1 varlous proLocols ln 1C/l

2CSMA/Cu
3LnLlLles and peers
48ouLer8rldge and CaLe way
3WhaL ls uLS
6uaLa compresslon Lechnlques
7vlrLuel clrculL and uaLa grams
8 WhaL ls fasL LLherneL
Lssay CuesLlons
1lloodlngWhaL ls flow based rouLlng explaln
2Leaky bukeL algorlLhms wlLh example
3Lxplaln any publlc key algorlLhms wlLh example
4Lxplaln Plerarchlcal rouLlng algorlLhms
3ulscuss varlous congesLlon prlvenLlon pollcles
6Lxplaln Lwo fundamenLal crypLographlc prlnclples
7WhaL ls a Clpher and explaln subsLlLuLlon clpher and LransposlLlon clpher
8Lxplaln ul[ksLras shorLesL paLh rouLlng algorlLhms











Bridges:
a bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs. However, a bridge can also divide a network to isolate
traffic
n the following figure, a bridge is used to connect two segment segment 1 and segment 2.

#4:9ers:
n an environment consisting of several network segments, a bridge may not be adequate for ensuring
fast communication among all of the segments. A complex network needs a device, which not only knows
the address of each segment, but also can determine the best path for sending data and filtering
broadcast traffic to the local segment. Such device is called a Router.
,9ew,s:
ateways make communication possible between different architectures and environments. They
repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that each environment can
understand the other's environment data.
A gateway repackages information to match the requirements of the destination system. ateways can
change the format of a message so that it will conform to the application program at the receiving end of
the transfer.
A gateway links two systems that do not use the same:
O Communication protocols
O Languages


Wide Area Networks
Wide Area A |AN Is for a large geographIcal area than LAN. Networks (WAN) reIers to
the technologies used to connect oIIices at remote loactions

LAN ocuI Areu NeLwork
A communIcatIon network lInkIng a number of statIons In same local area. LAN
generally provIdes a 85eed A communIcatIon network lInkIng a number of statIons In
same local area


MAn
ts long dIstance communIcatIons, whIch may or may not be provIded by publIc packet. WAN
stands for WIde Area Network



fast Lthernet

ln compuLer neLworklng Iast Lthernet ls a collecLlve Lerm for a number of
LLherneL sLandards LhaL carry Lrafflc aL Lhe nomlnal raLe of 100 MblL/s agalnsL Lhe
orlglnal LLherneL speed of 10 MblL/s
lasL LLherneL ls a local area neLwork (LAn) Lransmlsslon sLandard LhaL provldes a
daLa raLe of 100 megablLs per second



Data compression
Data compression is the technique of converting an input data stream or
the original data into another data stream which is shorter in length.
BASC TYPES OF DATA COMPRESSON
There are two basic types of data compression.
1. Lossy compression
2. Lossless compression
LOSSY COMPRESSON
n lossy compression some information is lost during the processing, where
the image data is stored into important and unimportant data. The system
then discards the unimportant data
t provides much higher compression rates but there will be some loss of
information compared to the original source file. The main advantage is that
the loss cannot be visible to eye or it is visually lossless.
LOSSLESS COMPRESSON
n this type of compression no information is lost during the compression
and the decompression process. Here the reconstructed image is
mathematically and visually identical to the original one. t achieves only
about a 2:1 compression ratio..

