ELEMENTS OF MODERN PHYSICS Dr. Ing. Valeric D.

Ninulescu a

Contents 1 The experimental foundations of quantum mechanics 1.1 Thermal radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Quantitative laws for blackbody radiation . . . . . . . 1.2 Photoelectric e ect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Waveparticle duality of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Compton e ect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Atomic spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Bohr model of th e hydrogen atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Correspondence principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 Einsteins phenomenological theory of radia tion processes . . 1.8.1 Relations between Einstein coe cients . . . . . . . . . 1 .8.2 Spontaneous emission and stimulated emission as competing processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 Experimental con rmation of stationary stat es . . . . . . . . 1.10 Heisenberg uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10.1 Uncertainty relation and the Bohr orbits . . . . . . . . 1.11 Pr oblems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Fundamental p hysical constants 1 2 4 6 11 12 14 15 18 20 22 23 24 26 27 28 39 B Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering 43

iv CONTENTS

Preface This text has grown out of an introductory course in modern physics taught to se cond year undergraduates at the Faculty of Engineering in Foreign Languages, Pol itehnica University of Bucharest. It was intended from the beginning that the bo ok would include all the essentials of an introductory course in quantum physics and it would be illustrated whenever appropriate with thechnical applications. A set of solved problems is included at the end of each chapter. V. Ninulescu 20 11

vi CONTENTS

Glossary of notations e i Im(.) R c.c. z v . A A kB CM lhs rhs 1-D TDSE TISE r exponential function, ez = exp(z) complex unity, i2 = 1 imaginary part of a compl ex number the set of real numbers complex conjugate of the expression written in front of c.c. complex conjugated of z vector average integral over the whole th ree dimensional space operator A adjoint of A roughly similar; poorly approximat es Boltzmann constant centre of mass left hand side right hand side one dimensio nal time dependent Schrdinger equation o time independent Schrdinger equation o

Chapter 1 The experimental foundations of quantum mechanics At the end of the 19th century, it seemed that physics was able to explain all p hysical processes. According to the ideas of that time, the Universe was compose d of matter and radiation; the matter motion could be studied by Newtons laws and the radiation was described by Maxwells equations. Physics of that time is now c alled classical physics. The theory of special relativity (Albert Einstein, 1905 ) generalized classical physics to include phenomena at high velocities. This co n dence began to disintegrate due to the inability of the classical theories of me chanics and electromagnetism to provide a satisfactory explanation of some pheno mena related to the electromagnetic radiation and the atomic structure. This cha pter presents some physical phenomena that led to new ideas such us the quantiza tion of the physical quantities, the particle properties of radiation, and the w ave properties of matter. Certain physical quantities, such as energy and angula r momentum, were found to take on a discrete, or quantized, set of values in som e conditions, contrary to the predictions of classical physics. This discretenes s property gave rise to the name of quantum mechanics for the new theory in phys ics. Quantum mechanics reveals the existence of a universal physical constant, P lancks constant, whose present day accepted value in SI units is h = 6.626 068 96 (33) 1034 J s . Its small value when measured in the macroscopic units of the SI shows that

2 1 The experimental foundations of quantum mechanics quantum physics is basically used at much smaller levels, such as the atomic and subatomic levels. 1.1 Thermal radiation It is well known that every body with non zero absolute temperature emits electr omagnetic radiation with a continuous spectrum that contains all wavelengths. Le t us explain this phenomenon in the frame of classical physics. Atoms and molecu les are composed of charged particles. The irregular thermal motion produces irr egular oscillatory motion of the electrons inside atoms, characterized by a cont inuous spectrum of frequencies. Since an oscillation is accelerated motion, each oscillation at a particular frequency leads to the emission of electromagnetic radiation of the same frequency. Examples of thermal radiation include the solar radiation, the visible radiation emitted by a light bulb, or the infrared radia tion of a household radiator. The radiation incident on the surface of a body is partially re ected and the other part is absorbed. Dark bodies absorb most of the incident radiation and light bodies re ect most of the radiation. For example, a surface covered with lampblack absorbs about 97 % of the incident light and poli shed metal surfaces, on the other hand, absorb only about 6 % of the incident ra diation, re ecting the rest. The absorptance (absorption factor ) of surf ce is de ned s the r tio of the r di nt energy bsorbed to th t incident upon it; this qu ntity is dependent on w velength, temper ture, nd the n ture of the surf ce. Suppose body t therm l equilibrium with its surroundings. Such body emits nd bsorbs the s me energy in unit time, otherwise its temper ture c n not rem in const nt. The r di tion emitted by body t therm l equilibrium is termed th erm l r di tion. A bl ckbody is n object th t bsorbs ll electrom gnetic r di tion f lling on it.1 This property refers to r di tion of ll w welengths nd l l ngles of incidence. However, bl ckbody is n bstr ction th t does not exis t in the re l world. The best pr ctic l bl ckbody is the surf ce of sm ll hole in cont iner m int ined t const nt temper ture nd h ving bl ckened interi or, bec use ny r di tion entering through the hole su ers multiple re ections, lo t getting bsorbed on e ch re ection, nd ultim tely is completely bsorbed inside (Fig. 1.1). Consider now the reverse process in which The term rises bec use such bodies do not re ect incident visible r di tion, nd therefore ppe r bl ck. 1

1.1 Therm l r di tion y } U % T = const 3 Fig. 1.1 A c vity with sm ll hole beh ves s perfect bsorber. The inner w l ls re bl ckened nd m int ined t temper ture T = const. r di tion emitted by the interior c vity w lls esc pes through the hole. The int erior w lls re const ntly r di ting nd re bsorbing their own r di tion nd ft er while the st te of therm l equilibrium is tt ined.2 A sm ll fr ction of th is r di tion is incident upon the hole nd p ss through it. Since the surf ce be h ves s bl ckbody, the r di tion th t esc pes the c vity h s the properties o f bl ckbody r di tor. The study of the c vity r di tion led Gust v Robert Kirc hho to the conclusion th t bl ckbody r di tion is homogeneous, isotropic, nonpol rized, independent of the n ture of the w lls or the form of the c vity. The bi lity of surf ce to emit therm l r di tion is ch r cterized by its emitt nce , d n d as th ratio of th radiant n rgy mitt d by a surfac to that mitt d by a blackbody at th sam t mp ratur . As th absorptanc , th mittanc d p nds on wav l ngth, t mp ratur , and th natur of th surfac . Th mittanc of a surf ac can b r lat d to its absorptanc as follows. Suppos th surfac of th int rior cavity in Fig. 1.1. L t us d not by L the spectra radiance inside the cav ity (power per unit surface per unit so id ang e per unit frequency interva ). T aking into account that at equi ibrium the wa s emit as much as they absorb, we have L = L , so that = . (1.1)

This resu t is known as Kirchho s radiation aw (1859). According to Eq. (1.1), ob jects that are good emitters are a so good absorbers. For examp e, a b ackened s urface is an intense emitter surface as we as an intense absorber one. The sma size of the ho e ensures that neither the radiation which enters the c avity from outside, nor that which escapes outside, can a ter the therma equi i brium in the cavity. 2

4 1 The experimenta

A grey body is de ned as a body with constant emittance/absorptance over a wave engths and temperatures. Such an idea body does not exist in practice but this assumption is a good approximation for many objects. The aws governing the emis sion or absorption of therma radiation by b ackbodies have a universa characte r and is therefore of specia interest. 1.1.1 Quantitative aws for b ackbody radiation

