Contiol Couisewoik EES Xaviei Bouiiet Sicotte

CIB: uuSS2Su6
!"#$%"&'!"(%)*+"%,'
!"#$%&'%&($#)*+,$-)(%
1hls experlmenL alms aL deslgnlng a conLroller LhaL sLablllses a swlnglng pendulum ln Lhe upward
and downward poslLlon. We derlve a sLaLe space represenLaLlon of Lhe sysLem, llnearlse lL around
lLs equlllbrlum polnLs and Lhen use `MaLlab Lo calculaLe Lhe galn vecLor for Lhe feedback conLroller.
llnally we conducL a serles of experlmenL Lo analyse Lhe performance and robusLness of Lhe
sysLem
!"#$%&&'%./#-0"$-)(%)1%$2/%3)*/4%
-./ ln Lhls quesLlon, we show LhaL Lhe mechanlcal model of Lhe pendulum, can be expressed as ln
(7) and (8).
1he general non-llnear model ls obLalned uslng Lhe classlcal Lagranglan funcLlon L(..,..) deflned as:
L q(t), ! q(t) ( ) = T q(t), ! q(t) ( ) !V q(t) ( ) (1)
1he dynamlcs of Lhe sysLem are Lhen obLalned Lhrough Lhe Luler Lagrange equaLlon:
d
dt
L
! q
t, q(t), ! q(t) ( ) ! L
q
t, q(t), ! q(t) ( ) = ! (2)
lor Lhe consldered pendulum, Lhe generallsed coordlnaLes q and ! q are Laken Lo be Lhe vecLor
q t ( ) =
!(t)
"(t)
!
"
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&
hence we can comblne and expand Lhe above equaLlons lnLo
d
dt
L
! q
! L
q
= !
d
dt
"
"
!
"
"
"
!
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%
&
'
(
(
(
(
T !V ( ) !
"
""
"
"#
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&
'
(
(
(
(
T !V ( ) = !
l

whlch needs Lo be solved uslng Lhe glven 1(3), v(4) and ! (3). 1he algebra ls made easler by
expandlng and slmpllfylng Lhe expresslon for 1 and v:
T =
1
2
J
arm
!
!
2
+
1
2
J
p
!
!
2
+
1
2
m
p
sin
2
! ( )
!
!
2
l
p
2
+
!
!
2
l
p
2
+
!
!
2
r
2
+ 2cos " ( )
!
!
!
!rl
p
!
"
#
$

V = !m
p
cos ! ( )gl
p




Comblnlng Lhe Lwo and dlfferenLlaLlng wlLh respecL Lo !," glves
L
q
=
!
!!
!
!"
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'
'
'
'
T (V ( ) =
0
m
p
sin ! ( )cos ! ( )
!
!
2
l
p
2
( m
p
sin " ( )
!
!
!
!rl
p
( m
p
sin " ( )gl
p
"
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'
'

ulfferenLlaLlng w.r.L
!
!,
!
"
L
! q
=
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
"
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'
'
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T (V ( ) =
J
arm
!
! + m
p
sin
2
" ( )
!
!l
p
2
+ m
p
!
!r
2
+ m
p
cos " ( )
!
!rl
p
J
p
!
! + m
p
!
!l
p
2
+ m
p
cos ! ( )
!
!rl
p
"
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'


And dlfferenLlaLlng L
! q
wlLh respecL Lo Llme glves:
d
dt
L
! q
=
2m
p
cos ! ( )
!
!l
p
2
!
! sin " ( ) ! m
p
sin ! ( )
!
!
2
l
p
r + m
p
r
2
+ m
p
l
p
2
! m
p
l
p
2
cos
2
! ( ) + J
arm
( )
!!
! + m
p
cos " ( )
!!
!l
p
r
J
p
+ m
p
l
p
2
( )
!!
! ! m
p
sin ! ( )
!
!
!
!l
p
r + m
p
cos " ( )
!!
!l
p
r
"
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Comblnlng all equaLlons lnLo one, rearranglng and subsLlLuLlng:
d
dt
L
! q
! L
q
= !

