio planning tool. Through this, the real clutter and additional terrain diffraction losses
associated with each measurement point in a given sector was established and
consequently included in the prediction engine. When this procedure was applied to the
data corresponding to figure 6.1, the result obtained is as shown in figure 6.3.

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Figure 6.3: Prediction Vs Measurement Based on Point to Point Analysis.

The corresponding error between the predicted and measured signal strength was as given
in the figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: Point to Point Analysis Error.

The mean error was found to be -0.0407 and the standard deviation to be 0.8076 based on
MATLAB statistical analysis tool. It was found that the point to point analysis
corresponded well with the measurement data. However, it represented what was seen as

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an ideal condition, but was too tedious to implement such a procedure on a large scale as
the amount of work and data involved was enormous. Hence, practically this method was
ruled out.

6.2.1.2 Case 2: Non-Linear Regression Method
The point to point analysis method was found tedious and its application time consuming.
Hence the practical application of this method was found to be ineffective. Due to this, a
non-linear regression method was suggested. This was based on the average building,
vegetation and additional diffraction losses found in the previous procedure. This was
based on equation (5.28) with the initial k-parameters as tabulated in table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Initial K-Parameters for Non-Linear Regression.

Parameters K
1
K
2
K
3
K
4
K
5
K
6
Values 112.98 34.79 46.975 1.00 1.00 1.00

These were then inputted into a non-linear regression m-file and the simulations carried
out based on data used in figure 6.1. The resulting k-parameters after the non-linear
regression simulation are shown in table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Calibrated K-Parameters for Non-Linear Regression.

Parameters K
1
K
2
K
3
K
4
K
5
K
6
Values 112.903 44.703 37.140 -0.541 0.391 0.758

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When the predicted signal strength and the measured signal strength at the same points of
reference were plotted, the result obtained was as shown in figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: Prediction Vs Measurement Based on Non-Linear Regression.

The corresponding error between the predicted and measured signal was as given in
figure 6.6.

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Figure 6.6: Non-Linear Regression Error.

The mean error obtained for this case was -1.7703 and the corresponding standard
deviation was 2.0746. From the above case, it was found that the non-linear regression
was a good approach and the predictions of the method corresponded well with the
measurements. But it was again left out on the basis that the coefficients obtained through
this method had no practical indication to the densities of the clutter and terrain
correctional factors involved.

6.2.1.3 Case 3: Fixed Clutter and Terrain density Method
One of the objectives of this research was to design a model that is based on the densities
of the respective clutter and terrain type. The use of non-linear regression method did
give good results, but was not able to give a true reflection of the densities of the clutter
and terrain type. Due to this, a method was designed (as described in section 5.2-5.5) to
model the densities of clutter and terrain type and then use them as the coefficients (k-

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parameters) for their respective losses. Initially, it was assumed that it was sufficient to
have one value for each clutter and one value for all terrain type which was taken to be
their true representative for the entire region under study. These densities were obtained
as stipulated in section 5.2-5.5 and tabulated as shown in table 6.3.

Table 6.3: K-Parameters used in Fixed Clutter and Terrain density.

Parameters K
1
K
2
K
3
K
4
K
5
K
6
Values 112.98 34.79 46.975 0.54 0.07 0.354

When the above method was applied on the same data as in section 6.2.1.2, the results
obtained was as shown in figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7: Prediction Vs Measurement Based on Fixed Density.

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The resultant error between the predicted and the measured signal was as shown in the
figure 6.8.

Figure 6.8: Fixed Clutter and Terrain density Error.

The method gave a mean error of 6.2410 with a standard deviation of 6.2197 being the
highest obtained in the entire analysis. The method showed that it was possible to model
the correction factors coefficients based on the densities of the respective clutters and
terrain. However it had a limitation of not taking into account the clutter and terrain
densities which vary from point to point even in the same cell. As a result, it was
concluded that improvements had to be considered to cater for these scenarios.

6.2.1.4 Case 4: Variable Clutter and Terrain density method
The fixed clutter and terrain density method was found to be optimistic in the sense that
the density of clutter and the terrain type varies from point to point and hence sector to
sector within the same region under study. To cater for this, it was found optimal to

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design clutter and terrain type densities on a sliding scale. That is, there are values
corresponding to high, medium and low clutter and terrain densities. This was done as
stipulated in section 5.2 to 5.5 and given in table 6.4.

Table 6.4: K-Parameters for Variable Clutter and Terrain density.