StefanBo tzmann aw The radiant exitance (energy radiated from a body per unit ar ea per unit time), M , of a b ackbody at temperature T grows as T 4 : M (T ) = T 4 , (1.2)

where 5.67 108 W m2 K4 i StefanBoltzmann con tant. The law wa r t formulated i 9 by Jo ef Stefan a a re ult of hi experimental mea urement ; the ame law wa derived in 1884 by Ludwig Boltzmann from thermodynamic con ideration . StephanBo ltzmann law can be extended to a grey body of emittance as M (T ) = T 4 . (1.3) Wi en di pacement law Wilhelm Wien experimental tudie on the pectral di tributio n of blackbody radiation revealed: the radiative power per wavelength interval h a a maximum at a certain wavelength max ; the maximum shifts to shorter wave eng ths as the temperature T is increased. Wiens dispacement aw (1893) states that t he wave ength for maximum emissive power from a b ackbody is inverse y proportio na to its abso ute temperature, max T = b . (1.4) The constant b is ca ed Wiens disp acement constant and its va ue is b 2.898 103 m K . For examp e, when iron i s heated up in a re, the rst visib e radiation is red. Further increase in tempera ture causes the co our to change to orange,

foundations of quantum mechanics

1.1 Therma radiation 5 then ye ow, and white at very high temperatures, signifying that a the visib e frequencies are being emitted equa y. Wiens disp acement aw can be used to de termine the temperature of a b ackbody spectroscopica y by measuring the wave e ngth at which the intensity of the radiation is maximum. This method has been us ed extensive y in determining ste ar temperatures. Ray eigh Jeans aw. U travio et catastrofe The spectra distribution of b ackbody radiation is speci ed by the spectra radiant exitance E that is, emitted power per unit of area and unit of w ave ength. In an attempt to furnish a formu a for E , it proves convenient to foc us our attention on the radiation inside a cavity. Let denote the spect a adian t ene gy density, which is de ned as the ene gy pe unit of vo ume and unit of wav e ength. It can be shown that (see P ob em 1.4) E = (1/4)c , (1.5)

whe e c is the speed of ight in vacuum. It is a so usefu to conside the spect a quantities as functions of f equency instead of wave ength. Based on the e ationship = c/ , the radiatio with the wave e gth i side the i terva (, + d) has the freque cy betwee d a d , where d = d/d d = (c/)2 d . Now, the spectra r ita ce i terms of freque cy E a d the spectra radia t exita ce i terms of wave e gth E are re ated by E () d = E () d . Simi ar y, () d = () d . The c a t fo is (, T ) = 8 2 kB T , c3 (1.8) (1.7) (1.6) k ow as RayleighJea s formula. The com ariso with the ex erime tal results show s a good agreeme t for small freque cies. However, do ot exhibite a maximum, bei g a i creasi g fu ctio of freque cy. More tha that, the radia t e ergy de si ty is (T ) = 0 (, T ) d = 8kB T c3 0 2 d = , a u acce table result, k ow as the ultraviolet catastro he.

6 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics

Pla cks radiatio law I 1900 Max Pla ck determi ed a formula which agrees with t he ex erime t at whatever freque cy based o a ew a d revolutio ary idea: the e xcha ge of e ergy betwee a body a d its surrou di gs ca be erformed o ly i d iscrete ortio s, the mi imum e ergy im lied i the excha ge bei g ro ortio al to the freque cy, h. Pla ck radiatio law reads (, T ) = h 8 2 . c3 ex (h/kB T ) ) The co sta t h is called Pla cks co sta t a d has the value h 6.626 1034 J s . By use of Eq. (1.7), we get (, T ) = 8hc 1 . 5 exp(hc/kB T ) 1 (1.10)

To express the radia t exita ce E , Eq. (1.5) is used: E (, T ) = 2hc2 1 . 5 exp(hc/k T ) 1 (1.11) P a cks radiatio formu a co tai s a the i formatio previous y obtai ed. Figur e 1.2 prese ts the graph of the spectra e ergy de sity (, T ) given by Eq. (1.10) . App ications Py omete : device fo measu ing e ative y high tempe atu es by m easu ing adiation f om the body whose tempe atu e is to be measu ed. Inf a ed t he mog aphy: a fast non-dist uctive inspection method that maps the tempe atu e di e ences of any object in a ange f om 50 C to 1500 C. 1.2 Photoelectric e ect The hotoelectric e ect co sists i the ejectio of electro s from a solid by a i cide t electromag etic radiatio of su cie tly high freque cy. This freque cy is i the visible ra ge for alkali metals, ear ultraviolet for other metals, a d f ar ultraviolet for o metals. The ejected electro s are called hotoelectro s.

1.2 Photoelectric e ect 6 5 (,T), 103J m4 4 3 2 1500 K 1 1000 K 0 0 1 2 , m 3 4 5 1750 K 2000 K 7

C The phenomenon was st obse ved by Hein ich He tz in 1887; he noticed that the mi nimum vo tage equi ed to d aw spa ks f om a pai of meta ic e ect odes was ed uced when they we e i uminated by u t avio et adiation. Wi he m Ha wachs (188 8) found that when u t avio et adiation was incident on a negative y cha ged zi nc su face, the cha ge eaked away quick y; if the su face was positive y cha ge d, the e was no oss of cha ge due to the incident adiation. Mo e than that, a neut a su face became positive y cha ged when i uminated by u t avio et adiat ion. It is evident that on y negative cha ges a e emitted by the su face unde i ts exposing to u t avio et adiation. Joseph John Thomson (1899) estab ished tha t the u t avio et adiation caused e ect ons to be emitted, the same pa tic es f ound in cathode ays.

Fig. 1.2 Spectra e ergy de sity (, T ) of a b ackbody at a few tempe atu es. UV adiation ' qua tz window A Vacuum chambe A U Fig. 1.3 Expe imenta a angement f o the study of the photoe ect ic e ect.

8 i T 1 The expe imenta foundations of quantum mechanics 3I 2I I EU Fig. 1.4 Photocu ent (i) ve sus potentia di e ence (U ) between catho de and anode fo di e ent va ues of the intensity (I, 2I, and 3I) of the monoch om atic beam of ight. U0 0 A ty ical arra geme t for the study of the hotoelectric e ect is de icted i Fig. 1.3. A vacuumed glass tube co tai s two electrodes (A = a ode = collecti g lat e, C = cathode) a d a quartz wi dow allowi g light to shi e o the cathode surfa ce. The electro s are emitted at the cathode, fall o the a ode, a d com lete a circuit. The resulti g curre t is measured by a se sitive ammeter. It is very im orta t that the surface of the cathode is as clea as ossible. A adjustable ote tial di ere ce U of a few volts is a lied across the ga betwee the cathode a d the a ode to allow the hotocurre t co trol. If A is made ositive with res ect to C, the electro s are accelerated toward A. Whe all electro s are collect ed, the curre t saturates. If A is made egative with res ect to C, the electric eld te ds to re el the electro s back towards the cathode. For a electro to re ach the collecti g late, it must have a ki etic e ergy of at least eU , where e is the mag itude of the electro charge a d U is the retardi g voltage. As the re elli g voltage is i creased, fewer electro s have su cie t e ergy to reach the late, a d the curre t measured by the ammeter decreases. Let U0 de ote the volt age where the curre t just va ishes; the maximum ki etic e ergy of the emitted e lectro s is 2 (1/2)mvmax = eU0 , (1.12) where m de otes the mass of the electro . U0 is called sto i g ote tial (volta ge). The ex erime tal results for a give emitti g cathode are sketched i Figs. 1.4 a d 1.5. From Fig. 1.4 it is clear that for a give metal a d freque cy of i cide t radiatio , the rate at which hotoelectro s are ejected is ro ortio al to the i te sity of the radiatio . Figure 1.5 reveals other two results. First, a give surface o ly emits electro s whe the freque cy of the radiatio with w hich it is illumi ated exceeds a certai value; this

1.2 Photoelectric e ect 2 (1/2)mvmax 9 T Fig. 1.5 De e de ce of the maximum ki etic e ergy of hotoelectro s o que cy of the i cide t radiatio . 0 0 E 0 freque cy, 0 i Fig. 1.5, is called threshold freque cy. It is ex erime tally ro ve that 0 de e ds o the cathode material. Seco dly, the e ergy of the hotoelec tro s is i de e de t of the radiatio i te sity, but varies li early with the ra diatio freque cy. The ex erime t also shows that there is o sig i ca t delay bet wee irradiatio a d electro emissio (less tha 109 s). The mi imum e ergy need ed to extract the electron from the material i called work function. If the ele ctron ab orb a larger energy then , the energy in exce i kinetic energy of the photoelectron. The experimental re ult di agree with the Maxwell wave theory o f light: According to thi theory, a the electromagnetic wave reache the urfa ce, the electron tart to ab orb energy from the wave. The more inten e the inci dent wave, the greater the kinetic energy with which the electron hould be eje cted from the urface. In contra t, the experiment how that the increa e of th e wave inten ity produce an increa e in the number of photoelectron , but not t heir energy. The wave picture predict the occurence of the photoelectric e ect fo r any radiation, regardle of frequency. There hould be a igni cant delay betwe en the urface irradiation and the relea e of photoelectron ( ee Problem 1.6). In order to account for the photoelectric e ect experimental re ult , Albert Ein t ein (1905) propo ed a new theory of light. According to thi theory, light of xed frequency co sists of a collectio of i divisible discrete ackages, called qua ta, whose e ergy is E = h . (1.13)

