LIGHT

Ray of light: A Ray of light is the straight line along which light travel. Beam of light: A bundle of light rays is called as beam of light. Luminous objects: The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous
objects. Ex: sun, stars, flame, bulb etc

Illuminated objects: The objects which shine in the light of the other objects called
as Illuminated objects.

Properties of light: Light shows the phenomenon of reflection, refraction, absorption,

and dispersion.

Reflection
the returning of light into the same medium after striking a smooth surface is called as reflection.

Laws of reflection of light:

1st law: The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray lie in the same plane at the point of incidence. 2nd law: The angle of Incidence is always equal to the angle of Reflection ( i= r)

Normal: The perpendicular line to the surface at the point of incidence is called as
Normal.

Angle of Incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal. Angle of Reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the Normal.
Characteristics of Images:

Real image: The image which can be caught on the screen. Virtual image: the Image which cannot be caught on the Screen.

Inverted image: If image of an object is upside down, then that image is said to be
inverted.

Erect image: If image of an object is upright, then that is said to be erect. Enlarged image: if the image is larger than the object, then it is said to be enlarged. Diminished image: If the image is smaller than the object, then it is said to be
diminished.

Lateral Inversion: It is phenomenon that the left side of the object is appears as the
right of the image and vice versa (or) the exchange of right and left side of an object and its image is called lateral inversion. Mirrors: Usually mirrors are classified into two types 1. Plane mirrors 2. Spherical mirrors ( convex and concave) Spherical mirrors: It is a part of a hollow sphere, whose one side is reflecting and other side is Opaque. They are further divided into convex mirror and concave mirror. Convex mirror (curved out): if the inner surface of the spherical mirror is coated then it is called as convex mirror.

Concave mirror (curved in): if the outer surface of the spherical mirror is coated it is called as concave mirror.

PARTS OF THE MIRROR

In the above diagrams, 'C' is the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror, which is the centre of the whole sphere of which the mirror forms a part. 'P' is called the vertex or pole of the mirror, which is the mid point or centre of the spherical mirror. 'CP' is called the radius of curvature (R) M1M2 is called the aperture of the mirror. The straight line joining the pole and the centre C extended on both sides is called the principal axis of the mirror. Principal Focus F is a point on the principal axis of the mirror at which, rays incident on the mirror in a direction parallel to the axis actually meet or appear to diverge from, after reflection from the mirror. F is a real point in case of concave mirror and F is a virtual point in case of convex mirror. Focal Length The distance of principal focus from the pole of the spherical mirror is called focal length (f) of the mirror. i.e., PF = f Radius of Curvature The distance of C from P is called radius of curvature of the mirror. i.e., PC = R

Sign Conventions and Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams

All distances are measured from the pole of spherical mirror. Distances measured in the direction of incidence of light are taken as positive, and when measured in a direction opposite to the direction of incidence of light is taken as negative. The heights measured upwards to the principal axis are taken as positive and negative if measured downwards.

Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams Any ray of light traveling parallel to the principal axis, after reflection passes through the focus or appears to diverge from the focus.

Any ray of light passing through the centre of curvature reflects along the same path.

A ray of light initially passing through the focus after reflection travels parallel to the principal axis.

Relation between Focal Length and Radius of Curvature in Spherical Mirrors is R = 2f

Ray diagrams of concave mirror Object at Infinity The image is formed at F Real and Inverted image Highly diminished

When object placed beyond the centre of curvature: The image is formed between C and F Real and Inverted image Diminished

When object placed at C:

The image is formed at C Real and Inverted image Same size

When the Object is Between C and F:

The image is formed Beyond C Real and Inverted image Enlarged image

When the Object is at the Focus:

The image is formed at infinity Real and Inverted image Highly Enlarged image

When the Object is Between the Pole and the Focus:

The image is formed behind the mirror

Virtual and erect image Enlarged image

Ray Diagrams of convex Mirror

When the Object is palced between P and F:

The image is formed between pole and focus Virtual and erect image Diminished image

When the Object is at Infinity

The image is formed at the focus Virtual and erect image Extremely Diminished image

Position of the Object

Position of the Image

Size of the Image

Nature of the Image

use

Concave Mirror
At infinity At F Between C and F At C Beyond C Highly diminished ,point sized Diminished Real and Inverted Used by ENT surgeons and dentists Used in solar cookers Used as an erecting mirror in terrestrial telescopes Used in hospitals and clinics to see the

Beyond C

Real and Inverted

At C Between C and F

Same size Enlarged

Real and Inverted Real and Inverted

internal parts of the body At F Between F and P At infinity Behind the mirror Highly enlarged Real and Inverted Used in search lights and in head lights of motor cars Used as a shaving mirror

Enlarged

Virtual and Erect

Convex Mirror
At infinity Between infinity and pole of the mirror At F, behind the mirror Between P and F, behind the mirror Highly diminished, point sized Virtual and Erect

Diminished

Virtual Erect

Uses of Concave Mirrors As reflectors in the head lights of cars, search lights in torches etc. to obtain a parallel beam of light. For this, the source of light is placed at the focus of the concave reflector.