Parameters K
1
K
2
K
3
K
4
K
5
K
6
Values 112.98 34.79 46.975 0.24-0.94 0.04-0.1 0.354

The resulting values were applied on the same data in the fixed clutter and terrain density
method. The results obtained were as in the figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9: Prediction Vs Measurement based on variable Density.

The related error between the predicted and the measured signal for this case was as
illustrated in figure 6.10.

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Figure 6.10: Variable Clutter and Terrain Density Error.

The corresponding mean error and the standard deviation error was found to be 1.8392
and 2.9862 respectively.

It was then concluded that case 4 was a valid approximation of the path loss in this
region. The individual values obtained from the above analysis were used to get the
average factors that were adopted for cells with similar characteristics. This became the
basis of the designed model. Based on this, the model was validated as described in the
following section.

6.2.2 Comparative Analysis of Model Predictions and Measurements
The comparative studies between predicted and measured signal in relation to the clutter
profile per transmitter site provides a mechanism to appreciate the model performance at
a more closer level as opposed to a global view of the models standard deviation or
mean error which is ideally estimated based on a combination of multiple data files into

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one statistical data frame. As mentioned, the clutter loss model was calibrated using only
signal strength measurement runs with a suburban character. This was due to the fact that
the clutter loss exhibited in such a place is relatively well distributed and diverse. Table
6.7 gives the selected measurement runs and respective transmitter site types.

Table 6.5: Suburban Cell Sites Considered.

SITE ID TYPE
T0377 Suburban
T0877 Suburban
T0894 Suburban
T4658 Suburban

Figure 6.11 shows a map view of all the transmitter positions and measurement runs. The
selected transmitter sites for calibration of clutter loss model (see table 3) are also shown.

Figure 6.11: Drive Test Routes of the Area under Study.

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The following graphs in sections 6.2.2.1 to 6.2.2.4 show the predicted signal and the
measured signal and the error between them, plotted against the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver positions.

6.2.2.1 T0377: Model predictions versus Measurements
In figure 6.12, the predicted signal from the clutter loss model and the actual measured
signal from the field measurement data file are shown for site T0377.

Figure 6.12: T0377- Predicted Versus Measured Signal.

The error function between the predicted and the measured signal was illustrated as in
figure 6.13.

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Figure 6.13: T0377-Error between Measured and predicted signal.

The mean error and standard deviation of the error was -0.4508 and 4.0067 respectively.
There was a fairly good correlation between the predicted and the measured signal trends,
apart from an abrupt spike on the measured signal at 2.25km. This shows clearly that the
receiver was picking up a stronger transmitted signal at this point. This can be attributed
to terrain geometry in which one point experiences diffracted signals that reaches the
receiver and another that does not reach the receiver. This causes drastic variations in the
signal level at the receiver.

In figure 6.14, the predicted signal from the clutter loss model and the actual measured
signal from the field measurement data file are shown for site T0877.

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The error of the predicted signal as compared to the measured signal was found to vary
with the distance as shown in figure 6.15.


The mean error was found to be -0.5381 and the corresponding standard deviation of the
error was 2.3628. There was a fairly good correlation between the predicted and the

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measured signal trends, apart from abrupt spikes on the measured signal at about 1.5km.
This shows clearly that the receiver was picking up a stronger transmitted signal at some
point and a weaker transmitted signal at others. This was attributed to terrain geometry as
in the case of site T0377. In this particular case, it was found out that at some point the
first Fresnel zone was partially obstructed. This caused signal level at such points to be
lower than those points where the first Fresnel zones were not obstructed. Again the level
of obstruction of the first Fresnel zone varied from point to point and this caused
variation in the signal levels received. Hence, the variation seen in the predicted and
measured signal levels in the figure 6.14.

In the figure 6.16 below, the predicted signal from the clutter loss model and the actual
measured signal from the field measurement data file are shown for site T0894.


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The corresponding error between the measured and the predicted signal was as shown in
figure 6.17.


The corresponding mean error and standard deviation of the error was -2.4936 and
5.5662 respectively. This was the worst of the four scenarios as it can be seen from the
figure. This has to do with the effect of terrain and partly due to clutter. An observation
from the ATOLL planning tool reveals that at some point, the terrain was low but at other
points it was much higher. The point was found to be almost Line-of-Site when compared
to points between the transmitter and the point itself. This resulted in high signal strength
at such points and low in others. The variations and discrepancies that resulted are shown
in figure 6.16.

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In the figure 6.18 below, the predicted signal from the clutter loss model and the actual
measured signal from the field measurement data file are shown for site T4658.