The word hoto Gilbert Newto a si gle hoto to the electro

for these qua tized ackets of light e ergy came later, give by Lewis (1926). Ei stei assumed that whe light strikes a metal, i teracts with a electro a d the hoto e ergy is tra sferred . If

the fre

10 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics h > , then the electron i emitted from the urface with re idual kinetic energy 2 (1/2)mvmax = h . (1.14) Otherwi e, the electron remain trapped in the metal, re gardle of the inten ity of the radiation; the thre hold frequency of the photo electric e ect i 0 = /h . (1.15) Ein tein equation of the photoelectric e ect [Eq. (1 .14)] exactly explain the ob erved dependence of the maximum kinetic energy on the frequency of the radiation ( ig. 1.5). Let u continue the explanation of th e experimental photoelectric e ect nding . Increa ing the inten ity of the radiatio n n time mean an n time increa e of the number of photon , while the energy o f each individual photon remain the ame. or u ciently low radiation inten itie , it can be a umed that the probability of an electron to ab orb two or more p hoton i negligibly mall compared to the probability of ab orbing a ingle pho ton. It follow that the number of electron emitted increa e al o by the facto r n . inally, no time i nece ary for the atom to be heated to a critical temp erature and therefore the relea e of the electron i nearly in tantaneou upon ab orption of the light. Combining Eq . (1.12) and (1.14) we get U0 = (h/e) /e . ( 1.16) The topping voltage a a function of the radiation frequency i a traight line who e lope i h/e and who e intercept with the frequency axi i 0 = /h. Thi ex perimental dependence can be u ed to calculate Planck con tant and the work func tion of the metal. (The value of e i con idered a known.) The re ult for the P lanck con tant i the ame a that found for blackbody radiation; thi agreement can be con idered a a further ju ti cation of the portion of energy h i troduced by Pla ck. From the observed value of 0 , the workfu ctio is calculated as = h0 . Table 1.1 fur ishes the work fu ctio of some chemical eleme ts. The hotoelect ric e ect is erha s the most direct a d co vi ci g evide ce of the cor uscular a ture of light. That is, it rovides u de iable evide ce of the qua tizatio of t he electromag etic eld a d the limitatio s of the classical eld equatio s of Maxwe ll. A other evide ce i su ort of the existe ce of hoto s is rovided by the C om to e ect.

1.3 Wave article duality of radiatio 11

Table 1.1 Electro work fu ctio of ome element [10]. In general, di er for eac h face of a monocry talline ample. In ide the table, polycr i an abbreviation fo r polycry talline ample. Element Ag ( ilver) Plane 100 110 111 100 110 111 100 11 0 111 polycr polycr polycr /eV 4.64 4.52 4.74 4.20 4.06 4.26 5.47 5.37 5.31 2.87 4.5 1.95 Element Cu (copper) Plane 100 110 111 100 111 polycr polycr polycr poly cr polycr polycr polycr /eV 5.10 4.48 4.94 4.67 4.81 2.29 2.93 3.66 2.36 2.261 4. 33 3.63 Al (aluminum)

e (iron) K (pota ium) Li (lithium) Mg (magne ium) Na ( odium) Rb (rubidium) Ti (titanium) Zn (zinc)

Au (gold) Ca (calcium) Cr (chromium) C (ce ium) 1.3 Waveparticle duality of radiation The phenomena of the interference and di raction can be explained only on the hypo the i that radiant energy i propagated a a wave. The re ult of the experimen t on the photoelectric e ect leave no doubt that in it interaction with matter, radiant energy behave a though it were compo ed of particle ; it will be hown later that imilar behaviour i ob erved in the Compton e ect and the proce e o f emi ion and ab orption of radiation. The two picture hould be under tood a complementary view of the ame phy ical entity. Thi i called the waveparticle duality of radiation. A particle i characterized by it energy and momentum; a wave i characterized by it wave vector and angular frequency. We perform here the link between the two picture . The energy of a photon i given by Eq. (1.13 ). We complete the characterization of the photon with a formula for it momentu m. Cla ical electromagnetic theory how that a wave carrie momentum in additi on to energy; the relation between the energy E contained in a region and the co rre ponding momentum p i E = cp . (1.17) It i natural to extend thi formula for the quantum of radiation, i.e., the pho ton. or a plane wave of wave vector k, the angular frequency of the

12

wave i = k/c and the photon momentum can be ritten p= E = = k. c c (1.18) This formula can be ritten

ith vectors, p = k. (1.19)

To sum up, the t o behaviours of radiation are linked by Planck-Einstein relatio ns E = and p = k . (1.20) 1.4 Compton e ect The existence of photons is also demonstrated by experiments in hich x-rays or rays are scattered by a tar et. The experiments performed in 1922 by Arthur Holl y Compton ith x-rays and a raphite tar et sho that, in addition to the incide nt radiation, there is another radiation present, of hi her avelenth. The radia tion scatterin ith chan e in a elen th is called Compton e ect. Given that is t he wave e gth of the i cide t radiatio a d that of the scattered radiatio , Comp to fou d that does ot depe d upo the wave e gth of the i cide t rays or upo he target materia ; it depe ds o y o the directio of scatterin (an le bet ee n the incident ave and direction in hich scattered aves are detected) accordi n to the experimental relation = C (1 cos ) . (1.21)

The constant C 2.426 1012 m is owadays ca ed Compto wave e gth of the e ectro . The scattered radiatio is i terpreted as radiatio scattered by free or oose y bou d e ectro s i the atoms of matter. The c assica treatme t of the x rays or -rays as aves implies that an electron is forced to oscillate at a fre uency e ual to that of the ave. The oscillatin electron no acts as a source of ne electroma netic aves havin the same fre uency. Therefore, the avelen ths of t he incident and scattered x-rays should be identical. We must therefore conclude that the classical theory fails in explainin the Compton e ect. Treatin the rad iation as a beam of photons, a photon can transfer part of its ener y and linear momentum to a loosely bound electron in a collision

 

1 The experimental foundation

of quantum mechanic

 

 

 Scattered B photo

13 E I cide t photo Recoi e ectro

Fig. 1.6 I Compto scatteri g a x ray photo of wave e gth co ides with a e ectro i itia y at rest. The photo scattered i the directio has the avelen th > .

(Fig. 1.6). Si ce the e ergy of a photo is proportio a to its freque cy, after the co isio the photo has a ower freque cy a d thus a o ger wave e gth. To be more speci c, et p = h/c = h/ a d p = h /c = h/ be the mome ta of the photo be a d after the co isio . The e ectro ca be co sidered i itia y at rest. After the co isio it acquires a ki etic e ergy T = h h = hc/ hc/ a d a mome tum h2 2 + 2 2 cos , (1.23) 2 as required by the co servatio of e ergy of mome tum. , T a d pe are re ated by the re ativistic equatio pe = p p , p2 = (p p )2 = e T =c p2 + m2 c2 mc2 . e (1.24) I serti g Eqs. (1.22) a d (1.23) i to Eq. (1.24), r earra gi g a d squari g, we get hc hc + mc2 2 (1.22) = hc hc h2 c2 h2 c2 + 2 2 cos + m2 c4 . 2 C = h/mc . (1.25) After performi g the e eme tary ca cu atio s it is obtai ed Eq. (1.21), where Th e prese ce of the radiatio with the same wave e gth as the i cide t radiatio i s ot predicted by Eq. (1.21). This radiatio is exp ai ed by the scatteri g of the i cide t radiatio by tight y bou d e ectro s. I this case, the photo co ides with the e tire atom, whose mass is co siderab y greater tha the mass of a si g e e ectro . The photo a d atom excha ge mome tum, but the amou t of excha ged e ergy is much ess tha i case of the photo e ectro co isio ; the wave e gth shift is ot sig i ca t. Compto scatteri g is of prime importa ce to radiobi o ogy, as it happe s to be the most probab e i teractio of high e ergy x rays w ith atomic uc ei i ivi g bei gs a d is app ied i radiatio therapy.

