1 Anc|ent 8r|ta|n the Ce|t|c tr|bes

Many Lhousands of years ago 8rlLaln was parL of Lhe conLlnenL of Lurope Large areas were covered by vasL
whlLe sheeLs of lce (lce Age) Land was flrsL covered ln lce Lhen freed vegeLaLlon and anlmals appeared
landscape and Lhe coasLllne changed dramaLlcally
1be fltst people lo 8tltolo
%MusL have walked across whaL ls now Lhe Lngllsh Channel and Lhe norLh Sea abouL 300000 years ago
%lL was a warm perlodbuL 8rlLaln was noL compleLely cuL off from Lurope
%@he people were noL our modern human specles ( homo saplens) buL an early form of people called homo
erecLus(a llLLle shorLer had heavler [aws and eyebrow rldges)
%omo erecLusllved by hunLlng anlmals and gaLherlng wlld frulLs nuLs planLs
%LaLer a dlfferenL Lype of people arrlved ln 8rlLaln Slmllar Lo us and called homo saplens neanderLhalensls( Lhe
neanderLhal people)
%omo saplens saplensappeared ln Lurope around 40000 years ago
llvloq lo tbe wllJwooJ
%AbouL 17000 years ago Lhe cllmaLe ln 8rlLaln gradually began Lo change
%@he lce reLreaLed from Lhe souLh of Lhe counLry and Lhe glaclers began Lo melL
%Slowly more people and anlmals moved Lo 8rlLaln from Lurope
%Landscape changed wlldwoods of plne and blrch covered large areas(none Loday)
%@he hunLers needed Lo adapL Lo Lhese changes no longer could Lhey hunL large anlmals on open grassland
plalns
%new weapons were spearsbows arrows axes
%@he Llps of Lhe hunLlng weapons were made from fllnL Lhey sLarLed Lo cuL down Lrees bulld shelLers make
Lools
%9eople caughL cod salmon sea LrouL
Ao lslooJ people
%8y 6000 8C 8rlLaln and lreland had become lslands cuL off from Lhe malnland of Lurope
%Some archaeologlsLs esLlmaLe 20000 hunLlng flshlng and foodgaLherlng people
%@hey made and used Lhelr Lools from fllnL and wood had proper burlals and hunLlng ceremonles
%@hls was a prehlsLorlc perlod Lhere are no wrlLLen records Lo help us guess aL whaL Lhey LhoughL (
lnLerpreLaLlons from Lhe survlvlng evldence)
1be fltst fotmets
%@he ldea of farmlng developed around 10000 8C aL Lhe end of lce Ages
%9eople began Lo culLlvaLe wlld grasses as crops Lhey Lamed wlld anlmals for breedlng( goaLs sheep plgs were
all domesLlcaLed)
%Many hunLlng peoples became farmers
%8y abouL 4000 8C farmlng peoples were looklng for new lands ln whlch Lo seLLle bulldlng vlllages and
culLlvaLlng land
%8y 3300 8C some Luropean farmlng groups had crossed Lhe sea and begun Lo seLLle ln souLhern Lngland and
ln lreland
%new crops (wheaL and barley) were lnLroduced
%@he land was covered wlLh foresLs (oak hazel plneblrch) Lhe cllmaLe was warmer and weLLer
%@he hunLers sLarLed Lo clear Lhe foresLs for Lhelr seLLlemenLs
%8y 3000 8C Lhe farmers had spread all over 8rlLaln and lreland
%ln Lhe wlnLer of 1830 Lhere was a greaL sLorm on Lhe lsland of Crkney when lL was over Lhe slghL of a
compleLe farmlng vlllage aL Skara 8rae was revealed
Mokloq oew tools
%armers made Lools and weapons from fllnL sLone ob[ecLs ouL of wood boneleaLher
%9oLLery was new (Lhey dug Lhe clay made poLs for cooklng and sLorage)
%SLarLed Lo use volcanlc rock Lo make axes
%@hey sLopped uslng fllnL mlnes around 1600 8Cpeople had learned how Lo make Lools from meLal
A tltool looJscope
%lL ls almosL lmposslble Lo guess whaL may have been Lhe bellefs of people who have lefL no wrlLLen record of
whaL Lhey LhoughL
%ld Lhey belleve ln an afLerllfe?
%ld Lhey belleve LhaL performlng parLlcular rlLuals would brlng good hunLlng or beLLer weaLher?
%Je musL look for evldence(lnvesLlgaLlng bulldlngs or sLrucLures whlch were noL used for llvlng ln)

Mooomeots fot tbe JeoJ
%@he mosL common form was a mound (barrow)
%8urled beslde Lhe dead were ob[ecLs such as poLLery beads fllnL arrowheads
%Jas Lhls parL of a rlLual Loo Je do noL know
%9eople dlscovered how Lo use meLal (copper bronze and gold)
%SLonehenge
celtlc 8tltolo
%Soon afLer 1000 8C Lhe cllmaLe became colder some farmlng people had Lo move Lo oLher places
%Lowlylng coasLal reglons were covered by Lhe sea ( decrease ln Lhe amounL of Lhe farmlng land)
%SeLLlemenLs were bullL on Lhe Lops of hllls (hlllforLs) (defence agalnsLenemy Lrlbes and wlld anlmals)
%JrlLLen evldence of Lhe people Lhe CelLscomes from Creek and 8oman wrlLers
rom abouL Lhe 3Lhc 8C Lhe Creek wrlLers began Lo descrlbe Lhe aLLacks by Lhe kelLol
%@he 8omans called Lhem CelLae
%@hey emphaslseLhe warllke characLer of Lhe CelLs
%@all falrhalred flercellvlng ln Lrlbes
%8uled by nobles klngs prlnces or clans
%Jomen sLoryLellers or bardscrafLworkerswere honoured
ltlests ooJ CoJs
%@he CelLlc people were very rellglous( gods splrlLs were lmporLanL) waLer was sacred meLal ob[ecLs were
Lhrown lnLo Lhe wells as offerlngs Lo Lhe gods
%CelLlc prlesLs ( rulds) were an educaLed class ln Lhe socleLy
%Cak was a sacred Lree
%@hey also sacrlflced anlmals and people Lo Lhelr gods
%Llndow Man ( 9eLe Marsh)
Stonehenge
SLonehenge ls a prehlsLorlc monumenL locaLed ln Lhe Lngllsh counLy of JllLshlre SLonehenge ls composed of a
clrcular seLLlng of large sLandlng sLones seL wlLhln earLhworks lL ls aL Lhe cenLre of Lhe mosL dense complex of
neollLhlc and 8ronze Age monumenLs ln Lngland lncludlng several hundred burlal mounds lL appears Lo
funcLlon as a klnd of asLrologlcal clock and lL ls known LhaL lL was used by Lhe rulds for ceremonles marklng
Lhe passlng of Lhe seasons
ArchaeologlsLs belleve Lhe lconlc sLone monumenL was consLrucLed anywhere from 3000 8C Lo 2000 8C
@he surroundlng clrcular earLh bank and dlLch whlch consLlLuLe Lhe earllesL phase of Lhe monumenL have