By dentist to focus light on the tooth to be examined As shaving mirrors and as make up mirrors to get an enlarged erect image of the face To concentrate solar radiations in solar heating devices. For this the food or substance that has to be heated is placed at the focus of a large concave reflector. After reflection, sun light converges on the substance and heats it.

Uses of Convex Mirrors As a Rear-view mirror in an automobile. This convex mirror gives the driver a clear view of the traffic approaching from behind as convex mirrors are curved outwards giving a wider field of view

Vigilance mirror in departmental stores Reflector in street lamps so as to diverge the light over a large area

Mirror Formula and Magnification:

In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the object distance (u). The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image distance

(v). The distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal length (f). The relation between these three quantities is given by the mirror formula. The mirror formula is

This formula holds good for both concave and convex mirrors for all positions of the object. Remember to apply the New Cartesian sign convention while substituting numerical values for u, v, and f in the mirror formula while solving problems.
Magnification: It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually represented by the letter m. Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the image of an object is magnified with respect to the object size.

If h is the height of the object and h' is the height of the image then the magnification m produced by a spherical mirror can be written as

The magnification m is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v). It can be expressed as:

The negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is Real. A positive sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is Virtual.

REFRACTION
the bending of light from its original path when it enters from one medium to another medium is called refraction of light.

Cause of Refraction

A ray of light refracts or deviates from its original path as it passes from one optical medium to another because the speed of light changes. This is due to different media will have different optical densities.

The velocity of light is more in medium which have less optical density and vice versa. Absolute Refractive Index: The refractive index of a medium is a measure of the speed of light in that medium. It is defined as ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light through the material.
m =
c vm

Where C is the speed of the light in the vacuume and vm is the speed of the light in the given medium. For example, the refractive index of water is 1.33; meaning that light travels 1.33 times faster in vacuum than it does in water. Relative refractive Index: it is defined as refractive index of a medium with respect to another medium.

12 =

2 1

(OR)

1 2 =

1 2

From the definition of the Absolute refractive index we can write and 1 = Note:

2 v1 c = (Since 2 = v2 1 v2

c ) v1

If the refractive index of a medium and the speed of the light are inversely proportional to each other. That is if the is more velocity in that medium is less and vice versa. For a given pair of media, the medium which have more optical density or refractive index is called the Denser medium and the medium which have less refractive index is called Rarer medium.

The refractive index of a medium depends on the following factors:

the nature of the medium The colour or wavelength of the incident light. i.e., Refractive index of materials varies with the wavelength of light.

Laws of Refraction

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in one plane. Snells Law:

The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for the pair of media in contact. This is denoted by 12 and is refractive index of medium two with respect to medium one. Thus
Sini 2 = = 12 = const Sinr 1

Here 12 is the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium. For a wave the velocity is defined as v = frequency X wavelength = f X So when the speed of the light is changed in a given medium, the wavelength will change proportionally .but the frequency of the light constant in any medium. Therefore, we can write v1= f X 1 and v2= f X 2 substituting these in

2 v1 f 1 1 = = = 1 v2 f 2 2
By combining all the relations we can write
Sini 2 v1 1 = = = Sinr 1 v2 2

Rules of refraction:
When a light ray travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, the light ray bends

towards the normal In this case 2 > that is 1

2 sin i < 1 therefore, >1 1 sin r

Sin i > Sin r i > r or r < i

the angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidance When a light ray travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the light ray bends away from the normal. In this case 2 < that is 1

2 sin i < 1 therefore, <1 1 sin r

Sin i < Sin r i < r or r > i

therefore the angle of refraction is more than the angle of incidence.

Refraction of Light through a Glass Slab

Let us now perform an experiment and find out how light gets refracted when it is incident on a rectangular glass slab.