2m
p
cos ! ( )
! !l
p
2
!
! sin " ( ) ! m
p
sin ! ( )
! !
2
l
p
r + m
p
r
2
+ m
p
l
p
2
! m
p
l
p
2
cos
2
! ( ) + J
arm
( )
!!
! + m
p
cos " ( )
!! !l
p
r
!m
p
cos ! ( )
!
!
2
l
p
2
sin " ( ) + m
p
cos ! ( )
!!
!l
p
r + J
p
+ m
p
l
p
2
( )
!! ! + m
p
gsin ! ( )l
p
"
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&
'
'
'
=
!
m
! B
arm
!
!
!B
p
! !
"
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&
'
'

ylelds Lhe requlred equaLlons (7) and (8).
'
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-0/'1*+%2$2#3'$4*')5)$*6'7*%28*7'2#'-./'2#'$4*'69$%2:';"%6'<=/>'
'
1he maLrlx form glven ln (9):
D q(t) ( )
!! q(t) + C q(t), ! q(t) ( )
! q(t) + g q(t) ( ) = !

can be wrlLLen as
D
!!
!
!!
"
!
"
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+ C
!
!
!
"
!
"
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+ g = #
D
11
D
12
D
21
D
22
!
"
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&
!!
!
!!
!
!
"
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&
+
C
11
C
12
C
21
C
22
!
"
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&
!
!
!
!
!
"
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&
+
g
1
g
2
!
"
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&
=
"
m
' B
arm
!
!
'B
p
!
!
!
"
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&
&

Where C ls noL unlquely deflned and g ls a vecLor. LquaLlng Lerms wlLh Lhe non-llnear model found
prevlously glves:
D =
m
p
r
2
+ m
p
l
p
2
! m
p
l
p
2
cos
2
! ( ) + J
arm
m
p
cos ! ( )l
p
r
m
p
cos ! ( )l
p
r J
p
+ m
p
l
p
2
"
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'
'

C =
2m
p
cos ! ( )l
p
2
sin ! ( )
!
! !m
p
sin ! ( )
!
!l
p
r
!m
p
cos ! ( )l
p
2
sin ! ( )
!
! 0
"
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&
'
'

g =
0
m
p
gsin ! ( )l
p
!
"
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'
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-?/'@2#*9%2A2#3'$4*'6"7*&'
We llnearlze Lhe equaLlon ln lLs maLrlx form by expresslng lL as a 1aylor approxlmaLlon and
removlng non-llnear parLs:
f !,",
!
!,
!
!
( )
! f
p
+
"f
"!
p
! #!
p
( )
+
"f
"!
p
! #!
p
( )
+
"f
"
!
!
p
!
! #
!
!
p
( )
+
"f
"
!
!
p
!
! #
!
!
p
( )

Where p ls Lhe llnearlzaLlon polnL and f
p
ls Lhe funcLlon evaluaLed aL p.
Carrylng ouL Lhe dlfferenLlaLlon of u, C and g and evaluaLlng aL Lhe Lwo equlllbrlum polnLs glves Lhe
llnearlzed represenLaLlon of Lhe sysLem:

uownwards poslLlon, equlllbrlum around p = 0, 0 ( )
D =
m
p
r
2
+ J
arm
m
p
l
p
r
m
p
l
p
r Jp + m
p
l
p
2
!
"
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C =
0 0
0 0
!
"
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g =
0
!m
p
gl
p
!
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'

upwards poslLlon, equlllbrlum around p = 0, ! ( )
D =
m
p
r
2
+ J
arm
!m
p
l
p
r
!m
p
l
p
r Jp + m
p
l
p
2
"
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&
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'
C =
0 0
0 0
!
"
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$
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&
g =
0
!m
p
gl
p
! !" ( )
"
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&
'


'
'
-B/'C$9$*')D9E*'%*D%*)*#$9$2"#'
1he sLaLe space represenLaLlon of Lhls sysLem can be expressed ln Lhe general form:
! x = Ax + Bu such LhaL

! x =
!
!
!
!
!!
!
!!
!
!
"
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#
#
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&
&
and x =
!
"
!
!
!
!
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
or
"
! '#
!
!
!
!
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&