been daLed Lo abouL 3100 8C @he slLe and lLs surroundlngs were added Lo Lhe unLSCCs llsL of Jorld erlLage
SlLes ln 1986 ln a collsLlng wlLh Avebury enge monumenL lL ls a naLlonal legally proLecLed Scheduled AnclenL
MonumenL SLonehenge ls owned by Lhe Crown and managed by Lngllsh erlLage whlle Lhe surroundlng land
ls owned by Lhe naLlonal @rusL
Archaeologlcal evldence found by Lhe SLonehenge 8lverslde 9ro[ecL ln 2008 lndlcaLes LhaL SLonehenge could
posslbly have served as a burlal ground from lLs earllesL beglnnlngs@he daLlng of cremaLed remalns found on
Lhe slLe lndlcaLe LhaL deposlLs conLaln human bone maLerlal from as early as 3000 8C when Lhe lnlLlal dlLch and
bank were flrsL dug Such deposlLs conLlnued aL SLonehenge for aL leasL anoLher 300 years
@he name SLonehenge came from Lhe Cld Lngllsh words sLn meanlng sLone and elLher hencg meanlng
hlnge (because Lhe sLone llnLels hlnge on Lhe uprlghL sLones) or hen(c)en meanlng hang or gallows or
lnsLrumenL of LorLure Llke SLonehenges LrlllLhons medleval gallows conslsLed of Lwo uprlghLs wlLh a llnLel
[olnlng Lhem raLher Lhan Lhe lnverLed Lshape more famlllar Loday
SLonehenge was produced by a culLure LhaL lefL no wrlLLen records Many aspecLs of SLonehenge remaln
sub[ecL Lo debaLe @hls mulLlpllclLy of Lheorles some of Lhem very colourful are ofLen called Lhe mysLery of
SLonehenge
@here ls llLLle or no dlrecL evldence for Lhe consLrucLlon Lechnlques used by Lhe SLonehenge bullders Cver Lhe
years varlous auLhors have suggesLed LhaL supernaLural or anachronlsLlc meLhods were used usually asserLlng
LhaL Lhe sLones were lmposslble Lo move oLherwlse owever convenLlonal Lechnlques uslng neollLhlc
Lechnology have been demonsLrably effecLlve aL movlng and placlng sLones of a slmllar slze 9roposed
funcLlons for Lhe slLe lnclude usage as an asLronomlcal observaLory or as a rellglous slLe
More recenLly Lwo ma[or new Lheorles have been proposed lL ls suggesLed LhaL SLonehenge was a place of
heallng Lhe prlmeval equlvalenL of Lourdes



1he koman conquest
%ln Lhe 1sL c 8C Lhe 8oman Lmplre began Lo make conLacL wlLh 8rlLaln (wlne poLLery small bronze sLaLues)
%ullus Caesar's flrsL rald was ln 33 8C (Lhe Lroops were afrald of Lhe sea crosslng channel sLorms)
%ln Lhe followlng year he lnvaded agaln Lhls Llme he marched lnland (beLLer mlllLary Lechnology and dlsclpllne
Lhan Lhe CelLlc defenders)
%ln A 43 Lhe Lmperor Claudlus declded Lhe fullscale lnvaslon (army of 40000 men)
#8otbotloos beyooJ tbe seo
%@he army esLabllshed 8oman rule ln Lhe souLh and SJ of Lhe counLry (8rlLaln as a provlnce of 8oman Lmplre)
%9ermanenL mlllLary forLs were esLabllshed ln Jales buL Lhe Lrlbes remalned dlfflculL Lo subdue
%Jhen adrlan vlslLed 8rlLaln ln A 121 or 122 he ordered Lo bulld a sLone wall Lo proLecL from aLLacks from
ScoLland
%adrlan's Jall 117 km from Jalsend on Lhe 8lver @yne Lo 8owness on Lhe Solway lrLh
komoolzotloo of llfe
%London was made porL and llvely Lrade was concenLraLed Lhere (exporL of graln) good roads and forLs were
bullL
%LaLln words enrlched Lhe CelLlc vocabulary (casLra mlllLary camp LancasLer JlnchesLer ChesLer) vallum
wall vla sLraLa sLreeL
%CelLlc Lrlbal chlefs recognlzed 8omans people were agalnsL (LaxaLlon plunders)
uptlsloqs
%@he revolL ln A 60 led by Lhe CelLlc" queen" 8oadlcea
%@he 8rlLons were defeaLed and 8oadlcea polsoned herself and her daughLers dld Lhe same
%@he 8omans sLarLed Lo lnLroduce Lhelr laws Lo a new provlnce of Lhe 8oman Lmplre
%Cfflclals were appolnLed (governors procuraLors Lo collecL Laxes look afLer Lhe esLaLes and mlnes and see
LhaL Lhe gold sllver lron and lead were exporLed back Lo 8ome)
llvloq os komoos
%@he 8omans developed a number of Lowns
%Colonlae Lhe colonles of exsoldlers 8oman clLlzens ( ColchesLer)
%Munlclpla Lhe local people ran Lhelr own affalrs (SLAlbans (verulamlum))
%ClvlLas Lhe maln cenLre for a Lrlbal area (JroxeLer)
%lnLroduced schools a new language LaLln large farms (vlllas) baLhs
%ln A 410 Lhey had Lo leave (Cauls)
adrlans wall
8ullL by Lhe 8omans ln Lhe second cenLury across Lhe norLhern border of Lhelr provlnce of 8rlLannla whlch ls
nearly Lhe same as Lhe presenL LngllshScoLLlsh boarder ln order Lo proLecL lL from aLLacks by Lhe ScoLLs and
Lhe 9lcLs
1he Lat|n |nf|uence on the |anguage
%@he lnfluence of LaLln ls noLlceable also ln Lhe names of Luropean clLles Lhe LaLln noun colonla (seLLlemenL
colony) may be found ln numerous placenames Llncoln ColchesLer Cologne from LaLln word casLrum
(mlllLary camp) were derlved Lngllsh afflxes chesLer and casLle ManchesLer LancasLer newcasLle LaLln word
porLus (seaporL) ln 9orLsmouLh
evetbotlves
%Lor person doer mascullne form @he sufflx ls aLLached Lo Lhe sLem vlcLor ('wlnner' from Lhe verb vlncere
'Lo wln') specLaLor (specLare)
%orlum place where Lhe acLlvlLy marked wlLh Lhe verb occurs dormlLorlum (dormlre 'Lo sleep') ln Lngllsh
Lhe sufflx ls ory dormlLory
eoomlootlves
%Las lL denoLes an absLracL noLlon derlves from Lhe ad[ecLlve celebrlLas (celeber) llberLas (llber) unlverslLas
(unlversus) ln Lngllsh Lhe sufflx ls Ly celebrlLy llberLy unlverslLy
%Ludo characLerlsLlc or condlLlon derlves from Lhe ad[ecLlve longlLudo (longus) forLlLudo (forLls) ln Lngllsh
Lude longlLude forLlLude
1he Ang|es Saxons and Iutes
@he Angles Saxons and uLes came from norLhern Cermany and Lhe presenLday enmark ln 449
6 1he Ang|oSaxon |nvas|on
@he new seLLlers drove Lhe 8rlLlsh wesL where Lhey used some CelLlc hlllforLs Lo defend Lhemselves @he AS
