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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1

MACHINING OF HARD MATERIALS The rapid developments in aerospace, nuclear and other industries

require hard and tough cutting tools for machining difficulttocut materials. With the development of new harder work materials, the tool materials technology is advancing at a fast rate to enable machining of these materials at higher removal rate with reliability of performance. In the machining of such hard materials, cutting tools made of ceramics, cubic boron nitride and poly crystalline diamond (PCD) are used because of their high hardness. Kazuo Nakayama et al (1988) has observed that the machining of hard materials is quite different from the machining of conventional work materials. In the machining of hard materials the high abrasiveness and high cutting temperature cause rapid tool wear. Sadasivan and Sarathy (1999) have stated that poly crystalline diamond (PCD) is totally unsuited for machining steel and other carbon containing materials. PCD tool finds its application in the machining of non-ferrous metals and non-metals. Egawa Tsuneo et al (1994) has maintained that the CBN tools are quite costlier than the ceramic cutting tools but they have equal cutting performance especially in the machining of hardened steel. Generally carbide cutting tools are widely used for machining steel, however ceramic cutting tools shows superior performance especially on machining hardened steel. Charles Wick (1988) has observed that switching from coated

carbide tools to composite ceramic tools has resulted in a 2.5 times improvement in tool life plus faster metal removal rate when machining automobile axle hubs made out of malleable iron. Chakraborty et al (2000) has stated that the ceramic tools exhibit much better performance than the carbide tools, especially at higher machining speeds, both in terms of tool life and surface roughness of the work-piece. Konig et al (1984) has found that ceramic tools perform better than carbide tools on machining white cast iron hardened to 55 HRC. Ceramic cutting tools are generally used for machining of hard materials and in high speed machining of ferrous materials. 1.2 CERAMIC CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS Ceramic cutting tool materials are used for machining applications because of their high temperature capabilities along with chemical stability. Increasing acceptance of these tools by industries is reflected in the rapid development of machining centres devoted to work with ceramic tools. Ceramic tools are replacing tungsten carbide tools, as machining centres demand higher efficiency and lower costs. Ceramic cutting tools can offer increased metal removal rates, extended tool life and they have the ability to machine hard work piece materials. When properly applied these tools can provide the manufacturing engineer with a means of reducing the machining costs and increasing the productivity. Ceramic cutting tools can be classified as silicon nitride based cutting tools and aluminium oxide based cutting tools. Aluminium oxide based ceramic cutting tools can be broadly divided into three groups namely, pure oxide ceramic, mixed ceramic and whisker reinforced ceramic. When an oxide ceramic material is added to aluminium oxide, the resulting composite is called pure oxide ceramic. Zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA) is a

type of pure oxide ceramic cutting tool material. Li and Low (1994a) have reported that ZTA consists of partially stabilized tetragonal zirconia particles dispersed in alumina matrix. The fracture toughness of the composite increases, due to the addition of zirconia particles in the alumina matrix. When non-oxide ceramic materials are added to aluminium oxide, it is called mixed oxide ceramic. Titanium carbide and titanium nitride are dispersed to aluminium oxide to improve the thermo mechanical properties of aluminium oxide. Furukawa (1983) has reported that the addition of metal carbide dispersoid provides much improved thermal conductivity and hence thermal shock resistance. When aluminium oxide is reinforced with whiskers, it is called whisker reinforced ceramic. Normally silicon carbide whiskers are added as reinforcements in the alumina matrix. Wei and Bacher (1985) have observed that the whisker reinforcement produces two-fold increase in fracture toughness of the composite compared to the monolithic alumina. The alumina based ceramic composite cutting tool materials are widely used for machining applications because of their improved properties, when compared to the monolithic alumina.
1.2.1

Advances in ceramic cutting tool materials Advances in ceramic processing technology have resulted in a new

generation of high performance ceramic cutting tools exhibiting improved properties. The quest for machining hard and refractory materials and high speed machining has led to the development of new composite ceramic cutting tool materials and improvement in the existing ceramic cutting tool materials. Tashima Shunzo et al (1996) has developed alumina ceramic cutting tool through slip casting. Uegami et al (1996) has developed titanium oxide added