The resultant error obtained in this case was as illustrated in the figure 6.19.


Page 142
For this sector, the corresponding mean error and standard deviation was -0.8497 and
3.0842 respectively. There was a fairly good correlation between the predicted and the
measured signal trends, with fewer spikes than the first three sites. This showed that the
model was relatively well tuned for this particular site. However, as seen from figure
6.18, there was a drastic change in signal level around the 1.4km point. This was
attributed to terrain as well as clutter factors. The terrain was high partially obstructing
the first Fresnel zone. But since it was a built-up place, it was also evident that there were
buildings at this point, hence, further infringing on the first Fresnel zone. These all
contributed to low signal level as observed in this figure.

6.3 Conclusion
In this chapter, the proposed model simulations and results were presented. The iterations
that were conducted to obtain the final model design were explained and illustrated with
results. The proposed method was found to yield good results and was an approximate
valid representation of the real environment. Though the point analysis method and the
non-linear regression method gave better results, their applicability was found to be
impractical. The point analysis method gave good results but the process was too tedious
for practical application in real network planning. The non-linear regression method was
easily applicable, but it did not represent the real densities of the clutter and terrain and
thus, was not a valid representation of the real environmental factors. The model was
validated with four other sectors and its performance against the measured values
verified.

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CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Objectives and Research Process
The aim of this study was to model cell localized features, develop, test, and optimise a
radio propagation model. This was motivated by the fact that as the frequency of
communication increases, terrain as well as other localized features of environment has a
substantial impact on radio wave propagation. In order to develop the propagation model,
the existing propagation models were analysed out of which the basic Okumura-Hata
model was singled out as the basis on which this model was to be developed. This was
adopted since the model developed was empirical and could draw much of the basic
features from Okumura-Hata model.

The analysis of the propagation models showed that the existing empirical and
deterministic models had various disadvantages:
Empirical models rely on theoretical tuning approaches where the coefficients of
various localized features are adjusted to calibrate the model. However, the
adjustment of these coefficients does not have a one to one relationship with the
densities of the corresponding localized features.
Deterministic models try to closely approximate the real localized features but
again the amount of data required and the computational efficiency achievable
limits their applicability.
Both empirical and deterministic models are tuned based on a cluster of cells.
However, it was found that in some cases, the network problem is only in

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particular problematic cells and not the entire cluster of cells and needed to be
addressed on cell per cell basis. Cluster tuning mostly overlook this and
consequently such cells remain un-optimized enhancing poor network
performance and hence, quality of service.

To solve this problem, this research analysed the recent work on statistical models.
However, the analysis showed that most environmental features were incorporated in one
factor within the propagation mode. This did not bear the true local features of the
environment. Since each of the various environmental factors has diverse densities and
respective losses and can not be represented by just one factor. Consequently, this had no
bearing to the real localised features within the region under study. Again, all the models
were calibrated based on the cluster method and not on a cell per cell basis.

7.2 Summary of Findings
It was established that the terrain diffraction loss can be modelled with a
confident level of accuracy if the terrain exponent of the region under
study is clearly established from the terrain data based on a non-linear
regression method.
It was also found that for macro cells, it was sufficient to model the
building loss as a knife-edge based on the available building data from the
region under study.
Furthermore, vegetation/trees loss can be modelled in two phases for
macro cells. It was modelled as a knife-edge in addition to the losses due

Page 145
to attenuation based on distance. This was found to be a sufficient closest
approximation of the vegetation loss in the region under study.
The additional terrain diffraction loss can be modelled from the average
additional diffraction losses obtained from the region under study and
hence its density.
Densities of clutter can be modelled based on the distance of each of them
on the various radio paths in different sectors in the area of study.

7.3 Summary of Study Contributions
As it was established through the literature review, there is no universal propagation
model that could be used in all types of environments. Instead, many authors have
proposed different models over the past few years. The accuracy of these models depends
to a great extent on how well the localized terrain and clutter features are taken into
account and modelled. Furthermore it is essential that the models be validated using field
measurement data.

This project made the following contributions:
The research study performed a field measurement which was then used to
calibrate a propagation model. Based on the tuned model assessment and residual
errors, it was found that there was a need to correct the terrain and clutter
calculations considered by the Okumura-Hata model in ATOLL. This was done
by introducing the terrain and clutter loss correction factors.