Pence A =
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
A
31
A
32
A
33
A
34
A
41
A
42
A
43
A
44
!
"
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&
and B =
0
0
B
3
B
4
!
"
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and need Lo be found
As a resulL, we need Lo flnd Lhe expresslons for
!!
! and
!!
! ln Lerms of all oLher varlables. 1o do Lhls
we rearrange Lhe maLrlx equaLlon (9):
D!! q + Cq + g = !
D!! q + g = ! because C=0 from C3) hence
!! q =
!!
!
!!
!
!
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= D
'1
! ' g ( )


lor Lhe downward poslLlon:
D
!1
=
1
D
11
D
22
! D
12
D
21
D
22
!D
12
!D
21
D
11
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'
and ! ! g =
!
m
! B
arm
!
!
!B
p
!
! ! m
p
gl
p
!
"
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&
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'

!! q =
1
m
p
r
2
J
p
+ J
arm
J
p
+ J
arm
m
p
l
p
2
J
p
+ m
p
l
p
2
!m
p
l
p
r
!m
p
l
p
r m
p
r
2
+ J
arm
"
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$
$
%
&
'
'
!
m
! B
arm
!
!
!B
p
!
! ! m
p
gl
p
!
"
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%
&
'
'


Pence
!!
! =
1
m
p
r
2
J
p
+ J
arm
J
p
+ J
arm
m
p
l
p
2
J
p
+ m
p
l
p
2
( )
"
m
! B
arm
!
!
( )
+ !m
p
l
p
r
( )
!B
p
!
# ! m
p
gl
p
#
( )
"
#
$
%

LeL M = m
p
r
2
J
p
+ J
arm
J
p
+ J
arm
m
p
l
p
2
and rearranglng ln Lerms of !,",
!
!,
!
!,"
m
glves
!!
! =
1
M
0! + m
p
2
l
p
2
gr
( )
" + !J
p
B
arm
! m
p
l
p
2
B
arm
( )
!
! + m
p
l
p
rB
p
( )
!
" + m
p
l
p
2
+ J
p
( )
#
m
"
#
$
%

!!
! =
1
M
0" + !m
p
2
r
2
gl
p
! J
arm
m
p
gl
p
( )
! + B
arm
m
p
l
p
r
( )
!
" + !m
p
r
2
B
p
! J
arm
B
p
( )
!
! ! m
p
l
p
r
( )
#
m
"
#
$
%


Slmllarly for Lhe upward poslLlon wlLh x
2
= ! !" glves
!!
! =
1
M
0! + m
p
2
l
p
2
gr
( )
" !# ( ) + !J
p
B
arm
! m
p
l
p
2
B
arm
( )
!
! ! m
p
l
p
rB
p
( )
!
" + m
p
l
p
2
+ J
p
( )
$
m
"
#
$
%

!!
! =
1
M
0" + m
p
2
r
2
gl
p
+ J
arm
m
p
gl
p
( )
! !# ( ) ! B
arm
m
p
l
p
r
( )
!
" + !m
p
r
2
B
p
! J
arm
B
p
( )
!
! + m
p
l
p
r
( )
$
m
"
#
$
%


8rlnglng all equaLlons LogeLher and recalllng LhaL !
m
ls Lhe conLrol varlable and corresponds Lo Lhe
lnpuL u ln Lhe general sLaLe space descrlpLlon glves Lhe requlred maLrlces A and 8:
lor downward poslLlon:

A =
1
M
0 0 M 0
0 0 0 M
0 m
p
2
l
p
2
gr !B
arm
J
p
+ m
p
l
p
( )
2
m
p
l
p
rB
p
0 !m
p
gl
p
m
p
r
2
+ J
arm
( )
B
arm
m
p
l
p
r !B
p
m
p
r
2
+ J
arm
( )
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'

B =
1
M
0
0
m
p
l
p
2
+ J
p
!m
p
l
p
r
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'


and for upward poslLlon:
A =
1
M
0 0 M 0
0 0 0 M
0 m
p
2
l
p
2
gr !B
arm
J
p
+ m
p
l
p
( )
2
!m
p
l
p
rB
p
0 m
p
gl
p
m
p
r
2
! J
arm
( )
!B
arm
m
p
l
p
r !B
p
m
p
r
2
+ J
arm
( )
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
B =
1
M
0
0
m
p
l
p
2
+ J
p
m
p
l
p
r
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&