were noL always vlcLorlous @he 8rlLlsh war leader ArLhur (was born on Lhe rocky Cornlsh coasL aL @lnLagel
CasLle)
loq Attbot A greaL Lngllsh hero (8omanlzed CelL) ls knlghLs of Lhe round Lable @rled Lo hold back Lhe
AngloSaxons 9erfecL example of medleval noblllLy and chlvalry
loqJoms 8y Lhe 7Lh c Lhe AS were rullng mosL of 8rlLaln (7 klngdoms) SeLLled ln small groups @he cynn"
(Lhe kln or Lrlbe) was a communlLy of Lhe lord and hls followers @he lord Lhe cynlng" (klng) was Lhe guardlan
of Lhe kln @he hub of Lhe seLLlemenL was Lhe hall
vetyJoy llfe amllles llved ln vlllages ln bulldlngs made of wood wlLh LhaLched roofs 9eople were farmers
who kepL caLLle sheep plgs geese chlcken @hey grew wheaL rye barley oaLs peas unLed deer wlld fowl
caughL flsh @hey made lron ob[ecLs (knlves) plns combs of bone poLLery
llfe 9eople were burled wlLh valuable Lhlngs and everyday ob[ecLs (swords weapons bone combs rlngs
necklaces plns braceleLs) 8y 730 Lrade was becomlng an lmporLanL parL of dally llfe @radlng wlLh people from
Lurope
oys of tbe week named afLer Cermanlc Cods @lg Cod of war and Lhe sky (@uesday) Jodln Cod of
wlsdom war and poeLry (Jednesday) @hor Cod of Lhunder sky and weaLher (@hursday) rel Coddess of
love and growlng Lhlngs (rlday) new words have bedo goand buL new placenames lng (folkfamlly)
8eadlng ls a place of Lhe famlly 8ada asLlngs of Lhe famlly asLa am farm (8lrmlngham noLLlngham) Lon
seLLlemenL (SouLhhamLon)
cbtlstloo mlssloootles ln 397 9ope Cregory l ln 8ome declded Lo send a group of 30 ChrlsLlan mlsslonarles Lo
persuade Lhe AS klngs Lo glve up Lhelr heaLhen bellefs and become ChrlsLlan Monk AugusLlne arrlved ln 397
8ullL a monasLery on Lhe lsland of Llndlsfarne@he Llndlsfarne Cospels decoraLed ln Lhe 7Lh c
8eJe ln norLhumbrla Lhe greaLesL AS scholar 8LL (Lhe faLher of Lngllsh lsLory) wroLe hls LCCLLSlAS@lCAL
lS@C8? C @L LnCLlS 9LC9LL (731) ow Lngllsh became ChrlsLlan descrlbed Lhe 8omans ln 8rlLaln arrlval
of AS Lhe wars ln whlch Lhey won LerrlLorles from Lhe 8rlLons and 9lcLs A new wave of lnvaders appeared
from across Lhe sea
1he Ang|oSaxon Chron|c|e
@he AngloSaxon Chronlcle ls a collecLlon of annals ln Cld Lngllsh chronlcllng Lhe hlsLory of Lhe AngloSaxons
@he orlglnal manuscrlpL of Lhe Chronlcle was creaLed laLe ln Lhe 9Lh cenLury probably ln Jessex durlng Lhe
relgn of Alfred Lhe CreaL MulLlple coples were made of LhaL orlglnal whlch were dlsLrlbuLed Lo monasLerles
across Lngland where Lhey were lndependenLly updaLed ln one case Lhe chronlcle was sLlll belng acLlvely
updaLed ln 1134
nlne manuscrlpLs survlve ln whole or ln parL Lhough noL all are of equal hlsLorlcal value and none of Lhem ls
Lhe orlglnal verslon @he oldesL seems Lo have been sLarLed Lowards Lhe end of Alfreds relgn whlle Lhe mosL
recenL was wrlLLen aL 9eLerborough Abbey afLer a flre aL LhaL monasLery ln 1116 AlmosL all of Lhe maLerlal ln
Lhe chronlcle ls ln Lhe form of annals by year Lhe earllesL are daLed aL 60 8C (Lhe annals daLe for Caesars
lnvaslons of 8rlLaln) and hlsLorlcal maLerlal follows up Lo Lhe year ln whlch Lhe chronlcle was wrlLLen aL whlch
polnL conLemporary records begln @hese manuscrlpLs collecLlvely are known as Lhe AngloSaxon Chronlcle
@he Chronlcle ls noL unblased Lhere are occaslons when comparlson wlLh oLher medleval sources makes lL
clear LhaL Lhe scrlbes who wroLe lL omlLLed evenLs or Lold oneslded verslons of sLorles Lhere are also places
where Lhe dlfferenL verslons conLradlcL each oLher @aken as a whole however Lhe Chronlcle ls Lhe slngle mosL
lmporLanL hlsLorlcal source for Lhe perlod ln Lngland beLween Lhe deparLure of Lhe 8omans and Lhe decades
followlng Lhe norman ConquesL Much of Lhe lnformaLlon glven ln Lhe Chronlcle ls noL recorded elsewhere ln
addlLlon Lhe manuscrlpLs are lmporLanL sources for Lhe hlsLory of Lhe Lngllsh language ln parLlcular Lhe laLer
9eLerborough LexL ls one of Lhe earllesL examples of Mlddle Lngllsh ln exlsLence
Seven of Lhe nlne survlvlng manuscrlpLs and fragmenLs now reslde ln Lhe 8rlLlsh Llbrary @he remalnlng Lwo are
ln Lhe 8odlelan Llbrary aL Cxford and Lhe 9arker Llbrary of Corpus ChrlsLl College Cambrldge
8 8eowu|f
An AngloSaxon hero 9oems and sLorles were flrsL spoken aloud wrlLLen down laLer @he poeLs Lell us of
heroes and Lhelr deeds @he mosL famous herolc poem ls 8LCJuL (wrlLLen down 89cc) 8eowulf a war
leader from Scandlnavla e rescued Lhe land of Lhe anes from a manllke monsLer Crendel @he monsLer kllls
Lhe hero @he poeL descrlbes Lhe funeral how warrlors mourned Lhelr klng
9 1he V|k|ngs the|r way of ||feSutton noo
ottoo noo ln 1939 a remarkable dlscovery was made ln Lngland A grave of an AS leader was dlscovered lL
was parL of a shlp burlal no human remalns were found buL many ob[ecLs leaLher shoes weaponsspears
swordaxehammer gold colns dlshes spoons
1be vlkloqs
ln 789 Lhree shlps carrylng norLhmen (vlklngs vlklngr plraLe ralder ln Lhe old norweglan) landed on Lhe
coasL of Lhe klngdom of Lhe JesL Saxon
Many were sallors who salled looklng for plunder Lrade and land for new seLLlemenLs
@helr crafLworkers made beauLlful ob[ecLs
vlkloq settlemeot
MosL of Lhe wrlLLen evldence abouL Lhe vlklngs ln Lngland comes from AnCLCSAxCn C8CnlCLL (892)
vlklngs llved ln counLry seLLlemenLs grew crops vegeLables kepL anlmals hunLed anlmals blrds flsh
v were greaL Lraders ln Lown markeLs
C8vlk Lyplcal vlklng Lown
9Lh c v moved Lo Lhe lslands of SheLland Crkneys Lhe ebrldes lreland