Place a rectangular glass slab on a white sheet of paper fixed on a drawing board. Trace the boundary ABCD of the glass slab. Remove the glass slab. Draw an incident ray IO on AB. Draw the normal NN1 at the point of incidence O Fix two pins P and Q on the incident ray IO. Place the glass slab within its boundary ABCD. Looking from the other side of the glass slab fix two pins R and S such that your eye and the feet of all the pins are in one straight line. Remove the glass slab and the pins. Mark the pin points P1, P2, P3 and P4. Join P3 and P4 and extend to touch the surface BC at Ol Join OO1.It is the refracted ray. Measure i, r and e. i, r and e are the angle of incidence, angle of refraction and angle of emergence respectively. i > r and i = e Extend O1E backwards. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.

The above experiment shows that

When a ray light is passing from air to glass, that is, from a rarer medium to a denser medium, the refracted ray bends towards the normal drawn at the point of incidence. In this case i > r. But when the ray of light is passing from glass to air, that is, from a denser medium to a rarer medium the refracted ray bends away from the normal. In this case r > i.

The emergent ray, O1E which is nothing but the refracted ray emerging out of the glass slab is parallel to the incident ray. This means that the refracted ray (emergent ray) has been displaced from its original path by a distance XY. This displacement is referred to as lateral displacement.

Lenses
A lens is a portion of a transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces which are generally spherical or cylindrical or one curved and one plane surface. Basically, the lenses are classified as

convex lens or converging lens concave or diverging lens

Convex Lens

A lens which is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges is called a convex lens. In a convex lens at least one of its surfaces is bulging out at the middle. According to their shapes the convex lenses are classified as

bi-convex or double convex lens Plano - convex lens concavo - convex lens

Concave Lens

A lens which is thinner at the middle and thicker at the edges is called a concave lens. Like convex lenses these lenses are also classified as

bi-concave plano - concave convexo - concave

Terminology Used in Optics

Optic Centre: The centre of a lens is denoted by the letter O and it is called Optic Centre. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens does not suffer any deviation.
Principal Axis

Principal axis is the straight line joining the centres of curvatures of the two curved surfaces of a lens.
Principal Foci

Rays of light can pass through the lens in any direction and hence there will be two principal foci on either side of the lens and they are referred to as the first principal focus and the second principal focus of a lens Focus of a convex lens is real whereas that of the concave lens is virtual.

Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses

All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.

The distances measured in the direction of the incident light are taken as positive and the distances measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as negative. All measurements made above the principal axis are taken as positive and the measurements made below the principal axis are taken as negative, i.e., object height is always taken as positive and the image height is positive only for virtual image.

Note: the focal length of a convex lens is always positive and that of a concave lens is negative

Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams When an object is placed in front of a lens, light rays coming from the object fall on the lens and get refracted. The refracted rays produce an image at a point where they intersect or appear to intersect each other. The formation of images by lenses is usually shown by a ray diagram. To construct a ray diagram, we need at least two rays whose paths after refraction through the lens is known. Any two of the following rays are usually considered while constructing ray diagrams.

A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens travels straight without suffering any deviation. This holds good only in the case of a thin lens

An incident ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus. An incident ray of light coming from the object parallel to the principal axis of a concave lens after refraction appears to come from its focus.

An incident ray passing through the focus of a lens emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction.

A ray passing through the focus of lens becomes parallel after refraction

Formation of Image by a Convex Lens

Object is placed at 2F1

The image is

formed at 2F2 real inverted same size as the object

Object is Placed Between F1 and 2F1

The image is

formed beyond 2F2 real inverted magnified

Object is placed at F1

The image is

formed at infinity real inverted magnified

Object is Placed Beyond 2F1

The image is

formed between F2 and 2F2 real inverted diminished

Object is placed at Infinity ` The image is

formed at F2 inverted real highly diminished

When the object is at infinity, the rays coming from it are parallel to each other

When the Object is placed between F1 and O

The image is

Formed on the same side of the lens Virtual Erect Magnified

Position of the Position of the object image Between O and on the same side F1 of the lens At 2F1 Between F1 and 2F1 At F1 At 2F2 Beyond 2F2 At infinity

Nature of the Size of the image image Erect and virtual Inverted and real Inverted and real Inverted and real Magnified Same size Magnified Magnified

Application Magnifying lens (simple microscope), eye piece of many instruments Photocopying camera Projectors, objectives of microscope Theatre spot lights

Position of the Position of the object image Beyond 2F1 At infinity Between F2 and 2F2 At F2

Nature of the Size of the image image Inverted and real Inverted and real Diminished Diminished

Application Photocopying (reduction camera) Objective of a telescope

Formation of Image by a Concave Lens

When the Object is placed at any Position between O and infinity

The image is

formed between O and F1 erect virtual diminished

When the Object is at Infinity

The image is

formed at F1 erect virtual Diminished.