TECHNQUES OF DATA COMPRESSON
There are three important techniques of data compression.
1) basic technique
2) statistical technique
3) dictionary method


BASC TECHNQUES
These are the techniques, which have been used only in the past. The
important basic techniques are run length encoding and move to front
encoding.
STATSTCAL TECHNQUES
They are based on the statistical model of the data
DCTONARY METHODS
This method select strings of symbols and encodes each string as a token
using a dictionary


What Is a Datagram?
A daLagram ls an lndependenL selfconLalned message senL over Lhe neLwork
whose arrlval arrlval Llme and conLenL are noL guaranLeed
rtua| crcut (VC)
ls a connecLlon orlenLed communlcaLlon servlce LhaL ls dellvered by means of
packeL mode communlcaLlon. The term is used most frequently to describe
connections between two hosts in a packet-switching network









Cher
ls an algorlLhm for performlng encrypLlon or decrypLlon
s:-s9i9:9i43 .ipher
s:-s9i9:9i43 .ipher is a method of encryption by which units of plaintext
are s:-s9i9:9ed with ciphertext; the "units" may be single letters

transrtatn cher
Lhe unlLs of Lhe plalnLexL are rearranged ln a dlfferenL complex order

$ Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection) is the
protocol used in Ethernet networks to ensure that only one network node is
transmitting on the network wire at any one time.
Carrier Sense means that every Ethernet device listens to the Ethernet wire
before it attempts to transmit. f the Ethernet device senses that another
device is transmitting, it will wait to transmit.

144/3g ag4rthm

A Ilooding algorithm is an algorithm Ior distributing material to every part oI a
connected network..

Flooding algorithms are used in systems such as Usenet and peer-to-peer Iile
sharing systems
%here are severa vara3ts 41 144/3g ag4rthm: m4st w4rk r4:gh as
144ws.

Each node acts as both a transmitter and a receiver. .
This results in every message is delivered to all reachable parts oI the network.

Real-world Ilooding algorithms have to be more complex than this, since
precautions have to be taken to avoid wasted duplicate deliveries and inIinite
loops, and to allow messages to eventually expire Irom the system.

Flooding algorithms are also useIul Ior solving many mathematical problems,

Flow based routing algo


The Ilow routing algorithm Iorms the basis oI all these processes and is
consequently, oI vital importance to the quality oI any GIS based hydrologic
investigation. CatchmentSIM utilises an adapted Iorm oI the 'rolling ball' Ilow-path
methodology Iirst proposed by Lea (1992) . This algorithm determines a
downslope Ilow angle Ior each pixel that can be anywhere in the range oI 0-360
degrees. The Ilow direction angle is determined as the resultant Ilow vector Irom
the combination oI the steepest non-diagonal pixel Ilow path and the next steepest
adjacent non-diagonal Ilow-path
Flow Irom each pixel is then routed through all downhill pixels until the catchment
outlet (or DEM boundary) is reached. The algorithm treats the Ilow-path as a line
and records the entry and exit points oI the Ilow-path through all pixels.


Le, -:.e9 - efi3i9i43

Ie, -:.e9 algorithm has several uses, Typically, the algorithm is used to control the rate at
which data is injected into a network, smoothing out "burstiness" in the data rate.
The algorithm can be conceptually understood as follows:



eaky bucket

llgure 1he leaky buckeL
The eak b:.ket is an algorithm used in packet switched computer networks and
telecommunications networks to check that data transmissions conIorm to deIined
limits on bandwidth and burstiness (The leaky bucket algorithm is also used in
leaky bucket counters,.
The Leaky Bucket Algorithm is based on an analogy oI a bucket (Iigure 1) that has
a hole in the bottom through which any water it contains will leak away at a
constant rate, until or unless it is empty. Water can be added intermittently, but iI
too much is added at once, or it is added at too high an average rate, the water will
exceed the capacity oI the bucket, which will overIlow.
In one version, the analogue oI the bucket is a counter or variable, separate Irom
the Ilow oI traIIic, and is used only to check that traIIic conIorms to the limits, i.e.
the analogue oI the water is brought to the bucket by the traIIic and added to it so
that the level oI water in the bucket indicates conIormance to the rate and
burstiness limits. This version is reIerred to here as the leaky bucket as a meter. In
the second version
|2|
, the traIIic passes through a queue that is the analogue oI the
bucket, i.e. the traIIic is the analogue oI the water passing through the bucket. This
version is reIerred to here as the leaky bucket as a queue. The leaky bucket as
meter is equivalent to the token bucket algorithm,