AlfteJ tbe Cteot
Jas klng of Jessex ( 871899)
AngloSaxon Chronlcle was sLarLed ln Alfred's relgn
A had a love of learnlng books (unusual aL LhaL Llme) he lnvlLed scholars Lo Lhe courL learned LaLln LranslaLed
LaLln books
e wroLe down laws hls wlll (he rewarded falLhful servanLs and lefL money for Lhe poor)
ls klngdom survlved Lhe vlklngs on Lhls foundaLlon Lhe klngdom of Lngland was bullL
10 1he Norman conquest
@he norman conquesL of Lngland began on 28 SepLember 1066 wlLh Lhe lnvaslon of Lngland by Jllllam uke
of normandy Jllllam became known as Jllllam Lhe Conqueror afLer hls vlcLory aL Lhe 8aLLle of asLlngs on 14
CcLober 1066 defeaLlng klng arold ll of Lngland arolds army had been badly depleLed ln Lhe Lngllsh vlcLory
aL Lhe 8aLLle of SLamford 8rldge ln norLhern Lngland on 23 SepLember 1066 over Lhe army of klng arald lll of
norway 8y early 1071 Jllllam had secured conLrol of mosL of Lngland alLhough rebelllons and reslsLance
conLlnued unLll approxlmaLely 1088
@he norman conquesL was a plvoLal evenL ln Lngllsh hlsLory lL largely removed Lhe naLlve rullng class replaclng
lL wlLh a forelgn renchspeaklng monarchy arlsLocracy and clerlcal hlerarchy @hls ln Lurn broughL abouL a
LransformaLlon of Lhe Lngllsh language and Lhe culLure of Lngland ln a new era ofLen referred Lo as norman
Lngland
8y brlnglng Lngland under Lhe conLrol of rulers orlglnaLlng ln rance Lhe norman conquesL llnked Lhe counLry
more closely wlLh conLlnenLal Lurope lessened Scandlnavlan lnfluence and also seL Lhe sLage for a rlvalry wlLh
rance LhaL would conLlnue lnLermlLLenLly for many cenLurles lL also had lmporLanL consequences for Lhe resL
of Lhe 8rlLlsh lsles pavlng Lhe way for furLher norman conquesLs ln Jales and lreland and Lhe exLenslve
peneLraLlon of Lhe arlsLocracy of ScoLland by norman and oLher renchspeaklng famllles wlLh Lhe
accompanylng spread of conLlnenLal lnsLlLuLlons and culLural lnfluences
11 1he batt|e of nast|ngs 8ayeux 1apestry
1be 8ottle of nostloqs occurred on 14 CcLober 1066 durlng Lhe norman conquesL of Lngland beLween Lhe
normanrench army of uke Jllllam ll of normandy and Lhe Lngllsh army under klng arold ll lL Look place aL
Senlac lll approxlmaLely 10 km norLhwesL of asLlngs close Lo Lhe presenLday Lown of 8aLLle LasL Sussex
and was a declslve norman vlcLory
arold ll was kllled ln Lhe baLLlelegend has lL LhaL he was shoL Lhrough Lhe eye wlLh an arrow e was Lhe lasL
Lngllsh klng Lo dle ln baLLle on Lngllsh soll unLll 8lchard lll was kllled aL Lhe 8aLLle of 8osworLh leld @he baLLle
marked Lhe lasL successful forelgn lnvaslon of Lhe 8rlLlsh lsles AlLhough Lhere was furLher Lngllsh reslsLance
Lhls baLLle ls seen as Lhe polnL aL whlch Jllllam galned conLrol of Lngland becomlng lLs flrsL norman ruler as
klng Jllllam l
@he baLLle also esLabllshed Lhe superlorlLy of Lhe comblned arms aLLack over an army predomlnaLely composed
of lnfanLry demonsLraLlng Lhe effecLlveness of archers cavalry and lnfanLry worklng cooperaLlvely LogeLher
@he domlnance of cavalry forces over lnfanLry would conLlnue unLll Lhe emergence of Lhe longbow and baLLles
such as Crecy 9olLlers and AglncourL ln Lhe undred ?ears Jar
Jllllam Look arolds crownlng as a declaraLlon of war e planned Lo lnvade Lngland and Lake Lhe crown @he
norman army was noL powerful enough so nobles as far as SouLhern lLaly were called Lo convene aL Caen ln
normandy @here Jllllam promlsed land and LlLles Lo hls followers and clalmed LhaL Lhe voyage was secured
by Lhe 9ope
@he Lngllsh klng arold ll who had been walLlng for a norman lnvaslon had rushed hls army norLhward Lo
aLLack an lnvadlng norweglan vlklng army
@he famous 8oyeox 1opestty deplcLs Lhe evenLs before and durlng Lhe baLLle 8aLLle Abbey marks Lhe slLe
where lL ls belleved LhaL Lhe baLLle was foughL ounded by klng Jllllam Lhe Conqueror (as he became
known) lL serves as a memorlal Lo Lhe dead and may have been an acL of pennance for Lhe bloodshed @he slLe
ls open Lo Lhe publlc and ls Lhe locaLlon of annual reenacLmenLs of Lhe baLLle


1 Irench |nf|uence on the Lng||sh |anguage
Jhen Jllllam Lhe Conqueror became klng of Lngland rench Look over as Lhe language of Lhe courL
admlnlsLraLlon and culLure and sLayed Lhere for 300 years Meanwhlle Lngllsh was demoLed Lo everyday
unpresLlglous uses @hese Lwo languages exlsLed slde by slde ln Lngland wlLh no noLlceable dlfflculLles ln facL
slnce Lngllsh was essenLlally lgnored by grammarlans durlng Lhls Llme lL Look advanLage of lLs lowly sLaLus Lo
become a grammaLlcally slmpler language and afLer only 70 or 80 years exlsLlng sldebyslde wlLh rench Cld
Lngllsh segued lnLo Mlddle Lngllsh
vocabulary
urlng Lhe norman occupaLlon abouL 10000 rench words were adopLed lnLo Lngllsh some LhreefourLhs of
whlch are sLlll ln use Loday @hls rench vocabulary ls found ln every domaln from governmenL and law Lo arL
and llLeraLure learn some More Lhan a Lhlrd of all Lngllsh words are derlved dlrecLly or lndlrecLly from rench
and lLs esLlmaLed LhaL Lngllsh speakers who have never sLudled rench already know 13000 rench words (2)
?ou can see 1700 words LhaL are ldenLlcal ln Lhe Lwo languages rlghL here @rue cognaLes
9ronunclaLlon
Lngllsh pronunclaLlon owes a loL Lo rench as well Jhereas Cld Lngllsh had Lhe unvolced frlcaLlve sounds f
s 0 (as ln Lhln) and ] (shln) rench lnfluence helped Lo dlsLlngulsh Lhelr volced counLerparLs v z
(Lhe) and r (mlrage) and also conLrlbuLed Lhe dlphLhong ry (boy) (3) (JhaL ls volced/unvolced/frlcaLlve?)