!"#$%&&&%5%678$/3%9("478-8%
-./'F89&(9$*'*:D%*))2"#';"%'G'H'I''
SubsLlLuLlng values glven ln Lable 2 lnLo Lhe maLrlces A and 8 glves Lhe followlng expresslon:
uownward poslLlon:
A =
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 52.8369 !0.6554 0.6541
0 !98.0815 0.6541 !1.2143
"
#
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$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
B =
0
0
273.0922
!272.5556
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'


upward poslLlon:
A =
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 52.8369 !0.6554 !0.6541
0 98.0815 !0.6541 !1.2143
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
B =
0
0
273.0922
272.5556
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&


G))*))2#3'$4*')$9J2&2$5'";'$4*')5)$*6'
1hls ls done uslng Lhe MaLlab !"# funcLlon, whlch calculaLes Lhe elgenvalues of Lhe maLrlx A. 1he
sysLem ls sLable lf all elgenvalues of A are conLalned ln Lhe LefL Pand lane (LP) of Lhe complex
plane.
uownward poslLlon elgenvalues:
!
A
D
=
0
-0.7832 + 9.8672i
-0.7832 - 9.8672i
-0.3034
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
hence sLable
upward poslLlon
!
A
D
=
0
-10.7234
9.1564
-0.3027
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
hence unsLable

Conslderlng Lhe elgenvalues of Lhe maLrlx A around boLh equlllbrlum polnLs, lL appears LhaL Lhe
downward poslLlon ls sLable, and Lhe upward poslLlon ls unsLable. 1hls corresponds Lo whaL we
expecL ln reallLy, as lL ls dlfflculL Lo keep a pendulum verLlcally sLable. Any mlnor perLurbaLlon wlll
cause lL Lo fall downwards, where lL wlll osclllaLe and sLeady down.

-0/'!4*E,2#3'$4*'E"#$%"&&9J2&2$5'";'$4*')5)$*6'
lor conLlnuous sysLems, reachablllLy always lmplles conLrollablllLy so checklng reachablllLy ls a
sufflclenL condlLlon. 1o do Lhls, we consLrucL Lhe conLrollablllLy maLrlx
C = B AB A
2
B ... A
n!1
B "
#
$
%
and verlfy LhaL lL has full rank, l.e. rank C = n where n = dim A ( ) .
1he process ls slmpllfled by uslng Lhe MaLlab funcLlon $%&' whlch calculaLes Lhe conLrollablllLy
maLrlx auLomaLlcally:
uownwards:
C
A
D
=
0 0.0273 !0.0357 !1.3834
0 !0.0273 0.0510 2.5880
0.0273 !0.0357 !1.3834 5.2920
!0.0273 0.0510 2.5880 !9.0457
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
and Rank C
A
D
( )
= 4
upwards
C
A
U
=
0 0.0273 !0.0357 1.4968
0 0.0273 !0.0510 2.7585
0.0273 !0.0357 1.4968 !5.4779
0.0273 !0.0510 2.7585 !9.3269
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
Rank C
A
U
( )
= 4
As a resulL, Lhe conLrollablllLy maLrlx has full rank for boLh equlllbrlum polnLs meanlng lL ls boLh
reachable and conLrollable for Lhose equlllbrlums.