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The terrain exponents were calculated for high, medium and low hilly terrain
from which the terrain exponent for various regions under study was identified.
The building and vegetation losses as well as the additional terrain diffraction loss
for the region under study were derived based on the clutter and terrain
information from the region.
The respective clutter and terrain densities for the region under study were
established based on the dimensions of the clutter and terrain height as obtained
from the region under study.

7.4 Recommendations for Further Study
A number of recommendations for possible improvement of the clutter model
computational capabilities could be considered.
The comparison between measured and predicted signal revealed that
some sharp discrepancies were experienced in a few cases. This is mainly
due to the fact that the predictions were made without taking actual terrain
data from the digital terrain map. Clutter data could not be read directly
from the clutter map. It is recommended that the compatible file extension
for the two be bought and loaded into the prediction engine to improve the
accuracy. This could eliminate over estimation or under estimation by the
model.
The evaluation time taken for a prediction session was within reasonable
span. However, if the digital terrain map and clutter data have to be loaded
then the evaluation time that is anticipated could be longer. Thus, it is

Page 147
recommended that the algorithm processes be optimized in an attempt to
improve the predictions speed after the two databases have been
incorporated.
It is also recommended that a comprehensive antenna interpolation be
included in the model to account for all antenna types as opposed to the
current situation where this is not included.
The clutter propagation model is recommended for incorporation into a
modern prediction tools in order to benefit from the graphical display
mechanisms which were not intended to be developed in this project. This
would enhance the general visualization and evaluation of the model
performance on any point picked from a map view as opposed to only
using the points read from the test measurement files.

7.5 General conclusions
The complete analytical procedure was shown through the MATLAB algorithm
development for clutter Propagation Model. Due to practical problems in incorporating
plug-ins with the ATOLL prediction engine, the prediction engine was developed
separately and tested with real field data. It was found to correspond well as described in
section 6.2.2. The accuracy of the system is established through a comparative study
between the predictions and real field measurements. It was concluded that the proposed
model gives results which show good agreement with the measurements. The study also
showed that the results improved when terrain type and clutter data were taken into
account during path loss calculations.

Page 148
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APPENDIX A
I. A Sample of Transmitter Data Files

Cell-ID AGL[m] Latitude Longitude
Propagation
Model NCC BCC
Equip
Loss EIRP[dBm] BCCH
T0051A 15 25.71369 28.2025 Suburban 5 3 4.5 55.78 99
T0051B 15 25.71369 28.2025 Suburban 4 5 4.5 57.78 90
T0051C 15 25.71369 28.2025 Suburban 0 1 4.5 55.78 92
T0052A 24 25.7117 28.28408 Suburban 7 1 3.5 57.07 94
T0056A 35 25.71389 28.12281 Suburban 7 6 4.5 53.78 94
T0056B 35 25.71389 28.12281 Suburban 6 5 4.5 53.28 112
T0056C 35 25.71389 28.12281 Suburban 4 5 4.5 53.78 88
T0269A 30 25.77127 28.267 Suburban 0 6 3.5 57.49 99
T0364A 35 25.72086 28.16858 Suburban 1 2 2.5 58.49 110

II. A Sample of Receiver Data Files

Latitude Longitude Northing Easting ARFCN BSIC RxLevFull RxLvub TA
25.7356 28.2364 7153864 623231 83 33 34 34 2
25.7356 28.2362 7153864 623220 83 33 33 33 2
25.7356 28.2359 7153864 623205 83 33 31 35 2
25.7356 28.2357 7153863 623190 83 33 32 31 2
25.7356 28.2354 7153863 623173 83 33 30 29 3
25.7356 28.2351 7153862 623156 83 33 28 23 3
25.7356 28.2348 7153861 623139 83 33 28 29 3
25.7356 28.2345 7153860 623122 83 33 27 27 3
25.7356 28.2343 7153860 623104 83 33 31 32 3
25.7357 28.234 7153859 623087 83 33 30 31 3