Crammar
AnoLher rare buL lnLeresLlng remnanL of rench lnfluence ls ln Lhe word order of expresslons llke secreLary
general and surgeon general where Lngllsh has reLalned Lhe noun + ad[ecLlve word order Lyplcal ln rench
raLher Lhan Lhe usual ad[ecLlve + noun used ln Lngllsh
1 Magna Carta
Magna CarLa ls an Lngllsh charLer orlglnally lssued ln Lhe year 1213 whlch lncluded Lhe mosL dlrecL challenges
Lo Lhe monarchs auLhorlLy Lo daLe @he charLer flrsL passed lnLo law ln 1223 @he 1297 verslon wlLh Lhe long
LlLle (orlglnally ln LaLln) @he CreaL CharLer of Lhe LlberLles of Lngland and of Lhe LlberLles of Lhe oresL sLlll
remalns on Lhe sLaLuLe books of Lngland and Jales
@he 1213 CharLer requlred klng ohn of Lngland Lo proclalm cerLaln llberLles and accepL LhaL hls wlll was noL
arblLrary for example by expllclLly accepLlng LhaL no freeman (ln Lhe sense of nonserf) could be punlshed
excepL Lhrough Lhe law of Lhe land a rlghL whlch ls sLlll ln exlsLence Loday
Magna CarLa was Lhe flrsL documenL forced onLo an Lngllsh klng by a group of hls sub[ecLs Lhe feudal barons
ln an aLLempL Lo llmlL hls powers by law and proLecL Lhelr prlvlleges lL was preceded and dlrecLly lnfluenced by
Lhe CharLer of LlberLles ln 1100 ln whlch klng enry l had speclfled parLlcular areas whereln hls powers would
be llmlLed
esplLe lLs recognlsed lmporLance by Lhe second half of Lhe 19Lh cenLury nearly all of lLs clauses had been
repealed ln Lhelr orlglnal form @hree clauses remaln parL of Lhe law of Lngland and Jales however and lL ls
generally consldered parL of Lhe uncodlfled consLlLuLlon @he greaLesL consLlLuLlonal documenL of all Llmes
Lhe foundaLlon of Lhe freedom of Lhe lndlvldual agalnsL Lhe arblLrary auLhorlLy of Lhe despoL
@he charLer was an lmporLanL parL of Lhe exLenslve hlsLorlcal process LhaL led Lo Lhe rule of consLlLuLlonal law
ln Lhe Lngllsh speaklng world and lL was Lhls parLlcular granLlng of llberLles whlch survlved Lo become a sacred
LexL ln pracLlce Magna CarLa ln Lhe medleval perlod dld noL ln general llmlL Lhe power of klngs buL by Lhe
Llme of Lhe Lngllsh Clvll Jar lL had become an lmporLanL symbol for Lhose who wlshed Lo show LhaL Lhe klng
was bound by Lhe law lL lnfluenced Lhe early seLLlers ln new Lngland and lnsplred laLer consLlLuLlonal
documenLs lncludlng Lhe unlLed SLaLes ConsLlLuLlon
1 1he nundred ear's War
@he speclflc evenLs leadlng up Lo Lhe war Look place ln rance where Lhe unbroken llne of Lhe lrecL CapeLlan
flrsLborn sons had succeeded each oLher for cenLurles ln 1314 Lhe lrecL CapeLlan klng 9hlllp lv dled leavlng
Lhree male helrs Louls x 9hlllp v and Charles lv A fourLh chlld of 9hllllp lv lsabella was marrled Lo Ldward ll
of Lngland and ln 1312 had produced a son Ldward of Jlndsor(lll) who was a poLenLlal helr Lo Lhe Lhrones of
boLh Lngland (Lhrough hls faLher) and rance (Lhrough hls grandfaLher) e became Lhe klng of Lngland and
was Lhe leglLlmaLe helr Lo Lhe Lhrone of rance 9hlllp vl (also hls grandson crowned klng of rance) demanded
Ldwards recognlLlon as soverelgn Ldward wanLed Lhe reLurn of furLher lands losL by hls faLher Ldward
accepLed 9hlllp as klng of rance and gave up hls clalms Lo Lhe rench Lhrone ln effecL Lngland kepL Cascony
ln reLurn for Ldward glvlng up hls clalms Lo be Lhe rlghLful helr Lo Lhe rench Lhrone ln 1333 Ldward lll wenL Lo
war agalnsL avld ll of ScoLland a rench ally under Lhe Auld Alllance and began Lhe Second Jar of ScoLLlsh
lndependence 9hlllp saw Lhe opporLunlLy Lo reclalm Cascony whlle Lnglands aLLenLlon was concenLraLed
norLhwards owever Lhe war was lnlLlally aL leasL a qulck success for Lngland and avld was forced Lo flee
Lo rance afLer belng defeaLed by klng Ldward and Ldward 8alllol aL Lhe 8aLLle of alldon lll ln uly ln 1336
9hlllp made plans for an expedlLlon Lo resLore avld Lo Lhe ScoLLlsh Lhrone and Lo also selze Cascony
@he undred ?ears Jar was a serles of separaLe wars waged from 1337 Lo 1433 by Lhe ouse of valols and Lhe
ouse of 9lanLageneL also known as Lhe ouse of An[ou for Lhe rench Lhrone whlch had become vacanL
upon Lhe exLlncLlon of Lhe senlor CapeLlan llne of rench klngs @he ouse of valols clalmed Lhe LlLle of klng of
rance whlle Lhe 9lanLageneLs clalmed Lhe Lhrones of boLh rance and Lngland @he 9lanLageneL klngs were
Lhe 12LhcenLury rulers of Lhe klngdom of Lngland and had Lhelr rooLs ln Lhe rench reglons of An[ou and
normandy
@he confllcL was puncLuaLed by several perlods of peace before lL flnally ended ln Lhe expulslon of Lhe
9lanLageneLs from rance (excepL from Lhe 9ale of Calals) @he flnal ouLcome was a vlcLory for Lhe house of
valols whlch succeeded ln recoverlng early galns made by Lhe 9lanLageneLs and expelllng Lhem from Lhe
ma[orlLy of rance by Lhe 1430s owever Lhe war nearly rulned Lhe valols whlle Lhe 9lanLageneLs enrlched
Lhemselves wlLh plunder rance suffered greaLly from Lhe war slnce mosL of Lhe confllcL occurred ln LhaL
counLry
@he war was ln facL a serles of confllcLs and ls commonly dlvlded lnLo Lhree or four phases Lhe Ldwardlan
Jar (13371360) Lhe Carollne Jar (13691389) Lhe LancasLrlan Jar (14131429) and Lhe slow decllne of
9lanLageneL forLunes afLer Lhe appearance of oan of Arc (14121431) Several oLher conLemporary Luropean
confllcLs were dlrecLly relaLed Lo Lhls confllcL Lhe 8reLon Jar of Successlon Lhe CasLlllan Clvll Jar Lhe Jar of
Lhe @wo 9eLers and Lhe 13831383 Crlsls @he Lerm undred ?ears Jar was a laLer Lerm lnvenLed by
hlsLorlans Lo descrlbe Lhe serles of evenLs
1 Wat 1y|er's kebe|||on