ublic key Algoritbms
!ublic key cryptosystems are based upon the Iollowing idea. In these systems the
encryption and decryption keys (K and K-1) are not equal. So we use a pair oI
keys, one to perIorm the encryption and another to perIorm the decryption.
The concept is very simple. We Iirst generate a pair oI keys and transmit one oI
them (the public key) which we will use Ior encryption to the party with whom we
wish to communicate with. They then encrypt data using the key we gave them and
we use the key we kept to decrypt that data. The public key cannot be used to
decrypt and so no third party can decipher our data. The algorithm should be
designed such that it is impossible to deduce the value oI our private key Irom the
value oI the key we gave to the sender oI the data. However, in practice it is
possible to design an algorithm where it is so diIIicult to compute one key Irom the
other that it becomes practically impossible. This is the principle that modern
public key cryptosystems work under.
Typically we`ll reIer to this scheme like so. We write encryption as
C EA|!|
and decryption as:
! DA|C|
Where C is the ciphertext, EA is the encryption key (the public key), ! is the
plaintext and DA is the decryption key (the private key).

ier,r.hi.,I #4:9i3g
When the network size grows, the number of routers in the network
increases. Consequently, the size of routing tables increases, as well, and
routers can not handle network traffic as efficiently. We use hier,r.hi.,I
r4:9i3g to overcome this problem.
ier,r.hi.,I r4:9i3g The complex problem of routing on large networks
can be simplified by breaking a network into a hierarchy of smaller
networks, where each level is responsible for its own routing. The nternet
has, basically, three levels: the backbones, the mid-levels, and the stub
networks. The backbones know how to route between the mid-levels, the
mid-levels know how to route between the sites, and each site being an
autonomous system) knows how to route internally. See also Exterior
ateway Protocol, nterior ateway Protocol, transit network



C43gest43 .43tr4 ag4rthms
Congestion is a situation in which too many packets are present in (a part oI) the
subnet, perIormance degrades.
Factors causing congestion:
O The input traIIic rate exceeds the capacity oI the output lines.
O The routers are too slow to perIorm bookkeeping tasks (queueing buIIers,
updating tables, etc.).
O The routers' buIIer is too limited.

C43gest43 preve3t43 p4.es
Ge3era pr3.pes 41 .43gest43 .43tr4
O pe3 44p solutions solve the problem by good design, to avoid the
problem in the Iirst place .
O Tools include deciding when to accept new traIIic, when to discard packets
and which ones, and how to schedule packets at various points in the
network.

O C4se/ 44p solutions are based on the concept oI a Ieedback loop, which
consists oI the Iollowing three parts:
1. Monitor the system to detect when and where congestion occurs.
2. !ass this inIormation to places
3. Adjust system operation to correct the problem.



sh4r9es9 p,9h ,Ig4ri9hm
fi3d 9he sh4r9es9 p,9h -e9wee3 9w4 34des i3 , 3e9w4r I3 9he .,se 4f 9r,3sp4r9,9i43
3e9w4rs, 9he 34des m, represe39 p4i39s (4r I4.,9i43s) fr4m whi.h 9r,ffi. is pr4d:.ed 4r 94
whi.h 9r,ffi. is ,99r,.9ed The 34des ,Is4 represe39 i39erse.9i43s The Ii3s represe39s r4,ds
4r m4;eme39s
DJKSTRA'S ALORTHM
This algorithm is one attempt to find the shortest path from one node to all other nodes in the
network. t assumes that the link lengths are always non-negative.



,-Ies
The following is a few examples of some of the more commonly used types of cables found with
networks. Twisted pair cable consists of a pair of insulated wires twisted together. It is a cable type
used in telecommunication for very long time.





Unshielded twisted-pair cable is generally found in phone cables
The third picture in the above illustration shows a coaxial cable, which are the most commonly used and
known types of cables. This cable can be found for cable TV