Uses of concave lens It is used in spectacles for correcting myopia. It is along with convex lens it is used to overcome defects like chromatic aberration and spherical aberration (the failure of rays to converge at one focus because of a defect in a lens or mirror).

Sign Convention for Lenses

All distances on the principal axis are measured from the optical center. The distances measured in the direction of incident rays are positive and all the distances measured in the direction opposite to that of the incident rays are negative. All distances measured above the principal axis are positive. Thus, height of an object and that of an erect image are positive and all distances measured below the principal axis are negative. The following table gives the sign convention for lenses

Lens Formula
The relationship between distance of the object (u), distance of the image (v) and focal length (f) of the lens is called lens formula or lens equation.

This lens formula is applicable to both convex and concave lenses. Note: The values of the known parameters should be used with their proper sign as per the sign convention.

Magnification
Magnification is the ratio of the size of the image (hI) to the size of the object (ho)

Magnification produced by a lens can be equal to one, greater than one or less than one depending upon the size and nature of the image. When, height of the image (hI) = height of the object (ho)

Thus, when the magnification is one, the size of the image is equal to the size of the object. When hI > ho When hi < ho

For both type of lenses, the height of the object is always positive, while the height of the image may be + or - depending upon its nature. As per sign convention for lenses, the height of an inverted and real image is negative and hence the magnification of a lens is negative when it produces an inverted and real image. For an erect and virtual image, the height of the image is positive. So, the magnification is positive when an erect and virtual image is formed.

Power of a Lens
Whenever a ray of light passes through a lens (except when it passes through the optical center) it bends. The bending of light rays towards the principal axis is called convergence and bending of light rays away from the principal axis is called divergence. The degree of convergence or divergence of a lens is expressed in terms of its power. A lens of short focal length deviates the rays more while a lens of large focal length deviates the rays less. Thus power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in meters. It can also be defined as Power of lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a beam of light falling at unit distance from optic centre. That is

Mathematically the SI unit of power is dioptre (D).

1Dioptre =

1 metre

OR 1D =1m 1

The power of a convex lens is positive and concave lens is negative.

Note: If two thin lenses are placed in contact, the combination has a power equal to the algebraic sum of the powers of two lenses. P = P1+ P2

Human Eye
The important parts of human eye are cornea, iris, pupil, lens, ciliary muscles, retina (cones & rods), and optic nerve.

Cornea: it is the transparent part of eye; it allows the light to enter in the eye.
It is also known as the window or the Aperture.

Iris: it is a circular diaphragm. It controls the amount of light entering the eye
by changing the size of the pupil. The pupil becomes small when bright light falls on the eye and it becomes wide when dim light falls on eye.

Note: the colour of the eye is depends on the coloured pigments in the iris. If
pigmentation is high the eye colour is brown and if pigmentation is less eye colour is blue

Pupil: the small opening in the iris. Lens: it is a double convex lens of made of transparent tissue which helps in
focusing the image of the object on the retina.

Ciliary muscles: these muscles hold the eye lens in position. It controls the
focal length of the by changing lens thickness to see distant and nearby objects clearly.

Note: when we are seeing far objects the ciliary muscles relaxed, so the
thickness of lens decreases (thin) and its focal length increases. When we are seeing a nearby object the muscles contracts, so the thickness of the lens increases (thick) and its focal length decreases.

Retina: it acts as a screen to obtain the image of the object. The image formed
on the retina is smaller then the object and it is inverted. Retina contains the photo sensitive cells which will convert the image into electrical impulses. There are two types of photosensitive cells i) rods ii) cones

Rods: they are responsible to see the shapes and movement of objects at low
light conditions.

Cones: Cone cells allow us to detect colour. These are active at high light
levels. We have three kinds of cone cells, each possessing a slightly different kind of pigment (red, green, and blue) If our brain receives an equal amount of all three colours, then we see the object as white. The human brain can combine and balance the different colour signals that it receives. This is why the white page of a book can appear white to us under varying amounts of daylight.

Optic Nerve: It connects the retina to the brain. It contains a large numbers of
the nerve fibres which carries nerve impulses to the brain.

Power Accommodation of the eye: The ability of the eye lens to adjust its
focal length, so as to form clear image of the images of the far or nearby objects on the retina. A normal human eye can accommodate maximum a 4D s

Blind Point: The area where the optic nerve enters the retina does not have any
light-sensing cells. This area is known as the blind spot. Image falling at this spot cannot be seen.

Near point (LEAST DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION):

The minimum distance at which objects can be seen most distinctly without any strain. Its value is 25 cm. for a normal vision adult. For example if you read the book from 5 cms you wont be able to read it.