alumina ceramic cutting tool material by thermal diffusing addition method. Zhuang Zi-Yang et al (1998) has also developed titania added alumina ceramic cutting tool material by powder metallurgical process. Sornakumar et al (1993) has developed ceramic cutting tool material based on phase transformation toughened zirconia (TTZ) and alumina. Mondal et al (1992) has developed alumina based ceramic cutting tool materials by adding different types of partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) to strengthen the composite tools. Annamalai et al (1993) has developed ceria-zirconia ceramic cutting tool material, which has better fracture toughness than alumina. New ceramic cutting tool materials based on aluminium oxide are developed by the addition of various non-oxide ceramic materials to improve the properties. Katsumura Yuji et al (1993) and Krell et al (1999a) have developed new composite ceramic cutting tool materials based on alumina, titanium carbide and titanium oxide. Jianxin and Xing (1997a) have developed composite ceramic cutting tool material based on alumina and titanium boride. Egawa Tsuneo et al (1994) has developed new ceramic cutting tool material based on alumina and titanium nitride. SiC whisker reinforced alumina ceramic material is further improved by adding various ceramic materials. Yokouchi Masahiro and Oishi Kenji (1997), Chuanzhen et al (1997) and Jianxin and Xing (1997b) have developed new composite ceramic material based on SiC whisker reinforced alumina by adding titanium carbide, silicon carbide particles, titanium boride respectively. Ukegawa Harutoshi et al (1998), Chiu Hung-Liang and Huang Jow-Lay (1994) and Cheng Hsyi-En and Hon Min-Hsiung (1996) have made further improvements in silicon nitride based ceramic materials.

1.3

MACHINING PERFORMANCE OF CERAMIC CUTTING TOOLS

Ceramic cutting tool materials are used to machine various types of work materials like cast iron, plain carbon steel, hardened steel and nickel based alloys etc. The performance of ceramic cutting tools on machining these work materials have been studied already and reported in the literature. Bhattacharyya et al (1989), Krishnamurthy and Sivasankaran (1994), and Ezugwu and Leong (1996) have conducted machining studies on cast iron using ceramic cutting tool materials. Hayashi Katsura et al (1993) and Goh et al (1996) have conducted machining studies on plain carbon steels using ceramic cutting tool materials. Vleugels et al (1995) has reported that the commercial Sialon cutting tools are unsuitable for machining of steel. El-Wardany et al (1993), Luo et al (1999) and Silva and Abrao (1999) have conducted machining studies on hardened steel using ceramic cutting tools. Liu Yourong et al (1997a) and Lo Casto et al (1999) have conducted machining studies on austenitic stainless steel using ceramic cutting tools. The recent literature reveals that most of the machining studies conducted using ceramic cutting tools are on nickel based alloys (Narutaki et al 1993 and Kitagawa et al 1997). Hanasaki Shinsaku et al (1999) and Yanming Quan and Zehua Zhou (2000) have conducted machining studies on metal matrix composite materials. Konig et al (1984) have observed that the ceramic cutting tools are generally used for high speed machining of ferrous alloys, however, they can be successfully used for machining hard work materials.

1.4

NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY The performance of the ceramic cutting tool materials on machining

hard materials is not yet fully evaluated. Only a few literatures are available about the machining studies on stainless steel using ceramic cutting tools. Mostly, the wear tests like pin-on-disc are conducted on stainless steel using ceramic materials rather than machining. Xingzhong Zhao et al (1997a) has conducted wear tests under dry friction conditions on a block-on-ring tribometer in order to simulate the real cutting practice of ceramic cutting tools. The investigated materials include Al2O3-Ti[C, N] composite ceramic and stainless steel (AISI 302). Xingzhong Zhao et al (1997b) has also conducted wear tests using a pin-on-disk tribometer to investigate the wear behaviour of Si3N4 ceramic on austenitic stainless steel. Chuanzhen et al (1998) has conducted machining studies using SiC whisker reinforced ceramic cutting tool on austenitic stainless steel. Liu Yourong et al (1997b) has conducted machining tests using ceramic cutting tools on austenitic stainless steel. Silicon nitride based ceramics are widely used for conducting wear tests on stainless steel. The wear behaviour of alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining stainless steel is reported rarely in the literature. There is very little literature available about the machining studies on martensitic stainless steel. Unlike austenitic stainless steel, martensitic stainless steel can be hardened like plain carbon steel. In the annealed or highly tempered conditions, it is machined without much difficulty, but if it is hardened to above 30 HRC, machining becomes more difficult. This leads to the need of the present work to evaluate the performance of alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining stainless steel and hardened and tempered steel for comparison. From the literature survey it can be inferred that the austenitic stainless steel is widely used for