!"#$%&:;%<)($#)44/#%*/8-=(%"(*%-3>4/3/($"$-)(%
C1) CalculaLlng Lhe vecLor k necessary Lo sLablllse Lhe sysLem
1hls can be done by applylng Ackermann's formula Lo Lhe conLrollable sysLem:
k = 0 0 0 1
[ ]
! C
"1
! a z ( )
where C
!1
ls Lhe lnverse of Lhe conLrollablllLy maLrlx and a z ( ) ls Lhe deslred characLerlsLlc
equaLlon of Lhe sysLem glven Lhe requlred poles (.
1hls Lask ls greaLly slmpllfled by MaLlab's lnbullL funcLlon )$*!&(A,8,p) whlch compuLes Lhe vecLor k
numerlcally.
uownward:
P
D
= !121 - 2.3+ 5.2i - 2.3- 5.2i - 0.1 ( )
k
D
= 0.0316 -1.6352 0.3178 - 0.1359 ( )
upward:
P
U
= !21 !3.7 + 5.6i !3.7 ! 5.6i !3.9 ( )
k
U
= !0.2979 1.8808 ! 0.1456 0.2575 ( )

@262$9$2"#)'
lL ls useful Lo noLe LhaL MaLlab warns of Lhe llmlLaLlons of Lhe funcLlon ln case of weakly
conLrollable and large order sysLems. 1hls noL Lhe case, however, because Lhe sysLem ls fully
reachable and conLrollable of order 4 hence we can be confldenL ln Lhe values compuLed for k.









!"#$%:%?"$4"@%"(*%6-3+4-(A%
-./'!"6D9%2#3'"D*#'9#7'E&")*7'&""D'%*)D"#)*'";'$4*')5)$*6'2#'$4*'7"+#+9%7'D")2$2"#'
Alpha angle (degrees) vs 1lme (seconds)







undamped osclllaLlons: k=0 Closed loop, damped reponse:
k = 0.0316 !1.6352 0.3178 ! 0.1359
[ ]

1he undamped osclllaLlons decay aL a slow raLe, as Lhere ls only frlcLlon Lo slow Lhe pendulum
down. 1he closed loop conLrol sysLem slgnlflcanLly lmproves Lhe decay Llme by approxlmaLely a
facLor of 10. hyslcally, Lhe conLroller compensaLes Lhe pendulum movemenL by movlng ln Lhe
oLher dlrecLlon.

-0/'!49#32#3'$4*'392#'";'%*;*%*#E*')23#9&'
keeplng Lhe same k values: k = 0.0316 !1.6352 0.3178 ! 0.1359
[ ]
and lncreaslng Lhe galn
of Lhe slnusoldal reference slgnal Lo 40 degrees.








loL showlng LheLa angle (blue) and reference slgnal
(yellow) wlLh no perLurbaLlon
loL showlng LheLa angle wlLh Lwo perLurbaLlons
1he new reference slgnal does noL affecL Lhe damped response of ! t ( ) as Lhe pendulum
seLLles as qulckly as before. 1he graph showlng Lhe angle ! t ( ) correspondlng Lo Lhe
horlzonLal poslLlon of Lhe roLary arm does noL follow Lhe reference slgnal aL all. lL only
changes Lo dampen Lhe osclllaLlons of Lhe pendulum and Lhen remalns consLanL.

-?/'1*D*9$'$4*'D%"E*))'()2#3'72;;*%*#$','89&(*)'
a) uslng k = [0.3 -1.36 0.28 0.17]







1he new k values do noL appear Lo lnfluence Lhe damplng performance of Lhe conLroller. 1he
pendulum sLablllses downwards wlLhln 2/3 seconds as prevlously










Powever, Lhe roLary arm now follows Lhe reference slgnal wlLhln a delay of 1-2 seconds and
a smaller overall ampllLude. 1he arm also reacLs Lo perLurbaLlon dlfferenLly as lL Lrles Lo
accommodaLe boLh Lhe damplng effecL and Lo follow Lhe reference slgnal.


loL showlng alpha angle (pendulum angle) response Lo
perLurbaLlons
Penuulum iesponse to peituibations
k = [1, !1.36, 0.28, 0.17]
Rotaiy aim (theta) no peituibations Rotaiy aim (theta) to two peituibations
b) uslng k = [0.6, !1.36, 0.28, 0.17]









1he graph showlng Lhe pendulum arm response was omlLLed, as Lhere were no slgnlflcanL
changes from prevlously. Powever, Lhe roLary arm now follows Lhe reference slgnal much
beLLer, boLh ln Llme and ampllLude. 1he delay beLween Lhe slgnal and Lhe movemenL of Lhe
arm ls decreased Lo approxlmaLely 1 second, and Lhe response Lo perLurbaLlons ls qulcker
and more preclse.