1.4 Compton e ect Tar et electron at rest

14 1 The experime ta fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics 1.5 Atomic spectra By the ear y 1900s, the fo owi g observatio s co cer i g the atomic emissio sp ectra had bee do e: Whe a gas of a e eme t at ow pressure is subjected to a i put of e ergy, such as from a e ectric discharge, the gas emits e ectromag e tic radiatio . O passi g through a very thi s it a d the through a prism the e ectromag etic radiatio ca be separated i to its compo e t freque cies. It wa s fou d that a gas at ow pressure emits o y discrete i es o the freque cy sc a e. The emissio spectrum is made up of spectra series i the di ere t regio s ( i frared, visib e, a d u travio et) of the spectrum of e ectromag etic radiatio ; the spectra i es i a series get c oser together with i creasi g freque cy. Each e eme t has its ow u ique emissio spectrum. The simp iest i e spectrum i s that of the hydroge atom. Its four spectra i es i the visib e have wave e gths that ca be represe ted accurate y by the Joha Ba mer formu a (1885) = C 2 2 4 = 3, 4, . . . , (1.26) where C 364.6 m . This formu a was writte by Joha es Rydberg (1888) for wave umbers, = 1 1 1 =R 2 2 2 , = 3, 4, . . . ,

where the ew co sta t R is owadays ca ed Rydberg co sta t, a d ge era ized i the form R R , 1 = 2, 3, . . . , 2 = 3, 4, . . . , 2 2 1 2 (1.27) a d 1 < 2 . Here, 1 de es the spectra series. For a give series, with i creasi g va u es of 2 , the wave umber approaches the imit R/ 2 . The 1 separatio of co sec utive wave umbers of a give series decreases so that 1 2 = = 1 1 1 =R 2 2 2 1 2

1.6 Bohr mode 15

of the hydroge atom

1.6 Bohr mode of the hydroge atom Atoms have radii o the order of 1010 m . To study the i ter a structure of atom s, Er est Rutherford, Ha s Geiger a d Er est Marsde (1909) directed -p rticles f rom r dio ctive r dium t thin gold foil. B sed on the results of the -p rticles sc ttering by the gold toms, Rutherford (1911) furnished the nucle r tom model (pl net ry model of the tom): the tom consists of positively ch rged he vy core (nucleus) of r dius on the order of 1015 m a d a cloud of egatively charged electro s. Atomic structure was ictured as a alogous to the solar system, with the ucleus layi g the role of the Su a d the electro s that of the la ets b ou d i their orbits by Coulomb attractio to the ucleus. About as soo as the model was ublished it was realized that the atom model su ers from two serious de c ie cies: 1. Orbital motio is a accellerated motio a d electro s are charged articles. Accordi g to the electromag etic theory, the electro s should radiate e ergy i the form of electromag etic waves. Electro s lose e ergy a d they shou ld s iral i to the ucleus i a time of the order of 108 s . This co clusio com letely disagrees with ex erime t, si ce the atoms are stable. 2. The freque cy o f the radiated e ergy is the same as the orbiti g o e. As the orbiti g freque cy ca take a co ti uous ra ge of values, the discrete emissio s ectrum of atoms ca ot be ex lai ed. To overcome these de cie cies, Niels Bohr (1913) im roved th e Rutherford model of the atom by i troduci g the followi g ostulates:

the wave umber ca ot exceed the series imit. I pri cip e, a i ite umber of i es ie at the series imit. Accordi g to Eq. (1.27) the wave umber of a y i e of the hydroge spectrum is the di ere ce of two spectra terms: 1 2 = T 1 T 2 , with T = R/ 2 . (1.29) It proves empirica y that the i es of other chemic a e eme ts ca a so be expressed as the di ere ce of two terms; however, a spectr a term has a more comp icated form. No e of the above qua titative resu t cou d be exp ai ed satisfactori y i the frame of c asica physics. (1.28)

16 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics For every atom there is a i ite umber of statio ary states i which the atom ca exist without emitti g ra diatio . The e ergies of the statio ary states, E1 , E2 , E3 , . . . , form a di screte set of values. Emissio a d absor tio of radiatio are always associated to a tra sitio of the atom from o e statio ary state to a other. The freque cy of the radiatio emitted or absorbed res ectively duri g such a tra sitio is g ive by the equatio h = E2 E1 , (1.30) where E1 a d E2 de ote the e ergy of the atom i the two statio ary states. Bohr app ied these postu ates for the hydroge atom. The e ectro of mass m a d e ec tric charge e is assumed to move arou d the uc eus of e ectric charge e i a cir cu ar orbit. The se ectio of the a owed statio ary states is performed by the fo owi g qua tizatio ru e for the a gu ar mome tum: the a gu ar mome tum of th e e ectro i a statio ary state is a i teger mu tip e of : mvr = , where = 1, 2, 3, . . . . (1.31) We are ow i a positio to so ve the prob em. Newto s seco d aw app ied for the e ectro motio o a circu ar orbit of radius r with the ve ocity v u der the a ttractive Cou omb force exerted by the uc eus yie ds m v2 e2 = . r 40 r2 (1.32) Combi i g Eqs. (1.31) a d (1.32), we 0 2 me2 e2 1 . 40 (1.33) (1.34) 40 2 5.29 1011 m me2 (1.35) d r = a d v = The radius a0 = 40 2 2

= a

1.6 Bohr model of the hydroge 17

is called the Bohr radius. This value sets the scale for atomic dime sio . The ote tial e ergy of the electro i the hydroge atom is give by V (r) = The e e rgy of the atom i state is 1 e2 2 E = T + V = mv 2 40 r that gives E = m 2 2 e2 40 2 e2 . 40 r (1.36) 1 , 2

= 1, 2, 3, . . . .

(1.37) The i teger determi es the e ergy of the bou d state of the atom a d it is cal led ri ci al qua tum umber. Figure 1.7 rese ts the diagram of e ergy levels f or the hydroge atom. The state of mi imum e ergy, called grou d state, has the e ergy m E1 = 2 2 e2 40 2 13.6 eV . (1.38) This value sets the scale for atomic e ergy. The states of higher e ergy are cal led excited states. All e ergies of the bou d atom are egative; states of osit ive e ergies refers to the io ized atom. The io izatio e ergy of the hydroge a tom, de ed as the amou t of e ergy required to force the electro from its lowest e ergy level e tirely out of the atom is (1.39) EI = E1 13.6 eV . Let us ow cal culate the freque cies of the hydroge s ectrum. I the tra sitio betwee the s tates 1 a d 2 > 1 , the freque cy of the radiatio emitted or absorbed is 1 2 = (E 2 E 1 )/h a d the calculus yields 1 2 m e2 = 4 3 40 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 . (1.40) The wavele gth 1 2 = c/ 1 3 e2 40 2 1 1 2 = R 1 1 2 2 1 2 , 2 of the radiatio is give by 1 1

2 = m 4c

2 1 2

atom

(1.41)

18 where 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics m 4c e2 40 2 R = 3 1.097 107 m1 (1.42) is the Rydberg co sta t for hydroge ; the subscri t remi ds us the remise that the ucleus is exceedi gly massive com ared with the electro . The great success of the Bohr model had bee i ex lai i g the s ectra of hydroge like (si gle e lectro arou d a ositive ucleus) atoms. Eve though the Bohr theory is ow ext e ded a d altered i some esse tial res ects by qua tum mecha ics, its k owledge co siderably hel s the u dersta di g of ew theories. I fact, a umber of he ome a i s ectrosco y ca be dealt with by maki g use of Bohr theory alo e. 1.7 Corres o de ce ri ci le

e2 1 m 1 2 = ( 1)2 2 2 (

4 3 40

2 1 . 1)2 We co sider ow large qua tum umbers, i.e., tra sitio becomes 1, e2 m 3 4 4 0 2 e2 m 2 = 4 3 4 2 1 . 3 O the other ha d the motio of the electro o the th orbit has the freque cy 2 e2 m 1 v = , = 3 4 2r 2 3 0 where Eqs. (1.33) a d (1.34) were used. Accordi g to classical theory the atom emits radiatio at the freque cy ; the com ariso of the freque cy ex ressio s gives 1, i agreeme t to the corres o de ce ri ci le. 1 . The freque cy of the qua tum

2 0

O e of the guidi g ri corres o de ce ri ci results that a roach To illustrate this ri tum descri tio of the Eq. (1.40) the freque a d is 1, = m e2 2

ci les used i the develo me t of qua tum theory was Bohrs le (1920) which i dicates that qua tum theory should give the classical hysics results for large qua tum umbers. ci le let us discuss the hydroge atom s ectrum. The qua atom is erformed i the Bohr theory framework. By use of cy of the radiatio i the tra sitio betwee states 1 4 3 40

1.7 Corres o de ce ri ci le 19

5 4

Io ized atom E/eV 0.00 0.54 c c 0.85 Brackett series 1.51 656.3 m 486.1 m 434.0 m 410.2 m 2 c c c c Pasche series Balmer series 1875 3 c c 3.40 121.6 m 102.6 m 97.3 1 13.6 Fig. 1.7 E ergy level diagram for hydroge a d a few s ectral li es of the Lyma , Balmer, a d Pasche series. m 95.0 m c c c c Lyma m 1282 m

series

20 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics More that that, for large values of the qua tum umber the hydroge e ergy lev els lie so close together that they form almost a co ti uum; it follows that the classical co ti uum descri tio of the s ectrum should corres o d to tra sitio s betwee two such states. 1.8 Ei stei s he ome ological theory of radiatio

rocesses

I 1917 Ei stei ex lai ed he ome ologically the radiatio matter i teractio b ased o the qua tum ideas of that time: Pla cks qua tum hy othesis a d Bohrs la e tary model of the hydroge atom. Ei stei s ostulates could all be justi ed by the later develo ed qua tum mecha ical treatme ts of the i teractio rocesses. Su ose N ide tical atoms i u it volume, each atom havi g a air of bou d state e e rgy levels E1 a d E2 , E2 > E1 (Fig. 1.8). The two atomic levels are allowed to be multi lets with dege eracies g1 a d g2 . The mea umbers of atoms er u it v olume i the two multi let states are de oted by N1 a d N2 . Assumi g that all t he atoms are i these states, N1 + N2 = N . (1.43) The atomic medium is co sidered i a radiatio eld whose s ectral radia t e ergy de sity at freque cy give by h = E2 E1 (1.44) is () . Ei stei co siders three basic i teractio rocesses betwee radiatio a d atoms (Fig. 1.8). 1. S o ta eous emissio A atom i state 2 s o ta eously erf ormes a tra sitio to state 1 a d a hoto of freque cy is emitted. The hoto i s emitted i a ra dom directio with arbitrary olarizatio . The robability er u it time for occure ce of this rocess is de oted by A21 a d is called Ei stei coe cie t for s o ta eous emissio . The total rate of s o ta eous emissio s is N2 (t) = A21 N2 (t)