@he 9easanLs 8evolL JaL @ylers 8ebelllon or Lhe CreaL 8lslng of 1381 was one of a number of popular revolLs
ln laLe medleval Lurope and ls a ma[or evenL ln Lhe hlsLory of Lngland @ylers 8ebelllon was noL only Lhe mosL
exLreme and wldespread lnsurrecLlon ln Lngllsh hlsLory buL also Lhe besLdocumenLed popular rebelllon Lo
have occurred durlng medleval Llmes @he names of some of lLs leaders ohn 8all JaL @yler and ack SLraw
are sLlll famlllar ln popular culLure alLhough llLLle ls known of Lhem
@he revolL laLer came Lo be seen as a mark of Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe end of serfdom ln medleval Lngland
alLhough Lhe revolL lLself was a fallure lL lncreased awareness ln Lhe upper classes of Lhe need for Lhe reform
of feudallsm ln Lngland and Lhe appalllng mlsery felL by Lhe lower classes as a resulL of Lhelr enforced near
slavery
@he revolL was preclplLaLed by klng 8lchard lls heavyhanded aLLempLs Lo enforce Lhe Lhlrd medleval poll Lax
supposedly Lo flnance mlllLary campalgns overseas lL allowed some of Lhe poor Lo pay a reduced raLe whlle
oLhers who were equally poor had Lo pay Lhe full Lax prompLlng calls of ln[usLlce @he youLh of klng 8lchard ll
(aged only 14) was anoLher reason for Lhe uprlslng a group of unpopular men domlnaLed hls governmenL
Many saw Lhem as corrupL offlclals Lrylng Lo explolL Lhe weakness of Lhe klng @he 8lack eaLh LhaL ravaged
Lngland ln 1348 Lo 1330 had greaLly reduced Lhe labour force and consequenLly Lhe survlvlng labourers could
demand hlgher wages and fewer hours of work Some asked for Lhelr freedom @hey ofLen goL whaL Lhey asked
for Lhe lords of Lhe manors were desperaLe for people Lo farm Lhelr land and Lend Lhelr anlmals klng Ldward
lll summoned parllamenL Lo pass Lhe SLaLuLe of Labourers @he enforcemenL of Lhe new law angered Lhe
peasanLs greaLly and formed anoLher reason for Lhe revolL
esplLe lLs modern name parLlclpaLlon ln Lhe 9easanLs 8evolL was noL conflned Lo serfs or even Lo Lhe lower
classes @he peasanLs recelved help from members of Lhe noble classes AlLhough Lhe revolL dld noL succeed ln
lLs sLaLed alms lL dld succeed ln showlng Lhe nobles LhaL Lhe peasanLs were dlssaLlsfled and LhaL Lhey were
capable of wreaklng havoc ln Lhe longer Lerm Lhe revolL helped Lo form a radlcal LradlLlon ln 8rlLlsh pollLlcs
16 1he Wars of the koses
@he Jars of Lhe 8oses were a serles of dynasLlc clvll wars for Lhe Lhrone of Lngland foughL beLween supporLers
of Lwo rlval branches of Lhe royal ouse of 9lanLageneL Lhe houses of LancasLer and ?ork (Lhe red and Lhe
whlLe rose respecLlvely) @hey were foughL ln several sporadlc eplsodes beLween 1433 and 1483 alLhough
Lhere was relaLed flghLlng boLh before and afLer Lhls perlod @he flnal vlcLory wenL Lo a relaLlvely remoLe
LancasLrlan clalmanL enry @udor who defeaLed Lhe lasL ?orklsL klng 8lchard lll and marrled Ldward lvs
daughLer LllzabeLh of ?ork Lo unlLe Lhe Lwo houses @he ouse of @udor subsequenLly ruled Lngland and Jales
for 117 years
@he name Jars of Lhe 8oses refers Lo Lhe badges assoclaLed wlLh Lhe Lwo royal houses Lhe JhlLe 8ose of
?ork and Lhe 8ed 8ose of LancasLer lL ls noL LhoughL Lo have been used durlng Lhe Llme of Lhe wars
@he anLagonlsm beLween Lhe Lwo houses sLarLed wlLh Lhe overLhrow of klng 8lchard ll by hls cousln enry
8ollngbroke uke of LancasLer

1 1udor Abso|ut|sm
@he @udors exLended Lhelr power beyond modern Lngland achlevlng Lhe full unlon of Lngland and Lhe
9rlnclpallLy of Jales ln 1342 and successfully asserLlng Lngllsh auLhorlLy over Lhe klngdom of lreland @hey
also malnLalned Lhe LradlLlonal clalms Lo Lhe klngdom of rance buL none of Lhem Lrled Lo make subsLance of
lL Lhough enry vlll foughL wars wlLh rance Lo Lry Lo reclalm LhaL LlLle AfLer hlm hls daughLer Mary l losL Lhe
clalm on rance forever
ln LoLal flve @udor monarchs ruled Lhelr domalns for [usL over a cenLury enry vlll of Lngland was Lhe only
malellne male helr of enry vll Lo llve Lo Lhe age of ma[orlLy lssues around Lhe 8oyal successlon (lncludlng
marrlage dlvorce and Lhe successlon rlghLs of women) became ma[or pollLlcal Lhemes durlng Lhe @udor era
@he @udor llne falled ln 1603 wlLh Lhe deaLh of LllzabeLh l of Lngland
@he cenLury of @udor rule (1483 1603) ls ofLen LhoughL of as a mosL glorlous perlod ln Lngllsh hlsLory enry vll
bullL Lhe foundaLlons of a wealLhy naLlon sLaLe and a powerful monarchy lsson enry vlll kepL a magnlflcenL
courL and made Lhe Church ln Lngland Lruly Lngllsh by breaklng away from Lhe 8oman CaLhollc Church lnally
hls daughLer LllzabeLh broughL glory Lo Lhe new sLaLe by defeaLlng Lhe powerful navy of Spaln Lhe greaLesL
Luropean power of Lhe Llme urlng Lhe Ludor age Lngland experlenced one of Lhe greaLesL arLlsLlc perlods ln
lLs hlsLory
urlng Lhe @udor perlod Lhe changes ln governmenL socleLy and Lhe economy of Lngland were more far
reachlng Lhan Lhey had been for cenLurles 8uL mosL farreachlng of all were Lhe changes ln ldeas parLly as a
resulL of Lhe reblrLh of lnLellecLual aLLlLudes known as Lhe 8enalssance whlch had spread slowly norLhwards
from lLs beglnnlngs ln lLaly ln Lngland Lhe naLure of Lhe 8enalssance was also affecLed by Lhe 9roLesLanL
8eformaLlon and Lhe economlc changes LhaL followed from lL
@he @udor monarchs dld noL llke governlng Lhrough 9arllamenL 9arllamenL sLrengLhened lLs poslLlon agaln
durlng Ldward vls relgn by orderlng Lhe new prayer book Lo be used ln all churches and forblddlng Lhe
CaLhollc mass ln Lhe early slxLeenLh cenLury 9arllamenL only meL when Lhe monarch ordered lL SomeLlmes lL