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APPENDIX B
I. Data Processing Algorithm
Format long
[X1] = xlsread('moot TEMS1.xls');
[row col] = size(X1);
[rX1,cX1] = size(X1);
for i = 1:row;
x1(i,1) = angledim(X1(i,1),'dm','degrees');
y1(i,1) = angledim(X1(i,2),'dm','degrees');
end
B1 = [x1,y1]; %degrees
for i = 1:row;
[x2(i,1),y2(i,1)] = convertToUtmood(B1(i,1),B1(i,2));
end
[x2, y2]; % x-y coordinates
B2 = [x2, y2];
csvwrite('B2.csv',B2)
for i = 1:row
D1(i,1:7) = X1(i,3:9);
end
D1;
TEMSP = [B2,D1]; %lat and lon in x-y coordinates.
Temsp = [B1,D1]; %lat and lon in degrees.
csvwrite('Temsp.csv',Temsp);
[TEMSdat] = xlsread('Temsp.xls');
[celldata] = xlsread('serving cell.xls');
capacity = size(TEMSdat);
w = capacity(1); % number of row
capacit = size(celldata);
n = capacit(1);
A = celldata(1,19);
B = celldata(1,23);
C = TEMSdat(1:w,5);
D = TEMSdat(1:w,6);
k=1;
for i=1:w
if D(i,1) == 53 & C(i,1) == 99
TEMSdat1(k,1:9)=TEMSdat(i,1:9);
elseif D(i,1) == 45 & C(i,1) == 90
elseif D(i,1) == 1 & C(i,1) == 92
elseif D(i,1) == 71 & C(i,1) == 94

Page 156
elseif D(i,1) == 76 & C(i,1) == 94
elseif D(i,1) == 65 & C(i,1) == 112
elseif D(i,1) == 45 & C(i,1) == 88
elseif D(i,1) == 6 & C(i,1) == 99
elseif D(i,1) == 12 & C(i,1) == 110
elseif D(i,1) == 3 & C(i,1) == 104
elseif D(i,1) == 11 & C(i,1) == 85
elseif D(i,1) == 56 & C(i,1) == 97
elseif D(i,1) == 33 & C(i,1) == 83
elseif D(i,1) == 31 & C(i,1) == 103
elseif D(i,1) == 72 & C(i,1) == 106
elseif D(i,1) == 70 & C(i,1) == 101
elseif D(i,1) == 50 & C(i,1) == 93
elseif D(i,1) == 7 & C(i,1) == 106
elseif D(i,1) == 62 & C(i,1) == 94
elseif D(i,1) == 75 & C(i,1) == 93
elseif D(i,1) == 30 & C(i,1) == 88
elseif D(i,1) == 67 & C(i,1) == 100
elseif D(i,1) == 30 & C(i,1) == 98
elseif D(i,1) == 51 & C(i,1) == 83
elseif D(i,1) == 34 & C(i,1) == 108
elseif D(i,1) == 61 & C(i,1) == 94
elseif D(i,1) == 31 & C(i,1) == 111

Page 157
elseif D(i,1) == 71 & C(i,1) == 82
elseif D(i,1) == 45 & C(i,1) == 89
elseif D(i,1) == 4 & C(i,1) == 109
elseif D(i,1) == 21 & C(i,1) == 111
elseif D(i,1) == 32 & C(i,1) == 95
elseif D(i,1) == 25 & C(i,1) == 87
elseif D(i,1) == 0 & C(i,1) == 106
elseif D(i,1) == 60 & C(i,1) == 110
elseif D(i,1) == 71 & C(i,1) == 95
elseif D(i,1) == 76 & C(i,1) == 93
elseif D(i,1) == 72 & C(i,1) == 112
elseif D(i,1) == 7 & C(i,1) == 91
elseif D(i,1) == 12 & C(i,1) == 103
elseif D(i,1) == 14 & C(i,1) == 101
elseif D(i,1) == 37 & C(i,1) == 83
elseif D(i,1) == 3 & C(i,1) == 85
elseif D(i,1) == 72 & C(i,1) == 103
k=k+1;
end
end
TEMSdat1;
TEMSdat2;
TEMSdat3;
TEMSdat4;
TEMSdat5;
TEMSdat6;
TEMSdat7;
TEMSdat8;

Page 158
TEMSdat9;
TEMSdat10;
TEMSdat11;
TEMSdat12;
TEMSdat13;
TEMSdat14;
TEMSdat15;
TEMSdat16;
TEMSdat17;
TEMSdat18;
TEMSdat19;
TEMSdat20;
TEMSdat21;
TEMSdat22;
TEMSdat23;
TEMSdat24;
TEMSdat25;
TEMSdat26;
TEMSdat27;
TEMSdat28;
TEMSdat29;
TEMSdat30;
TEMSdat31;
TEMSdat32;
TEMSdat33;
TEMSdat34;
TEMSdat35;
TEMSdat36;
TEMSdat37;
TEMSdat38;
TEMSdat39;
TEMSdat40;
TEMSdat41;
TEMSdat42;
TEMSdat43;
TEMSdat44;
csvwrite('TEMSdat44.csv',TEMSdat44)