1.8 Ei stei s he ome ological theory of radiatio T T E2 , g 2 , N 2 21 h A21 B12 () B21 () c c S o ta eous emissio Absor tio

c Stimulated emissio E1 , g 1 , N 1

Fig. 1.8 Radiative tra sitio s betwee to e ergy levels. Table 1.2 Tra sitio r obability A for hydroge li es i the visible ra ge [10]. Each tra sitio is ide ti ed by the wavele gth a d the statistica weights gi a d gk , of the ower (i) a d upper (k) states. / m 410.173 434.046 486.132 656.280 gi 8 8 8 8 gk 72 50 32 18 A/s1 9.732 105 2.530 106 8.419 106 4.410 107

a d the i tegratio with the i itia co ditio at t = 0 gives N2 (t) = N2 (0) ex p(A21 t) . The time i which the popu atio fa s to 1/e of its i itia va ue is 2 1 = 1/A21 (1.45) and is called life ime of level 2 wi h respec o he spon aneous ransi ion o level 1 (see Problem 1.14). A few values of he ransi ion probabili y ra e are provided by Table 1.2. In he absence of a radia ion eld he ransi ion 1 2 is im possible due o viola ion of he energy conserva ion law. 2. Absorp ion In he p resence of a radia ion eld an a om ini ially in s a e 1 can jump o s a e 2 by ab sorp ion of a pho on of frequency . The robability er u it time for this roces s is assumed to be ro ortio al to the s ectral e ergy de sity at freque cy ; the total rate of absor tio s is N1 = B12 ()N1 , (1.46)

       

 

        

  

rocesses

22 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics where B12 is called Ei stei coe cie t for absor tio . 3. Stimulated emissio Ei s tei ostulates that the rese ce of a radiatio eld ca also stimulate the tra s itio 2 1 of the atom; e ergy co servatio law asks for the emissio of a hoto of freque cy . The probability per unit time for this process is assumed to be p roportional to the spectral ener y density at fre uency ; the total rate of stimu lated emissio s is N2 = B21 ()N2 , (1.47)

where B21 is called Ei stei coe cie t for stimulated emissio . The radiatio rod uced duri g the stimulated emissio rocess adds cohere tly to the existi g o e; this mea s that radiatio created through stimulated emissio has the same freq ue cy, directio of ro agatio , olarizatio a d hase as the radiatio that fo rces the emissio rocess. The stimulated emissio rocess was u k ow before 19 17. The reaso for its i troductio by Ei stei will be made clear duri g ext s ectio . Ei stei coe cie ts de ed above are i de e de t of the radiatio eld ro ert ies a d are treated here as he ome ological arameters. They de e d o ly o the ro erties of the two atomic states. Due to all radiative tra sitio s rese ted above, the o ulatio s N1,2 of the two e ergy levels cha ge i time accordi g t o the equatio s N1 = N2 = B12 () N1 + [A21 + B21 ()]N2 , N1 + N2 = N . (1.48) 1.8.1 Relatio s betwee Ei stei coe cie ts Let us co sider the atomic system de ed above i equilibrium with thermal radiati o ; the s ectral radia t e ergy de sity () is give ow by Pla cks formula [Eq. (1. 9)]. This s ecial case will lead us to establish relatio s betwee Ei stei coe ci e ts. The equilibrium co ditio for the radiatio matter i teractio ex resses a s follows. For the radiatio eld the equilibrium co ditio mea s equality of emit ted qua ta a d absorbed qua ta. For the atomic system, the equilibrium co ditio writes N1 = N2 = 0 . These co ditio s are equivale t. From Eq. (1.48) at equili brium, B12 (, T )N1 + [A21 + B21 (, T )]N2 = 0 ,

1.8 Ei stei s he ome ological theory of radiatio rocesses the s ectral e ergy de sity of the thermal eld ca be ex ressed as (, T ) = A21 /B21 . (B12 /B21 )(N1 / N2 ) 1 23 I thermal equilibrium, atomic e ergy levels are occu ied accordi g to the Maxwe llBoltzma statistics. I exact terms the ratio of the o ulatio de sities of t he two levels is N1 /N2 = (g1 /g2 ) ex [(E1 E2 )/kB T ] = (g1 /g2 ) ex (h/kB T ) . The use of this ratio i to the ex ressio of (, T ) gives (, T ) = A21 /B21 . (g1 12 /g2 B21 ) ex (h/kB T ) 1 (1.49) This formula should be Pla cks radiatio A21 = 3 h . B21 c (1.50b) (1.50a) formula (1.9), so g1 B12 = g2 B21 a d 8 2

Relatio s (1.50) are k ow as Ei stei s relatio s. These relatio s ermit to ex r ess the tra sitio rates betwee a air of levels i terms of a si gle Ei stei coe cie t. 1.8.2 S o ta eous emissio a d stimulated emissio as com eti g rocesses

a d is de e de t o the radiatio eld a d freque cy. To be more s eci c, let us co sider the thermal radiatio eld. The use of Pla cks radiatio formula a d the seco d Ei stei equatio gives R= 1 . ex (h/kB T ) 1

A atom i us emissio io , we co ssio o e.

a excited state ca jum to a lower e ergy state through a s o ta eo or a stimulated o e. Which rocess is most likely? To ask this quest sider the ratio R of the stimulated emissio rate a d s o ta eous emi This ratio is R= B21 () A21

24 10 0 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics 10 R 20 10 40 10 60 Fig. 1.9 Ratio of stimulated emissio robability a d s o ta eous emissio roba bility for a two level atom i a thermal radiatio eld of tem erature T = 300 K. 10 10 10 11 10 10 (Hz) 12 13 10 14 10 15

For umerical evaluatio s we choose a ty ical tem erature T = 300 K. The ratio i s R = 1 for = (kB T /h) l 2 4.331012 Hz ( 69.2 m) i i frared regio . The depe de ce R versus freque cy is prese ted i Fig. 1.9. I the microwave regio , for exa mp e at = 1010 Hz, R 624, so the stimu ated emissio i more ike y tha the spo ta eous emissio . For sma er freque cies spo ta eous emissio becomes eg igib e with respect to stimu ated emissio . I the ear i frared a d visib e regio the ratio R takes o very sma va ues, so the spo ta eous emissio is the domi a t process. Ca stimu ated emissio domi ate over spo ta eous emissio for a c assica source of visib e radiatio ? It ca be prove that the spectra e ergy d e sity of a spectroscopic amp is ot su cie t to e sure a ratio R > 1 . The stimu ated emissio domi ates over spo ta eous for a aser. 1.9 Experime ta co rmatio of statio ary states The idea of statio ary states had bee i troduced to exp ai the discrete spectr

um of atomic systems. The rst experime ta co rmatio of this hypothesis was provi ded by James Fra ck a d Gustav Hertz (1914). Their experime ta set up is prese ted schematica y i Fig. 1.10. E ectro s emitted from a hot cathode C are acce erated toward the mesh grid G through a ow pressure gas of Hg vapour by mea s o f a adjustab e vo tage U . Betwee the grid a d the a ode A a sma retardi g v o tage U 0.5 V is app ied