c) uslng k = [1, !1.36, 0.28, 0.17]














Rotaiy aim iesponse no peituibation
Rotaiy aim iesponse with 2 peituibations
Agaln, Lhe new k values have slgnlflcanLly lmproved Lhe Lracklng performance of Lhe roLary
arm as lL follows Lhe reference slgnal closely and accuraLely. erLurbaLlons have a negllglble
lmpacL on Lhe Lracklng as Lhe arm reLurns Lo lLs ldeal poslLlon wlLhln 1 second.
Cn Lhe oLher hand, Lhe lmprovemenL ln Lracklng appears Lo happen aL Lhe cosL of Lhe
dampenlng performance of Lhe pendulum, as shown ln Lhe Lop graph. 1he osclllaLlons sLlll
decay wlLhln 1-2 seconds as prevlously buL do noL seLLle down once Lhey have reached a
small enough value. As a resulL, we can see osclllaLlons wlLhln 3 degrees remalnlng afLer
Lhe lnlLlal dampenlng effecL and someLlmes even lncreaslng ln ampllLude. 1hls ls caused by
Lhe more rapld movemenLs of Lhe roLary arm Lrylng Lo follow Lhe Lracklng slgnal, whlch
lnLroduces small perLurbaLlons ln Lhe process.
1o furLher LesL Lhe behavlour and robusLness of Lhe sysLem, we repeaL Lhe above
experlmenL uslng a square wave reference slgnal.
Square wave reference slgnal, downward poslLlon


k= |u.S -1.S6 u.28 u.17j !"#"$%&'(")*&+'("%&,-("%&*./!




k= [1,-1.36,0.28,0.17]




As before, lncreaslng Lhe flrsL value of Lhe k vecLor conslderably lmproves Lhe Lracklng
performance of Lhe sysLem. 1he response Lo Lhe sudden change of Lhe reference slgnal
behaves slmllarly Lo a flrsL order LranslenL, wlLh a small devlaLlon ln Lhe mlddle whlch ls mosL
llkely caused by Lhe dampenlng movemenL. lncreaslng Lhe k value lmproves Lhe Lracklng by
shorLenlng Lhe LranslenL.
Moreover, we see once agaln LhaL Lhere ls a compromlse beLween Lracklng and dampenlng
accuracy. 1he square wave slgnal emphaslses Lhls properLy beLLer as each changes acL as
perLurbaLlons LhaL need Lo be damped, ln comparlson wlLh Lhe smooLher slne wave.
lncreaslng Lhe Lracklng accuracy leads Lo a greaLer overshooL of Lhe pendulum and furLher
lncreaslng Lhe k value beyond k= [1,-1.36,0.28,0.17] may prevenL Lhe pendulum from
reachlng sLeady sLaLe ln Lhe downward poslLlon.
As a resulL, uslng Lhe k = [0.6,-1.36,0.28,0.17] appears Lo glve Lhe besL compromlse beLween
lag Llme and a sLeady and damped pendulum behavlour.

-B/'C$9J2&2)2#3'$4*'D*#7(&(6'2#'2$)'(D+9%7'D")2$2"#'
Changlng Lhe k values Lo k= [ -0.2979 1.8808 -0.1436 0.2373] and updaLlng Lhe Slmullnk
model enables Lhe pendulum Lo be sLablllsed ln lLs upwards poslLlon. 1he followlng graphs
show alpha and LheLa for Lhe upward poslLlon wlLh no reference slgnal:







1he graphs lllusLraLes Lhe pendulum's osclllaLory behavlour ln Lhe upward poslLlon as Lhe
roLary arm moves Lo keep lL verLlcal. 1hls way, Lhe angle alpha ls kepL wlLhln 3 degrees of
Lhe verLlcal.