wear studies and thus a different type of stainless steel is selected for study. The work materials considered for the present machining studies are martensitic stainless steel - grade 410 (HRC 60) and hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45). The recent trend of increased application of ceramic tools for machining hard materials has given an impetus for this research work. This necessitates the performance evaluation of commercially available alumina based ceramic cutting tools in the machining of hardened martensitic stainless steel and hardened and tempered steel. The ceramic composite cutting tool materials available today perform better than the earlier monolithic alumina ceramic. The ceramic composite materials need further improvement in their properties pertaining to cutting tool applications. The lack of fracture toughness in alumina based ceramic cutting tool materials leads to catastrophic failure during machining. Alumina based ceramic cutting tool materials are strengthened by the addition of reinforcements like particulates, fibres and whiskers. Li and Low (1994a) have pointed out that in oxide based ceramics, zirconia toughened alumina is the main type of widely available commercial cutting tool. Ezugwu (1994) has reported that the processing of oxide based ceramics is easier than the non-oxide or mixed ceramics, because oxide based ceramics do not require special environment during sintering, i.e. they can be sintered in air which reduces the processing cost. The development of oxide based ceramics has to be considered and the mechanical properties of these ceramics have to be improved to compete with other cutting tool materials. This necessitates the development of new oxide based ceramic cutting tools for machining grey cast iron and carbon steel.

1.5

SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY In the present study, machining tests on martensitic stainless steel -

grade 410 (HRC 60) and hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45) were conducted using commercially available alumina based ceramic cutting tools. The wear behaviour of alumina based ceramic cutting tools was studied in detail. Flank wear, crater wear and notch wear of the ceramic cutting tools were measured during the machining studies. The performance of alumina based ceramic cutting tools was evaluated based on the wear behaviour of the cutting tools, surface roughness of the machined work piece and cutting force in machining, as the criteria. The machinability of the martensitic stainless steel (SS 410) using alumina based ceramic cutting tools was also studied. The machining tests were conducted in a precision lathe at different speeds keeping feed and depth of cut constant. The machining performance of alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining SS 410 steel (HRC 60) was compared with that of the hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45). Tool wear models were developed and tool life of the alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining SS 410 steel was calculated using these tool wear models. The scope of using commercially available alumina based ceramic cutting tools in the machining of hardened SS 410 steel and also hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels is thoroughly investigated. Apart from the machining studies using the commercially available alumina based ceramic cutting tools, new alumina based ceramic composite cutting tools were developed. Three types of ceramic powders were used to develop the yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic cutting tools. Aluminium oxide, yttrium oxide and cerium oxide ceramic powders were mixed, sintered

and then they were subsequently hot isostatically pressed (HIPed). The density, hardness and fracture toughness of the composite ceramic cutting tools were found out. Machining studies were conducted on grey cast iron and carbon steel to evaluate their performance. The scope of developing yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic composites for cutting tool application is investigated in the present work. 1.6 OBJECTIVES The present study on the performance evaluation of alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining martensitic stainless steel - grade 410 (HRC 60) and hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45) and also the development of yttria / ceria added alumina based ceramic cutting tools have the following objectives. 1. To study the tool wear behaviour of the alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining martensitic stainless steel - grade 410 (HRC 60) and hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45). 2. To evaluate the performance of the alumina based ceramic cutting tools by the surface roughness produced on the work piece and the cutting forces in machining. 3. To compare the wear behaviour and performance of alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining SS 410 steel (HRC 60) with that on machining AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45). 4. To analyse the tool life of the alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining SS 410 steel (HRC 60) by developing wear models.

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5. To find out the possibility of using yttria and / or ceria to strengthen alumina and to develop yttria / ceria added alumina composites for cutting tool application. 6. To evaluate the properties like density, hardness and fracture toughness of yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic cutting tools. 7. To evaluate the performance of the sintered and the HIPed yttria / ceria added alumina based ceramic composite cutting tools by conducting machining studies on grey cast iron and carbon steel. 1.7 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS The thesis deals with the alumina based ceramic cutting tools and their performance on machining hard materials and also the development of new alumina based ceramic composite cutting tool materials for machining applications. This thesis can be divided into two main parts. The first part deals with the performance evaluation of the commercially available alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining hardened SS 410 steel (HRC 60) and hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45). The second part deals with the development of yttria / ceria added alumina based ceramic cutting tools and machining studies using these developed ceramic composite cutting tools on grey cast iron and carbon steel. Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 are the introduction to this work and the literature review relevant to this study. These chapters give the overall view of the recent trend of research works being carried out on ceramic cutting tool materials especially on alumina based ceramic cutting tool materials. Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 present the first part of this research work i.e. the performance evaluation of the commercially