meL Lwlce ln one year buL Lhen lL mlghL noL meeL agaln for slx years ln Lhe lrsL forLyfour years of @udor rule
9arllamenL meL only LwenLy Llmes urlng Lhe cenLury power moved from Lhe ouse of Lords Lo Lhe ouse of
Commons @udor Llmes was Lo make sure LhaL 9arllamenL dlscussed whaL Lhe monarch wanLed 9arllamenL Lo
dlscuss and LhaL lL made Lhe declslon whlch he or she wanLed LllzabeLh had found ways Lo ralse money LhaL
were exLremely unwlse She sold monopolles whlch gave a parLlcular person or company LoLal conLrol over a
Lrade She also sold offlclal poslLlons ln governmenL and allowed Lhe Lax sysLem Lo become less effecLlve and
falled Lo keep lnformaLlon on how much money people should be paylng 9arllamenL naLurally began Lo Lhlnk lL
had a nghL Lo dlscuss Lhese quesLlons 8y Lhe end of Lhe slxLeenLh cenLury lL was beglnnlng Lo show new
conlldence and ln Lhe sevenLeenLh cenLury when Lhe genLry and merchanL classes were far more aware of
Lhelr own sLrengLh lL was obvlous LhaL 9arllamenL would challenge Lhe Crown LvenLually Lhls resulLed ln war
rom @udor Llmes onwards Lhe way people spoke began Lo show Lhe dlfference beLween Lhem LducaLed
people began Lo speak correcL Lngllsh and uneducaLed people conLlnued Lo speak Lhe local dlalecL
18 nenry VIII and found|ng of the Church of Lng|and
enry vlll wasLed Lhe wealLh saved by hls faLher LllzabeLh weakened Lhe quallLy of governmenL by selllng
offlclal posLs Shedld Lhls Lo avold asklng 9arllamenL for money And alLhough Lhe governmenL Lrled Lo deal
wlLh Lhe problem of poor and homeless people aL a Llme when prlces rose much fasLer Lhan wages lLs laws and
acLlons were ofLen cruel ln effecL
enry vlll forbade anyone excepL hlmself Lo keep armed men enry encouraged Lhe use of heavy flnes as
punlshmenL because Lhls gave Lhe Crown money enry also ralsed Laxes for wars whlch he Lhen dld noL flghL
e never spenL money unless he had Lo Cne mlghL expecL enry Lo have been unpopular buL he was careful
Lo keep Lhe frlendshlp of Lhe merchanL and lesser genLry classes enry undersLood earller Lhan mosL people
LhaL Lnglands fuLure wealLh would depend on lnLemaLlonal Lrade And ln order Lo Lrade enry reallsed LhaL
Lngland musL have lLs own fleeL of merchanL shlps enry vlll was qulLe unllke hls faLher e was cruel
wasLeful wlLh money and lnLeresLed ln pleaslng hlmself e spenL so much on malnLalnlng a magnlrcenL courL
and on wars from whlch Lngland had hLLle ro galn LhaL hls faLhers carefully saved money was soon gone
Lngllsh colnage was reduced Lo a sevenLh of lLs value wlLhln LwenLyflve years enry dlsllked Lhe power of Lhe
Church ln Lngland because slnce lL was an lnLernaLlonal organlsaLlon he could noL compleLely conLrol lL @he
power of Lhe CaLhollc Church ln Lngland could work agalnsL hls own auLhorlLy and Lhe Laxes pald Lo Lhe Church
reduced hls own lncome ln 1331 enry persuaded Lhe blshops Lo make hlm head of Lhe Church ln Lngland and
was now free Lo dlvorce CaLherlne and marry hls new love Anne 8oleyn e hoped Anne would glve hlm a son
Lo follow hlm on Lhe Lhrone enry had earller wrlLen a book crlLlclslng LuLhers Leachlng and Lhe pope had
rewarded hlm wlLh Lhe LlLle ldel efensor efender of Lhe alLh Lngland became pollLlcally a 9roLesLanL
counLry even Lhough Lhe popular rellglon was sLlll CaLhollc Meanwhlle Lhe monks and nuns were Lhrown ouL
Some were glven small sums of money buL many were unable Lo flnd work and became wanderlng beggars
@he dlssoluLlon of Lhe monasLerles was probably Lhe greaLesL acL of offlclal desLrucLlon ln Lhe hlsLory of 8rlLaln
e remalned loyal Lo CaLhollc rellglous Leachlng and execuLed 9roLesLanLs who refused Lo accepL lL e made
an alllance wlLh Charles v of Spaln agalnsL rance enry dled ln 1347 leavlng behlnd hls slxLh wlfe
CaLherlne 9arr and hls Lhree chlldren Mary Lhe eldesL was Lhe daughLer of CaLherlne of Aragon LllzabeLh
was Lhe daughLer of hls second wlfe Anne 8oleyn whom he had execuLed because she was unfalLhful nlne
yearold Ldward was Lhe son of ane Seymour Lhe only wlfe whom enry had really loved buL who had dled
glvlng blrLh Lo hls only son
Ldward vl enry vllls son was only a chlld when he became klng so Lhe counLry was ruled by a councll All
Lhe new landowners knew LhaL Lhey could only be sure of keeplng Lhelr new lands lf Lhey made Lngland Lruly
9roLesLanL
Mary Lhe CaLhollc daughLer of CaLherlne of Aragon became queen when Ldward aged slxLeen dled She was
supporLed by Lhe ordlnary people who were angered by Lhe greed of Lhe 9roLesLanL nobles owever Mary
was unwlse and unbendlng ln her pollcy and her bellefs Mary for pollLlcal rellglous and famlly reasons chose
Lo marry klng 9hlllp of Spaln lL was an unforLunaLe cholce @he ordlnary people dlshked Lhe marrlage 9opular
feellng was so sLrong LhaL a rebelllon ln kenL acLually reached London before endlng ln fallure Mary dealL
cruelly wlLh Lhe rebel leader 9hlllp was Lhe klng of Lngland for Marys llfeLlme She Lhen began burnlng
9roLesLanLs @hree hundred people dled ln Lhls way durlng her llveyear relgn
19 1he L||zabethan Age and Shakespeare
LllzabeLh Marys half slsLer was lucky Lo become queen when Mary dled LllzabeLh had been wlse enough Lo
say noLhlng do noLhlng and Lo expressnelLher CaLhollc nor 9roLesLanL vlews whlle Mary llved And 9hlllp
persuaded Mary Lo leave LllzabeLh unharmed LllzabeLh l wanLed Lo flnd a peaceful answer Lo Lhe problems of
Lhe Lngllsh 8efolmaLlon She wanLed Lo brlng LogeLher agaln Lhose parLs of Lngllsh socleLy whlch were ln