1.9 Experime ta co rmatio of statio ary states C G A 25 Hg vapour A U T Curre t U Fig. 1.10 Fra ck Hertz set up. Fig. 1.11 Curre t through a tube of Hg vapor versus acce erati g vo tage i Fra ckHertz experime t. 0 E 5 10 15 Acce erati g vo tage, V 0 so that o y those e ectro s above a e ergy thresho d (eU ) wi reach it. The a odic curre t as a fu ctio of vo tage (Fig. 1.11) does ot i crease mo oto ica y, as wou d be the case for a vacuum tube, but rather disp ays a series of pea ks at mu tip es of 4.9 V. The experime ta resu t is exp ai ed i terms of e ect ro mercury atom co isio s. Due to the i teractio betwee e ectro a d atom, the re is a excha ge of e ergy. Let us de ote E1 a d E2 the e ergy of the atom i i ts grou d state a d rst excited state, respective y. The mi imum ki etic e ergy o f the e ectro for the atom excitatio is practica y E2 E1 (see Prob em 1.12). If the e ectro has a ki etic e ergy T < E2 E1 it is ot ab e to excite a mercur y atom. The co isio is e astic (i.e., the ki etic e ergy is co served) a d the e ectro moves through the vapor osi g e ergy very s ow y (see Prob em 1.13). U ished! = h/p (1.51) If there was o cou tervo tage app ied, a e ectro s wou d reach the a ode a d o modu atio of the curre t sig a cou d be measured.

the

26 1 The experime ta fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics 1.10 Heise berg u certai ty pri cip e A i teresti g i terpretatio of the wave partic e dua ity of a physica e tit ies has bee give by Wer er Heise berg (1927). The u certai ty pri cip e, or i determi acy pri cip e, refers to the simu ta eous measureme t of the positio a d the mome tum of a partic e a d states that the u certai ty x i vo ved i the me asureme t of a coordo ate of the partic e a d the u certai ty px i vo ved i the measureme t of the mome tum i the same directio are re ated by the re atio shi p x px /2 . (1.52) To i ustrate the u certai ty pri cip e, we co sider a thought experime t. Suppo se a para e beam of mo oe ergetic e ectro s that passes through a arrow s it a d is the recorded o a photographic p ate (Fig. 1.12). The precisio with whi ch we k ow the y positio of a e ectro is determi ed by the size of the s it; if d is the width of the s it, the u certai ty of the y positio is y d . Reduci g the width of the s it, a di ractio patter is observed o the photographic p at e. The wave e gth of the wave associated to the e ectro s is give by Eq. (1.51) , where p desig ate the mome tum of the e ectro s. The u certai ty i the k ow e dge of the y compo e t of e ectro mome tum after passi g through the s it is de termi ed by the a g e correspondin to the central maximum of the di raction patte rn; accordin to the theory of the di raction produced by a rectan ular slit, the an le is iven by d sin = . We have py p si = p and h = d d h = h, d i agreeme t with Eq. (1.52). Note that: y py d To reduce the u certai ty i the determi atio of the coordi ate y of the partic e, a arrower s it is re quired. This s it produces a wider ce tra maximum i the di ractio patter , i.e. , a arger u certai ty i the determi atio of the y compo e t of the mome tum o f the partic e. To improve the precisio i the determi atio of the y compo e t of the mome tum of the partic e, the width of the ce tra maximum i the di racti o patter must be reduced. This requires a arger s it, which mea s a arger u certai ty i the y coordi ate of the partic e.

1.10 Heise berg u certai ty pri cip e y T I comi g beam E E T E d E E c 27 O Screen ith a sin le slit Observin screen Fi . 1.12 Di raction throu h a sin le slit. It is common to consider in everyday life that a measurement can be performed i thout chan in the state of the physical system. The above example clearly sho s that in contrast to the classical situation, at the atomic level, measurement i nevitably introduces a si ni cant perturbation in the system. The uncertainty prin ciple implies that the concept of trajectory for particles of atomic dimensions is meanin less. It follo s that for such particles the description of the motion needs a di erent picture. For everyday macroscopic objects the uncertainty princi ple plays a ne li ible role in limitin the accuracy of measurements, because th e uncertainties implied by this principle are too small to be observed. 1.10.1 Uncertainty relation and the Bohr orbits In Sect. 1.6 the electron of the hydro en atom is supposed in a circular motion around the nucleus. Let us investi ate the compatibility of this picture ith th e uncertainty relation [E . (1.52)]. The classical treatment of the electron mot ion is justi ed for small uncertainties in the position and momentum, x r from whic h we i fer a d px p , (1.53) x px 1. r p (1.54) For the motio o the Bohr orbit , the qua tizatio ru e gives pr =

 

 

28 1 The experime ta fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics The use of Heise berg u certai ty re atio yie ds 1 x px . r p 2 It is c ear ow that this resu t is i co tradictio with Eq. (1.54) for sma va ues of the qua tum umber . It fo ows that the c assica motio picture of the e ectro o circu ar orbits must be rejected. 1.11 Prob ems

1.2 I a te evisio tube, e ectro s are acce erated by a pote tia di ere ce of 25 kV. Determi e the mi imum wave e gth of the x rays produced whe the e ectro s are stopped at the scree . So utio . The e ergy acquired by a e ectro acce erated by the pote tia di ere c e U = 25 kV is E = eU . This e ergy may be radiated as a resu t of e ectro stop pi g; the mi imum wave e gth radiated is obtai ed whe a e ergy is radiated as a si g e photo : mi = hc/E = hc/eU 5.0 1011 m = 50 pm . A most a of this radia tio is b ocked by the thick eaded g ass i the scree . 1.3 The temperature of a perso ski is skin = 35 C . (a) Determi e the wavele gt h at which the radiatio emitted from the ski reaches its eak. (b) Estimate th e et loss of ower by the body i a e viro me t of tem erature environment = 20 C . The huma ski has the emitta ce = 0.98 in infrar d and th surfac ar a of a typical p rson can b stimat d as A = 2 m2 . (c) Estimat th n t loss of n rgy during on day. Expr ss th r sult in calori s by us of th conv rsion r l ation 1 cal = 4.184 J .

1.1 Determi e operati g o So utio . The d is P 6.37

the umber of photo s emitted per seco d by a P = 2 mW He Ne aser the wave e gth = 632.8 m. e ergy of a photo is hc/ . The umber of photo s emitted per seco 1015 photo s/s . hc/

of Eq. (1.4), max = b 9.5 m . Tski

29 This wave e gth is i the i frared regio by the body is [see Eq. (1.3)] 4 Pemitted = T kin A 974 W ,

of the spectrum. (b) The power emitted

1.4 Prove that the relation between radiant exitance E of a blackbody and the en ergy den ity of the b ackbody cavity is E = (1/4)c . (1.55) So ution. Let us conside a sma su face of the body; this can be conside ed as p ane. Let us denote by A the a ea. We choose a 3-D Ca tesian coo dinate system with the o igin O on the emitting su face and the Oz-axis pe pendicu a to the su face and di ected outwa d (see gu e be ow). z T n We rst rite the ux of ener y throu h the surface of area A inside the solid an le d = sin d d around the directi on n determined by polar an les and . Durin the time interval t , the e ergy emi tted i side the so id a g e d is located inside the cylinder of eneratrix parale ll to n and len th c t . The e ergy i side this vo ume is Ac t cos and only the fra ction d/4 ro agates i the co sidered solid a gle. A c t The tota e ergy emitted through the surface of area A i the time i terva =/2 =0 =2 Ac t cos =0 sin d d 1 = cA t. 4 4 O

t is

The net outward ow of energy i P = Pemitted Pab orbed 155 W . (c) The net lo f energy in a time t = 24 3 600 i E = P t 3 207 kcal. The re ult i an overe timation of the real net lo of energy, becau e the clothe we wear contribute to a igni cant reduction of the kin emittance.

while the power ab orbed from the environment i 4 Pab orbed = Tenvironment A 819 W .

1.11 Probl ms Solution. (a) By us

30 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics It follows that the e ergy emitted i u it time by u it area is give by Eq. (1. 55). Remark. I case we are i terested i the relatio betwee the s ectral qua tities E a d , we est ict ou se ves to the adiation in the wave ength inte va (, + d). The ene gy emitted with the wave ength in the speci ed inte va in t is =/2 =0 =2 d Ac t cos =0 1 sin d d = c d A t. 4 4 The e ergy emitted i u it time through the u it area of surface is E d = (1/4)c d f om which Eq. (1.5) is infe ed.

1.5 De ive Wiens displacemen law from Eq. (1.10). Solu ion. d 1 hc exp(hc/kB T ) 40hc hc 1 + () = + exp d 6 [exp(hc/kB T ) 1]2 he co ditio d ()/d = 0 yie ds the t anscendenta equation 1 x/5 = exp(x) , where h shor hand no a ion x = hc/kB T have bee used. Besides the trivia so utio x = 0 , a positive so utio exists, x 4.965 (see gure be ow). 1 T . 1 x/5 exp(x) 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Ex Graphical solu ion of he equa ion 1 x/5 = exp(x) . he waveleng h max give

The spec ral energy densi y is maximum for 898 103 m K. 4.965 kB

by max T hc 2.