II. Diffraction Loss Calculation Algorithm
function h = knifeedgeh( d1, d2, hte, hre, hke)
num = d1*(hke-hte) + d2*(hke-hre);
den = d1 + d2;
h = num/den;
function [LT1] = diffraction_cal1(d11,d21,g1,h1)

Page 159
V = - (h1.*sqrt((2/g1)*(1./d11 + 1./d21)));
for (k=1:size(d11,1))
if V(k) >= 1
LT1(k) =0;
elseif (V(k) >=0) & (V(k) <= 1)
LT1(k) = 20*log10(0.5 + 0.62*V(k));
elseif (V(k) >=-1) & (V(k) <= 0)
LT1(k) = 20*log10(0.5*exp(0.95*V(k)));
elseif V(k) < -1
LT1(k) = 20*log10(- (0.225/V(k)));
end
end

III. Point to Point Analysis Algorithm
[X2] = xlsread('serving cell.xls');
[X3] = xlsread('Test16.xls');
[row1 col1]= size(X3);
g1 = 0.33; % wavelength ratio
d11 = X3(1:rX3,10); % first distance in diffraction
d21 = X3(1:rX3,11); % second distance in diffraction
h1 = X3(1:rX3,8); % height of the clutter
LT1 = zeros(rX3,1); % initialize the loss LT1 due to diffraction
LT1 = diffraction_cal1(d11(1:rX3,1),d21(1:rX3,1),g1,h1(1:rX3,1))'; %Diffraction loss
dcl1 = X3(1:rX3,9); % length of the clutter
d1 = X3(1:rX3,12); % the total lenth of
RAT1 = dcl1./d1;
LT11 = LT1.*RAT1; % the total loss per clutter
Ld1 = X3(1,14);%average terrain diffraction assumed
M1 = X3(1:rX3,3);%measurement from field
Ra = X3(1:rX3,6); %distance as obtained from the field
R1 = distdim(Ra,'m','km');% convert to km
F1 = 900;% frequency in MHz
MH1 = 2.5; % mobile station height
BH1 = 35; % BTS height
P1 = X3(1:rX3,4);
a1 = (1.1*log10(F1) - 0.7)*MH1 -(1.56*log10(F1)-0.8);

for i = 1:rX3,
j = 1;
PL1(i,j) = -(69.55 + 26.16*log10(F1) - 13.82*log10(BH1) + (44.9 -
6.55*log10(BH1))*log10(R1(i,j))- a1 - 2*(log10(F1/28))^2 - 5.4 - Ld1);

Page 160
end;
PL1; % Predicted loss with no clutter loss
PL1c = PL1+LT11;% predicted loss with clutter loss included
PM1 = PL1-M1;
PM1c = PL1c-M1;
average = mean(PM1c);
standardev = std(PM1c);
B31 = sortrows(R1,[1]);

figure;
plot(B31,PL1c,'b:',B31,M1,'r-'),xlabel('distance(km)'),ylabel('signal
strength(dBm)'),title('Test16 after clutter correction'),grid on
legend('Predictions','Measurements')
figure;
plot(B31,PM1c,'r-'),xlabel('distance(km)'),ylabel('Error(dB)'),title('Test16 error'),grid on
legend('Error after clutter correction')

IV. Distance Calculation Algorithm
function dist = pos2dist(lag1,lon1,lag2,lon2,method)
dist = zeros(size(lag2,1),size(lag2,2));
if nargin < 4
dist = -99999*ones(size(lon2,1),size(lon2,2));
disp('Number of input arguments error! distance = -99999');
return;
end
for i=1:size(lag2,1)
if abs(lag1)>90 | abs(lag2(i))>90 | abs(lon1)>360 | abs(lon2(i))>360
dist(i) = -99999;
disp('Degree(s) illegal! distance = -99999');
return;
end
end
if lon1 < 0
lon1 = lon1 + 360;
end
for i=1:size(lon2,1)
if lon2(i) < 0
lon2(i) = lon2(i) + 360;
end
end
% Default method is 1.
if nargin == 4
method == 1;
end