Alpha angle in upwaiu position Theta angle in upwaiu position
-K/'-L/'MD+9%7'D")2$2"#'+2$4')2#()"279&'%*;*%*#E*')23#9&'
1he reference slgnal galn ls lncreased Lo 30 degrees and Lhe frequency ls progresslvely
lncreased from 0.2hz Lo 2hz Lo lnvesLlgaLe Lhe behavlour and robusLness of Lhe sysLem for
Lhe upwards equlllbrlum







0.2Pz slne wave 0.3 Pz








1.3Pz 2Pz
AL low frequencles, Lhe sysLem ls able Lo Lrack Lhe reference slgnal reasonably well ln Lerms
of delay and accuracy buL overshooLs aL local maxlma Lo keep Lhe pendulum balanced. 1he
angle alpha ls very close Lo Lhe ldeal value of 0 degrees and devlaLes shorLly afLer changes of
dlrecLlon of Lhe roLary arm.
WlLh hlgher frequencles, Lhe lag beLween Lhe reference slgnal and Lhe roLary arm lncreases
as Lhe sysLem sLruggles Lo respond qulckly enough whlle keeplng Lhe pendulum sLablllsed
upwards. 1he ampllLude of Lhe roLary arm movemenL also decreases as moLors do noL
acceleraLe sufflclenLly Lo follow Lhe hlgh frequency reference. 1he alpha angle also shows an
lncreaslngly slnusold behavlour whlch ls slgn of Lhe sysLem reachlng an more osclllaLory buL
sLable sLaLe.
lL ls lnLeresLlng Lo noLe LhaL Lhe pendulum acLs as a form of bandpass fllLer as Lhe devlaLlon
of angle alpha away from zero ls hlghesL aL 1.3hz (= 20 degrees peak Lo peak) buL decreases
when movlng away from LhaL frequency: (0.3hz = 16 p-p and 2Pz = 10 p-p). AL hlgh
frequencles (2Pz) Lhe Lop of Lhe pendulum ls sLeady and sLable whllsL Lhe boLLom parL
moves rapldly and aL large

1he nexL secLlon repeaLs Lhe experlmenL uslng a square wave reference slgnal.








0.2 Pz square wave 1.3Pz square wave








2Pz square wave

1he sysLem shows sllghLly dlfferenL behavlour aL low frequencles due Lo Lhe naLure of Lhe
square wave reference slgnal. 1he abrupL changes ln dlrecLlon are more dlfflculL Lo sLablllse
(ln Lheory, Lhe lnflnlLe gradlenL of Lhe edge of Lhe square wave ls noL posslble Lo sLablllse)
whlch explalns Lhe larger devlaLlons of boLh Lhe roLary arm (LheLa) and pendulum.
As frequency lncreases, Lhe sysLem auLomaLlcally reaches a compromlse beLween Lracklng
and sLablllLy and Lends Lo become more slnusoldal. As prevlously, Lhe sysLem exhlblLs low
pass fllLer characLerlsLlcs as boLh Lhe pendulum and Lhe arm ampllLude decrease
slgnlflcanLly.

!"#E&()2"#'
1he analysls of Lhe physlcal and maLhemaLlcal model of Lhe lnverLed pendulum enabled us
Lo flnd a preclse sLaLe space model of Lhe sysLem. 1hls showed Lo be reachable aL boLh
equlllbrlum polnLs and sLable ln Lhe downwards poslLlon only, as expecLed from Lhe physlcal
lnLerpreLaLlon of Lhe sysLem.
LxperlmenLlng wlLh Lhe sysLem ln boLh poslLlons showed a number of lnLeresLlng properLles
such as Lhe compromlse beLween Lracklng accuracy and Lhe dampenlng of Lhe pendulum.
1he Lracklng of Lhe slnusoldal reference slgnal had a more robusL response as lL lnvolved
smaller dlrecLlon and veloclLy changes. Slmllarly, lncreaslng Lhe frequency of a square wave
slgnal led Lhe sysLem Lo behave ln a much more slnusoldal manner, whlch would be closer Lo
lLs naLural behavlour. llnally, lL appeared LhaL Lhe sysLem as a whole acLs as a low pass fllLer
and can remaln ln an osclllaLory and sLable sLaLe for an lndeflnlLe lengLh of Llme ln Lhe closed
loop form.
1he experlmenL showed Lhe llmlLaLlons of Lhe conLroller ln Lerms of veloclLy and