1.6 A zi c p ate is irradiated at a dista ce R = 1 m from a mercury amp that em its through a spectra ter P = 1 W radiatio power at = 250 m.

 

 

1.11 Prob ems 31 The pe etratio depth of the radiatio is approximate y equa to the radiatio w ave e gth. I the c assica mode of radiatio matter i teractio , the radiatio e ergy is equa y shared by a free e ectro s. Ca cu ate the mi imum irradiati o time for a e ectro to accumu ate su cie t e ergy to escape from the meta . Fr ee e ectro de sity i zi c is = 1029 m3 a d the work fu ctio is = 4 eV. Solu ion. In a ime in erval he pla e of area A receives he energy A P 4R2 a d this is accumulated by the free electro s i the volume A . O the co ditio t hat a e ectro acquires the e ergy , A P = nA . 4R2 The mi imum irradiatio time is t= 4R2 2.0 105 s P

in s rong con radic ion o he experimen al resul s. 1.7 Blue ligh of waveleng h = 456 m a d power P = 1 mW is i cide t o a photos e sitive surface of cesium. The e ectro work fu ctio of cesium is = 1.95 eV. ( a) De ermine he maximum veloci y of he emi ed elec rons and he s opping vol age. (b) If he quan um e ciency of he surface is = 0.5 %, determine t e magnitud e of t e p otocurrent. T e quantum e ciency is de ned as t e ratio of t e number of p otoelectrons to t at of incident p otons. Solution. (a) T e t res old wavelengt of t e p otoelectric e ect for cesium is 0 = hc/ 636 nm < , so e ectro s are extracted from cesium. To ca cu ate the maximum ve ocity of the photoe ectro s, we make use of Eq. (1.14), where = c/ . We get vm ax 5.2 105 m s1 . As vmax /c 1, the o re ativistic expressio of the ki etic e e rgy proves to be justi ed. The stoppi g vo tage is give by Eq. (1.16), where = c/ . We get U0 0.77 V. (b) The umber of e ectro s extracted i u it time is = P c /



   

 

 

 

   

32 1 The experime ta fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics formi g a curre t of mag itude I = e = eP 1.8 A . hc

1.8 Prove that a free e ectro ca ot absorb a photo . So utio . The co isio betwee the photo a d the e ectro is i vestigated i t heir ce tre of mass refere ce frame, i.e., the frame of refere ce i which the t ota mome tum is zero. The hypothetica process is prese ted be ow. Here, p de o te the mag itude of the mome tum of the e ectro a d photo . p E p After absorpti Before absorptio

Let us de ote by me the e ectro mass. The i itia e ergy of the system is pc + m2 c4 + p2 c2 , whi e the e ergy of the a state is me c2 . It is c ear that e c o servatio of e ergy is vio ated, so the process ca ot occur. Remark. A e ect ro participati g i the photoe ectric e ect is ot free, but bou d to either a a tom, mo ecu e, or a so id. The e ectro a d the heavy matter to which the e ectr o is coup ed share the e ergy a d mome tum absorbed a d it is a ways possib e t o satisfy both mome tum a d e ergy co servatio . However, this heavy matter carr ies o y a very sma fractio of the photo e ergy, so that it is usua y ot c o sidered at a .

1.9 X rays of wave e gth 70.7 pm are scattered from a graphite b ock. (a) Determ i e the e ergy of a photo . (b) Determi e the shift i the wave e gth for radiat io eavi g the b ock at a a g e of 90 from the directio of the i cide t beam. (c) Determi e the directio of maximum shift i wavele gth a d the mag itude of this shift. (d) Determi e the maximum shift i the wavele gth for radiatio scat tered by a electro tightly bou d to its carbo atom. Solutio . (a) E = hc/ 2.81 1015 J 1.75 104 eV . Remark. This e ergy is severa or ers of mag itude arger tha the bi di g e ergy of the outer carbo e ectro s, s o treati g these e ectro s as free partic es i the Compto e ect is a good approx imatio . (b) By maki g use of Eq. (1.21), we get = 2.43 pm. (c) The directio o aximum shift i wave e gth is = , i.e., the hoto is scattered backwards; ()max = 2C 4.85 pm.

1.11 Prob ems 33 (d) The photo co ides with the e tire atom whose mass is 12 u . Compto wave e gth of the carbo atom is 1.111016 m. The maximum cha ge of the wave e gth due to scatteri g is 2.221016 m, too sma to be measured.

1.10 I a Compto scatteri g experime t (see Fig. 1.6) a photo of e ergy E is s cattered by a statio ary e ectro through a a g e . (a) Determine the an le bet een the direction of the recoilin electron and that of the incident photon. (b) Determine the kinetic ener y of the recoilin electron. Solution. (a) Given that p is the momentum of the incident photon and p and pe th e momenta of scattered photon and electron after the collision, the conservation of momentum re uires that pe = p p . T is relation is projected on two perpendic ular axes s own in t e gure: pe cos = h h cos , h pe si = sin . Dividin side by side the t o e uations e et cot is iven by cot = = 1 + y T

By use of E . (1.21), the an le p* E C ta pEx pR e = 1 + ta . 2 mc2 2

Momentum conservation in the Compton e ect and the choice of a xOy coordinate syst em.

(b) The kinetic ener y of the recoilin electron is e ual to the ener y loss of the photon: T = hc hc hc C (1 cos ) (E/mc2 )(1 cos ) = = E. + C (1 co (1 cos )

34 1 The experimental foundations of uantum mechanics 1.11 Use position-momentum uncertainty relation to estimate the dimensions and t he ener y of the hydro en atom in its round state. Solution. Let the electron be con ned to a re ion of linear dimension r . We estim ate the ener y of the atom. The potential ener y of the electron is of the order of V = e2 . 40 r Accordi g to the u certai ty ri ci le, the u certai ty p i its mome tum is p /r . The average ki etic e ergy of the e ectro is T = (1/2m) p2 a d assumi g a zer o average mome tum we get T = 2 1 (p)2 . 2m 2mr2 The tota e ergy of the atom is 2 E= T + V Let us de ote Emi 2mr2 2 e2 . 40 r 2mr2 e2 . 40 r The atom settles to a state of lowest e ergy. Notice that for large r values, th e ote tial e ergy domi ates; it follows that ex a di g the atom i creases the t otal e ergy. However, for small e ough r, the ki etic e ergy is the domi a t co tributio a d the total e ergy lowers as the atom ex a ds. It follows that there must exists a value of r for which the total e ergy is a mi imum. We have 2 e2 e2 dEmi = 3 + = dr mr 40 r3 40 r3 r 40 2 me2 . The e ergy attai s i deed a mi imum for r = 40 2/me2 = a0 . The total e ergy for t his radius is exactly the e ergy of the grou d state of the hydroge atom [see E q. (1.38)]. It should be oi ted out that the Heise berg u certai ty relatio ca be used to give o ly a order of mag itude of the hydroge atom size or its gr ou d state e ergy. The exact qua titative agreeme t is accide tal. I fact, we h ad i te tio ally chose the lower bou d value i the Heise berg u certai ty rela tio i such a way (i.e., ) that the resulti g grou d state e ergy is exact.

(r) =

 

1.11 Problems 35 1.12 A electro is bombardi g a atom at rest i its grou d state of e ergy E1 . Prove that the threshold ki etic e ergy of the electro , required for the atom excitatio to the rst excited state of e ergy E2 , is a roximately equal to E2 E1 . Solutio . Let us de ote m a d M the mass of the electro a d the atom, res ectiv ely. We have m 1 m . M MH 1836 The threshold co ditio for the excitatio of the atom as a result of the collisio will be ex ressed i the ce tre of mass (CM) frame of refere ce: all ki etic e ergy of the system is used for the atom excita tio . I other words, i the CM frame of refere ce, the electro a d the atom ar e both at rest after the collisio . We de ote a d P the i itial mome tum of th e electro a d the atom i the CM frame of refere ce, res ectively. The co serva tio of mome tum a d e ergy i the CM frame of refere ce gives + P = 0 a d Com bi i g these equatio s we get 2 = 2M m (E2 E1 ) . M +m 1 2 1 2 + P + E 1 = E2 . 2m 2M

1.13 Show that the cha ge i ki etic e ergy of a article of mass m, with i itia l ki etic e ergy T , whe it collides with a article of mass M i itially at res t i the laboratory frame of refere ce is T = Discuss the case M m . 4M/m T. (1 + M/m)2

The i e are o the E1

itial velocities P a d V = = atom is v= vV = . m(v V )2 =

of the articles with res ect to the CM frame of refere c . m M M The i itial velocity of the electro with res ect t The sought ki etic e ergy is T = (M + m)2 2 m 1 (E2 E1 ) E2 = 1+ 2 2M 2 m M 1 1 . + m M