Page 161
if method == 1
km_per_deg_la = 111.3237;
km_per_deg_lo = 111.1350;
km_la = km_per_deg_la * (lag1-lag2);
% Always calculate the shorter arc.
for i=1:size(lon2,1)
if abs(lon1-lon2(i)) > 180
dif_lo(i) = abs(lon1-lon2(i))-180;
else
dif_lo(i) = abs(lon1-lon2(i));
end
km_lo(i) = km_per_deg_lo * dif_lo(i) * cos((lag1+lag2(i))*pi/360);
dist(i) = sqrt(km_la(i)^2 + km_lo(i)^2);
end
else
R_aver = 6374;
deg2rad = pi/180;
lag1 = lag1 * deg2rad;
lon1 = lon1 * deg2rad;
lag2 = lag2 * deg2rad;
lon2 = lon2 * deg2rad;
dist = R_aver * acos(cos(lag1)*cos(lag2).*cos(lon1*ones(size(lon2,1),size(lon2,2))-
lon2) + sin(lag1)*sin(lag2));
end

V. Non-Linear Regression Algorithm
q1 = 1*ones(size(R1,1),size(R1,2));
q2 = log10(R1);
q3 = -log10(R1/0.1);
q6 = 3.24*ones(size(R1,1),size(R1,2));
Q = [q1, q2, q3, q4, q5, q6];
betao = X3(1:6,15);
N1 = -M1;
[beta,r,J] = nlinfit(Q, N1, 'hougen', betao);
LDB = hougen(beta,Q);
LDB = -LDB;
PM1h = LDB-M1;
average = mean(PM1h);
standardev = std(PM1h);

Page 162
figure;
plot(B31,LDB,'b:',B31,M1,'r-'),xlabel('distance(km)'),ylabel('signal

figure;
plot(B31,PM1h,'r-'),xlabel('distance(km)'),ylabel('Error(dB)'),title('Test16 error'),grid on

VI. Calculation of Clutter and Terrain Average Losses and Densities
RAT1AVERB = mean(RAT1);
RATa = RAT2(1:31,1);
RATb = RAT2(32,1);
RATc = RAT2(33:36,1);
RATd = RAT2(37,1);
RATe = RAT2(38,1);
RATB = [RATa;RATc;RATe];
RATV = [RATb;RATd];
RAT2AVERB = mean(RATB);
RAT2AVERV = mean(RATV); %average density of vegetation
RATAVERB = [RAT1AVERB;RAT2AVERB];
RATAERBB = mean(RATAVERB); %average density of the buildings.
LT1B1 = mean(LT1);
LT2a = LT2(1:31,1);
LT2b = LT2(32,1);
LT2c = LT2(33:36,1);
LT2d = LT2(37,1);
LT2e = LT2(38,1);
LT2B = [LT2a;LT2c;LT2e];
LT2V = [LT2b;LT2d];
LT2B2 = mean(LT2B);
LVeg = mean(LT2V); %average loss due to vegetation
LTBB = [LT1B1;LT2B2];
LBdg = mean(LTBB); %average loss due to buildings
GGD = AD(1:rAD,7);
TERRL = mean(GGD);%average terrain loss
w=1;
for i=1:rAD
if GGD(i,1) == 0
TERRdat1(w,1)=AD(i,7);
w = w + 1
end
end
TERRdat1;

Page 163
DE1 = length (TERRdat1);
DE2 = length (AD);
DE3 = DE2 - DE1;
TerrDens = DE3/DE2;%terrain density

VII. Fixed Clutter and Terrain Algorithm
[X3] = xlsread('Test16.xls');
[row1 col1]= size(X3);
M1 = X3(1:rX3,3);%measurement from field
Ra = X3(1:rX3,6); %distance as obtained from the field
R1 = distdim(Ra,'m','km');% convert to km
F1 = 900;% frequency in MHz
for k = 1:rX3,
h = 1;
LF(k,h) = 32.44 + 20*log10(F1) + 20*log10(R1(k,h));
end
LF;
LFL = LF + M3;
n = LFL/10.*log10(R3/0.1);
naverage = mean(n);
Ld1 = 10*naverage*log10(R3/0.1);
a1 = (1.1*log10(F1) - 0.7)*MH1 -(1.56*log10(F1)-0.8);

for i = 1:rX3,
j = 1;
PL1(i,j) = -(69.55 + 26.16*log10(F1) - 13.82*log10(BH1) + (44.9 -
6.55*log10(BH1))*log10(R1(i,j))- a1 - 2*(log10(F1/28))^2 - 5.4 - Ld1-
TerrDens*(TERRL));
end;
PL1;
Comp1 = PL1-M1;
Comp = Comp1;
T = 2;
LC1 = clutterloss1(T,LBdg,LVeg);
LC = clutterloss(Comp,LBdg,LVeg);
LC = LC';
PL1cc = PL1+LC1;
PM1cc = PL1cc-M1;
average = mean(PM1cc);
standardev = std(PM1cc);