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available alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining hard materials. Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 present the second part of this work i.e. development of yttria/ceria added alumina based ceramic composite cutting tool materials and the machining studies conducted using these developed ceramic composite cutting tools on grey cast iron and carbon steel. Chapter 7 gives the conclusions of the above two parts of the thesis and the suggestions for further study. Chapter 1. This chapter deals with the role of ceramic cutting tools in machining hard materials and it highlights the need for the evaluation of the performance of alumina based ceramic cutting tool materials while machining hard materials. It also deals with the need for the development of new alumina based ceramic composite materials for cutting tool applications. The main objectives of the present study are to evaluate the performance of alumina based ceramic cutting tool material on machining hardened SS 410 steel and hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels, and to develop yttria/ceria added alumina ceramic cutting tool material for machining application. These objectives are elaborated in this chapter. Chapter 2. In this chapter the recent literature about the alumina based ceramic cutting tool materials, machining studies conducted using alumina based ceramic cutting tools and the development of new ceramic composite cutting tool materials are reviewed. A brief history of ceramic cutting tools and the properties of ceramic cutting tool materials are also discussed in this chapter. Machining studies conducted on various work materials like cast

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iron, carbon steels, hardened steels, stainless steel and nickel based alloy (Inconel 718) using ceramic cutting tools are reviewed. Recent developments in ceramic composite cutting tool materials are also discussed elaborately. Chapter 3. In this chapter the experimental methods and conditions used in the machining studies on hardened SS 410 - stainless steel (60 HRC) and hardened and tempered AISI 4340 steels (40 HRC and 45 HRC) using the commercially available alumina based ceramic cutting tools are explained. The details about the cutting tools and the work materials are also presented in this chapter. Chapter 4. This chapter deals with the results and discussion of the machining studies conducted using the commercial alumina based ceramic cutting tools on SS 410 steel (HRC 60) and AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45). The wear behaviour of the alumina based ceramic cutting tools is discussed. The details of wear behaviour of the alumina based ceramic cutting tools such as flank wear, crater wear and notch wear on machining the above work materials are presented. Surface roughness produced by these alumina based ceramic cutting tools on the work pieces and cutting force produced on machining the above work materials are plotted against cutting speed. The effect of cutting speed and hardness of the work materials on surface roughness and cutting force is discussed. Wear models are developed using regression analysis and the significance of these models is checked by analysis of variance. Using these models, the tool life of the

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alumina based ceramic cutting tools is found out for various cutting speeds. In summary, the performance of alumina based ceramic cutting tools on machining SS 410 steel (HRC 60) and AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45) is discussed. Chapter 5. The development of yttria / ceria added alumina based ceramic cutting tools is explained in this chapter. The literature on alumina, yttria and ceria ceramics and alumina-yttria, aluminaceria and alumina-yttria-ceria ceramic composites is reviewed in particular. The insert fabrication method and the experimental details for machining studies using these developed yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic cutting tools on grey cast iron and carbon steel are presented in this chapter. Chapter 6. This chapter deals with the results and discussion of the machining studies conducted using yttria /ceria added alumina ceramic cutting tools on grey cast iron and carbon steel. The machining studies are conducted using sintered yttria/ceria added alumina ceramic composite cutting tools on grey cast iron and also using the HIPed yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic composite cutting tools on grey cast iron and carbon steel. The performance of the HIPed yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic cutting tools is compared with that of the sintered yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic cutting tools on machining grey cast iron. The performance of these yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic cutting tools is compared with that of pure alumina ceramic

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cutting tool and commercial zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA) ceramic cutting tool on machining grey cast iron and carbon steel. Chapter 7. The conclusions on the machining studies conducted using the commercially available alumina based ceramic cutting tools on SS 410 steel (HRC 60) and AISI 4340 steels (HRC 40 and HRC 45) and the conclusions on the development of yttria / ceria added alumina ceramic composite cutting tools and the machining studies conducted using these developed ceramic cutting tools on grey cast iron and carbon steel are presented in this chapter. The suggestions for further study on this work are also highlighted in this chapter.