Far point: The farthest point (maximum distance) up to which the eye can see objects clearly is called the far point of the eye. Its value is infinity for a normal vision adult. Persistence of vision: the impression of an image formed on the retina will sustain only
1 th of a second. 1 6

Functions of rods and cones:

Rods Used for night vision Very light sensitive One type of light-sensitive pigment Have more pigment than cones, so Cones Used for bright illumination vision Not very light sensitive Three types of light sensitive pigment Have less pigment than rods, so

can detect less light Slow response to light Smaller than cone cells About 100 million in the human eye Mostly found on the outer edges of the retina

require more light to detect images Fast response to light Larger than rod cells About 6 million in the human eye Mostly found in the centre of the retina

Defects of vision:
There are three types of defects 1. Myopia ( nearsightedness) 2. Hypermetropia ( farsightedness) 3. Presbiopia (

Spectrum: The Band of colours taken on a screen, when light is dispersed is

called as Spectrum.

Prism: it is a transparent triangular solid piece with a rectangular base. Lens: A transparent optical device used to converge or diverge transmitted
light to form An image.

Convex lens: A lens that is curved outward (convex). The ends are narrow and
the middle is wide, often referred to as a converging lens. A convex lens can produce either a real or Virtual image.

Kaleidoscope: It is a device which forms beautiful patterns due to multiple

reflection of light. Q1. Is it possible to have a ray of light? Ans: a ray of light is a idealization. I n reality we have beam of light only. We use the term ray for a narrow beam of light and for simplicity. Q2. What are the characteristics of image formed by the plane mirror? Ans: the image formed by a plane mirror is 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Laterally inverted, Same size as the object, Virtual Upright (erect) As far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

Q3. How do we see objects? Ans: we can see objects when the light reflected form an object enters our eyes.

Q6. What do you mean by multiple reflections? Ans: When two mirrors are placed at angle to each other, the light rays reflect between the mirrors. As a result the image of the object in one mirror acts as the object for the other mirror and vice versa. So, there is a formation of more than two images. The formula for number of images (n) formed due to the multiple reflections between two mirrors which are at angle x is given by

n=

360 1 x

If x= 360o, then n = 0 If x= 180o, then n =1, If x= 90o, then n = 3, If x= 60o, then n = 5, If x= 45o,then n = 7 If x= 0o, then n = (countless)

Q7. If a ray of light strikes the surface along the normal, what will be the angle of reflection? Ans: If light ray falls along the normal angle of incidence is zero, so the angle of reflection is equal to zero .there fore the incident ray reflect back along the normal. Q9. Write differences between the real image and virtual image? Ans:

Real image
1. It can be caught on a screen

Virtual image
It cannot be caught on a screen

2. The reflected rays meet at a point 3. It is always inverted

The reflected rays appear to be meet at a point It is always erect but laterally inverted

Q10. What is rainbow? How is it formed? Ans: a band of seven colours formed in the sky just after the rain is called rainbow. The rainbow is caused due to dispersion of sun light through tiny droplets of water suspended in air.

Q11. What is the cause of dispersion? Ans: In a given medium different colours travels with different speeds. When white light travels through the prism different colours refract (bend) at different angles. The violet colour deviates most and the red colour bends least. Q14. What are the colours present in the spectrum of white light? Ans: Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red. Q15. Which device we can use to observe the dispersion of light? Ans: Prism Q18. Suppose you are in dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can you see objects outside the room? Explain. Ans: We can see an object only if light from an object enter our eyes. For this the light may be emitted by the object or it may be reflected by the object. Thus, we cannot see an object which is placed in a dark room if it does not emit the light of its own. Whereas an object outside the dark room can be seen if there is either light out side the dark room or the object emits its own light. Q19. Can we the LASER light directly with our eyes? Explain Ans: No, LASER is high energetic light beam with high directionality and it also diverges less. So if we see the laser light directly it will damage our eyes. Q20. What is the full form of LASER? Ans: Light Amplified by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

dispersion

HUMAN EYE

Q1. Why is a normal eye not able to see clearly the objects placed closer than 25cm? Ans: If we distance of the object is less than 25cm,then the image is formed behind the retina. In such a situation a blurred image is formed on the retina and hence, the object is not seen clearly.

Human eye:

v Type of mirror u Real Concave mirror Convex mirror Virtual + + + f R h

h of the image inverted ercct + +

- No real image

+ + + No real image

Type of lens

u Real

v Virtual Real + No real image is formed + No real focus

f Virtual No virtual focus -

Height of the image (hI) Real No real image is formed Virtual + +

Height of the object (hO)

Convex Concave

+ +