Page 164
figure;
plot(B31,PL1cc,'b:',B31,M1,'r-'),xlabel('distance(km)'),ylabel('signal

figure;
plot(B31,PM1cc,'r-'),xlabel('distance(km)'),ylabel('Error(dB)'),title('Test16 error'),grid on

VIII. Variable Clutter and Terrain Loss
A. Variable Clutter Loss Calculation Algorithm
function [LC] = clutterloss(Comp,LBdg,LVeg)
for (k=1:size(Comp,1))
if Comp(k) <= 8
LC(k) = 0.04*(LVeg)+0.24*(LBdg);
elseif (Comp(k) >8) & (Comp(k) <= 14)
LC(k) = 0.07*(LVeg) + 0.54*(LBdg);
elseif (Comp(k) >14) & (Comp(k) <= 22)
LC(k) = 0.10*(LVeg)+0.94*(LBdg);
elseif Comp(k) > 22
LC(k) = 0.22*(LVeg)+0.98*(LBdg);
end
end

B. Predicted Path Loss Calculation Algorithm
[X2] = xlsread('serving cell.xls');
[X6] = xlsread('TEMSdat25.xls');
lag1 = X2(25,10);
lon1 = X2(25,11);
lag2 = X6(1:rX6,1);
lon2 = X6(1:rX6,2);
dist(1:rX6,1) = pos2dist(lag1,lon1,lag2(1:rX6,1),lon2(1:rX6,1),1);
R3 = dist;
for k = 1:rX6,
h = 1;
LF(k,h) = 32.44 + 20*log10(F3) + 20*log10(R3(k,h));

Page 165
end
LF;
LFL = LF + M3;
n = LFL/10.*log10(R3/0.1);
naverage = mean(n);
Ld3 = 10*naverage*log10(R3/0.1);
M3 = X6(1:rX6,7);
F3 = 900;
BH3 = 35;
MH3 = 2.5;
a3 = (1.1*log10(F3) - 0.7)*MH3 -(1.56*log10(F3)-0.8);
for i = 1:rX6,
j = 1;
PL3(i,j) = -(69.55 + 26.16*log10(F3) - 13.82*log10(BH3) + (44.9 -
6.55*log10(BH3))*log10(R3(i,j)) - a3 - 2*(log10(F3/28))^2 - 5.4 - Ld3(i,j)-
TerrDens*(TERRL));
end;
PL3;
PM3 = PL3-M3;
Comp3 = PL3-M3;
Comp = Comp3;
LC = clutterloss(Comp,LBdg,LVeg);
LC = LC';
PL3c = PL3+LC;
PM3c = PL3c-M3;
average = mean(PM3c);
standardev = std(PM3c);

figure;
plot(B33,PL3c,'b:',B33,M3,'r-'),xlabel('distance(km)'),ylabel('signal
strength(dBm)'),title('T4658 after clutter correction'),grid on

figure;
plot(B33,PM3,'b:',B33,PM3c,'r-'),xlabel('distance(km)'),ylabel('Error(dB)'),title('Test
error'),grid on, legend('Error after clutter correction')

Page 166
APPENDIX C
Calibration of TEMs T768i

The text size was set to medium. The backlight was set to normal. The cell Id format was
set to decimal. The power display was set to dBm. The measurement mode was set to
full. The ignore TMSI was set to normal so as to allow the handset to use TMSI. The
event mode was set to on.

First cell selection was done to choose the serving cell to be tested. Then the location
identity was done where the location area code, the cell identity and RxLev of the serving
cell and the six strongest cells in the neighbour list was done. The current ARFCN was
logged and then the measurements carried out

Page 167

Page 168
APPENDIX D
I. An Output Article: Accepted and Presented at the IEEE Conference
(International Conference on Telecommunications_NEPAD), 17-21 May
2006 Nairobi: KICC
MUKUBWA, E.W., KURIEN, A. & CHATELAIN, D. 2006. Information Rich Radio-
Wave Path Loss Model. International Conference on Telecommunication: Nairobi-
Kenya.

Page 169
II. An Output Article: Accepted and to be Presented at the Southern African
Telecommunications Networks and Applications Conference (SATNAC),
Western Cape 3-6 September 2006
MUKUBWA, E.W., KURIEN, A. & CHATELAIN, D. 2006. A Cell Focused Approach
to Propagation Prediction Modelling. Southern African Telecommunications Networks
and Applications Conference: Western Cape-South Africa

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