36 1 The ex erime tal fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics Solutio . Let us desig ate the velocity of the rojectile i the laboratory fram e of refere ce by v. We choose a axis with the orie tatio of v. The co servati o of mome tum a d e ergy gives mv = mv + M V a d 1 1 1 mv 2 = mv 2 + M V 2 , 2 2 2 where v a d V de ote the al velocity of article m a d M , res ectively. Arra gi g the two equatio s i the form m(v v ) = M V a d m(v v )(v + v ) = M V 2 , rst degree equatio s are obtai ed: v v = (M/m)V a d v + v = V . The velocity of article M after the collisio is V = 2 v. 1 + M/m

The cha ge i the ki etic e ergy og the rojectile m is 1 4M/m T = M V 2 = T 2 (1 + M/m)2 For M m we have 4M/m m T =4 1. T (M/m)2 M 1.14 Justify the ame of ifetime for the time i terva de ed by = 1/A [see Eq. ( 1.45)]. Solu ion. We calcula e he average ime spen by he a om before de exci a ion. Suppose a = 0 here are N (0) a oms in he upper energy level. During he im e in erval ( d /2, + d /2), a number AN ( ) d = AN (0) exp(A ) d of a oms de exci e. These a oms have spen a ime in he upper energy level. Thus, he pr obabili y ha an a om remains in he upper energy level a ime is AN ( ) d = A exp(A ) d . N (0) The average ime spen by an a om in he upper energy level is 0 A exp(A ) d 0 + 0 exp(A ) d 1 =. A = exp(A )

      

 

 

 

  

  

    

  

 

1.11 Problems 37 1.15 The wavepacke for a par icle of mass m has he uncer ain y x . After what t ime the wavepacket wi spread appreciab y? So utio . The u certai ty i the partic e mome tum is p /2x . The u certai ty i t he partic e ve ocity is the v = p/m /2mx . After a time t the spreadi g of the wav epacket due to the u certai ty of its ve ocity is (v)t . This spreadi g becomes i mporta t whe it is of the same order of mag itude as the i itia spreadi g, x . We de e the spreadi g time ts by (v)ts = x . It resu ts ts = x 2m(x)2 . v

1.16 The wave e gth associated to a partic e is k ow up to , where . Derive a mu a for the u certai ty x i the partic e positio . So utio . The u certai ty i the wave e gth imp ies a u certai ty i the mome t um h h 2 . p = The u certai ty i the partic e positio is x 2 /2 = . p 4

38 1 The experime ta fou datio s of qua tum mecha ics

Appe dix A

Fu dame The tab ttee o 1, 12].

ta physica co sta ts es give va ues of some basic physica co sta ts recomme ded by the Commi Data for Scie ce a d Tech o ogy (CODATA) based o the 2006 adjustme t [1 The sta dard u certai ty i the ast two digits is give i pare thesis.

40 A Fu dame ta physica co sta ts

Tab e A.1 A abbreviated ist of the CODATA recomme ded va ues of the fu dame ta co sta ts of physics a d chemistry. Qua tity speed of ight i vacuum mag etic co sta t e ectric co sta t 1/0 c2 Newto ia co sta t of gravitatio Avogadro co sta t mo ar gas co sta t Bo tzma co sta t R/NA mo ar vo ume of idea gas (T = 273.15 K, p = 101.325 kPa) Loschmidt co sta t NA /Vm e eme tary charge Faraday c o sta t NA e P a ck co sta t h/2 electro mass e ergy equivale t i MeV electro charge to mass quotie t roto mass m = Ar ( ) u e ergy equivale t i MeV eutr o mass m = Ar ( ) u e ergy equivale t i MeV roto electro mass ratio e stru cture co sta t e2/40 c i verse e structure co sta t Rydberg co sta t 2 me c/2h R hc in eV Wien displ cement l w const nts b = max T b = max /T Stefa Bo tzma co sta t ( 2/60)k 4/ 3 c2 Bohr radius /4R = 40 2/me e2 Com to wavele gth h/me c classical ele tro radius 2 0 Bohr m gneton e /2me nucle r m gneton e /2mp me me c 2 e/me mp mp c 2 mn mn c 2 mp /me 1/ R Symbol c, c0 0 0 G NA R k Value 299 792 458 m s1 (exact) 107 N A2 8.854 187 817... 1012 F m1 6.674 28(67) 1011 m3 kg1 s2 6.022 141 79(30) ol1 8.314 472(15) J mol1 K1 1.380 6504(24) 1023 J K1 8.617 343(15) 105 eV K1 22. (39) 103 m3 mol1 2.686 7774(47) 1025 m3 1.602 176 487(40) 1019 C 96 485.3399(24) ol1 6.626 068 96(33) 1034 J s 4.135 667 33(10) 1015 eV s 1.054 571 628(53) 1034 J 6.582 118 99(16) 1016 eV s 9.109 382 15(45) 1031 kg 0.510 998 910(13) MeV 1.758 820 150(44) 1011 C kg1 1.672 621 637(83) 1027 kg 1.007 276 466 77(10) u 938.272 013(2 3) MeV 1.674 927 211(84) 1027 kg 1.008 664 915 97(43) u 939.565 346(23) MeV 1836. 152 672 47(80) 7.297 352 5376(50) 103 137.035 999 679(94) 10 973 731.568 527(73) m1 13.605 691 93(34) eV 2.897 7685(51) 103 m K 5.878 933(10) 1010 Hz K1 5.670 400(4 0) 108 W m2 K4 0.529 177 208 59(36) 1010 m 2.426 310 2175(33) 1012 m 2.817 940 2 8) 1015 m 927.400 915(23) 1026 J T1 5.788 381 7555(79) 105 eV T1 5.050 783 24(13 J T1 3.152 451 2326(45) 108 eV T1 Vm 0 e F h b b a0 C re B N

41 Tab e A.2 The va ues i SI u its of some o SI u its. Name of u it Symbo Va ue i SI u its a gstrm o A 0.1 m = 100 pm = 1010 m a e ectro vo t : (e/C) J eV 1.6 02 176 487(40) 1019 J b (u i ed) atomic mass u it 1 u = mu = (1/12)m(12 C) = 103 kg mo 1/NA u 1.660 538 782(83) 1027 kg a The e ectro vo t is the ki etic e ergy acqui red by a e ectro i passi g through a pote tia di ere ce of o e vo t i vacuum. b The u i ed atomic mass u it is equa to 1/12 times the mass of a free carbo 12 atom, at rest a d i its grou d state.

42 A Fu dame ta physica co sta ts

44 B Greek etters used i Appe dix B Greek etters used i mathematics, scie ce, a d e gi eeri g Name of etter a pha beta gamma de ta epsi o zeta eta theta iota kappa ambda m u u xi omicro pi rho sigma tau upsi o phi chi psi omega Capita etter A B E Z H I K M N O T X Lo er-case letter , , , mathematics, scie ce, a d e gi eeri g

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B o r p y [1] H. H H. C. Wo f, T P ys cs of Atoms Qu t (7t t o ), pr r-V r , B r (2005). [2] R. E s r R. R s c , Qu tum P ys cs of At oms, Mo cu s, o s, Nuc , P rt c s (2 t o ), o W y & o s, N w or (1985). [3] rw y [4] I. M. Pop scu, c, Vo . II, E tur D ct c P o c Bucur t , Bu s s cur t (1983). s [5] V. or scu, L ct M c c Cu t c, E tur v rs t Bucur t , t s Bucur t (2007). s [6] C. Co -T ou j , B. D u, . L o, Qu tum M c cs, Vo s. I II, o W y & o s, N w or (1977). [7] D. . Gr t s, I tro uct o to Qu tum M c cs, Pr t c H (1995). [8] B. H. Br s C. . o c , Qu tum M c cs (2 t o ), P rso , Lo o (2000). [9] R. r, Pr c p s of Qu tum M c cs ( 2 t o ), K uw r Ac m c, N w or (1994). [10] Prop rt s of so s, CR C H oo of C m stry P ys cs, I t r t V rs o 2005, D v R. L , ., ttp://www. cp t s .com, CRC Pr ss, Boc R to , L (2005). [11] P. . Mo r, B . N. T y or, D. B. N w , CODATA r comm v u s of t fu m t p ys c co st ts: 2006, R v. Mo . P ys 80(2), 633730 (2008); . P ys. C m. R f. D t 37(3), 11871284 (2008). T rt c c so fou t ttp://p ys cs. st. ov/cuu/Co st ts/p p rs. tm . [12] CODATA I t r t o y r comm v u s of t fu m t p ys c co st ts, ttp://p ys cs. st. ov/cuu/Co st ts.