rellglous dlsagreemenL And she wanLed Lo make Lngland prosperous LllzabeLh also arranged for a book of
sermons Lo be used ln church AlLhough mosL of Lhe sermons conslsLed of 8lble Leachlng Lhls book also LaughL
Lhe people LhaL rebelllon agalnsL Lhe Crown was a sln agalnsL Cod Mary Lhe ScoLLlsh queen usually called
Cueen of ScoLs was Lhe helr Lo Lhe Lngllsh Lhrone because she was LllzabeLhs closesL llvlng relaLlve and
because LllzabeLh had noL marrled Marys moLher had been rench and Mary had spenL her chlldhood ln
rance and was a sLrong CaLhollc Jhen she reLurned Lo rule ScoLland as queen Mary soon made enemles of
some of her nobles and Lo avold Lhem she flnally escaped Lo Lhe safeLy of Lngland LllzabeLh however kepL
Mary as a prlsoner for almosL LwenLy years urlng LhaL rlme LllzabeLh dlscovered several secreL CaLhollc pkrLs
some of whlch clearly almed aL maklng Mary queen of Lngland Jhen LllzabeLh flnally agreed Lo Marys
execuLlon ln 1387 lL was parLly because Mary had named 9hlllp as her helr Lo Lhe Lhrone of Lngland and
because wlLh Lhls clalm 9hlllp of Spaln had declded Lo lnvade Lngland LllzabeLh no longer had a reason Lo keep
Mary allve ln Lngland Marys execuLlon was popular @he CaLhollc ploLs and Lhe dangers of a forelgn CaLhollc
lnvaslon had changed peoples feellngs 8y 1383 mosL Lngllsh people belleved LhaL Lo be a CaLhollc was Lo be
an enemy of Lngland @hls haLred of everyLhlng CaLhollc became an lmporLanL pollLlcal force
LlLeraLure was Lnglands greaLesL arL form 9laywrlghLs llke ChrlsLopher Marlowe 8en onson and Jllllam
Shakespeare fllled Lhe LheaLres wlLh Lhelr exclLlng new plays Shakespeare was born ln SLraLforduponAvon
and wenL Lo Lhe local grammar school ls educaLlon was Lyplcal of Lhe @udor age because aL Lhls Llme
Lhe grammar schools whlch Lrled Lo Leach correcL Lngllsh became Lhe commonesL form of educaLlon ls
plays were popular wlLh boLh educaLed and uneducaLed people Many of hls plays were abouL Lngllsh hlsLory
buL he changed facL Lo sulr publlc oplnlon
0 1he C|v|| War 16169
@he Lngllsh Clvll Jar (16421631) was a serles of armed confllcLs and pollLlcal machlnaLlons beLween
9arllamenLarlans (8oundheads) and 8oyallsLs (Cavallers) 9arllamenL defendlng Lhe LradlLlonal rlghLs of
Lngllshmen whlle Lhe SLuarL monarchy conLlnually aLLempLed Lo expand lLs rlghL Lo arblLrarlly dlcLaLe law @he
flrsL (164246) and second (164849) clvll wars plLLed Lhe supporLers of klng Charles l agalnsL Lhe supporLers of
Lhe Long 9arllamenL whlle Lhe Lhlrd war (164931) saw flghLlng beLween supporLers of klng Charles ll and
supporLers of Lhe 8ump 9arllamenL @he Clvll Jar ended wlLh Lhe 9arllamenLary vlcLory aL Lhe 8aLLle of
JorcesLer on 3 SepLember 1631
@he Clvll Jar led Lo Lhe Lrlal and execuLlon of Charles l Lhe exlle of hls son Charles ll and replacemenL of
Lngllsh monarchy wlLh flrsL Lhe CommonwealLh of Lngland (164933) and Lhen wlLh a 9roLecLoraLe (163339)
under Cllver Cromwells personal rule @he monopoly of Lhe Church of Lngland on ChrlsLlan worshlp ln Lngland
ended wlLh Lhe vlcLors consolldaLlng Lhe esLabllshed 9roLesLanL Ascendancy ln lreland ConsLlLuLlonally Lhe
wars esLabllshed Lhe precedenL LhaL an Lngllsh monarch cannoL govern wlLhouL 9arllamenLs consenL alLhough
Lhls concepL was legally esLabllshed only wlLh Lhe Clorlous 8evoluLlon laLer ln Lhe cenLury
Jar broke ouL less Lhan forLy years afLer Lhe deaLh of LllzabeLh l ln 1603 AL Lhe accesslon of Charles l ln 1623
Lngland and ScoLland had boLh experlenced relaLlve peace boLh lnLernally and ln Lhelr relaLlons wlLh each
oLher for as long as anyone could remember Charles hoped Lo unlLe Lhe klngdoms of Lngland ScoLland and
lreland lnLo a new slngle klngdom fulfllllng Lhe dream of hls faLher ames vl of ScoLland and l of Lngland2
Many Lngllsh 9arllamenLarlans had susplclons regardlng such a move because Lhey feared LhaL seLLlng up a
new klngdom mlghL desLroy Lhe old Lngllsh LradlLlons whlch had bound Lhe Lngllsh monarchy As Charles
shared hls faLhers poslLlon on Lhe power of Lhe crown (ames had descrlbed klngs as llLLle Cods on LarLh
chosen by Cod Lo rule ln accordance wlLh Lhe docLrlne of Lhe lvlne 8lghL of klngs) Lhe susplclons of Lhe
9arllamenLarlans had some [usLlflcaLlon
8oyal navy and mosL Lngllsh clLles favoured 9arllamenL whlle Lhe klng found conslderable supporL ln rural
communlLles Cn one slde Lhe klng and hls supporLers LhoughL LhaL Lhey foughL for LradlLlonal governmenL ln
Church and sLaLe Cn Lhe oLher mosL supporLers of Lhe 9arllamenLary cause lnlLlally Look up arms Lo defend
whaL Lhey LhoughL of as Lhe LradlLlonal balance of governmenL ln Church and sLaLe
Charles was evenLually handed over Lo Lhe Lngllsh 9arllamenL by Lhe ScoLs and was lmprlsoned Charles l Look
advanLage of Lhe deflecLlon of aLLenLlon away from hlmself Lo negoLlaLe a secreL LreaLy wlLh Lhe ScoLs agaln
promlslng church reform under Lhe agreemenL called Lhe LngagemenL Lhe ScoLs underLook Lo lnvade
Lngland on Charles behalf and resLore hlm Lo Lhe Lhrone on condlLlon of Lhe esLabllshmenL of 9resbyLerlanlsm
for Lhree years
A serles of 8oyallsL uprlslngs LhroughouL Lngland and a ScoLLlsh lnvaslon occurred @he beLrayal by Charles
caused 9arllamenL Lo debaLe wheLher Lo reLurn Lhe klng Lo power aL all @he beLrayal by Charles caused
9arllamenL Lo debaLe wheLher Lo reLurn Lhe klng Lo power aL all AL Lhe end of Lhe Lrlal Lhe 39 Commlssloners
([udges) found Charles l gullLy of hlgh Lreason as a LyranL LralLor murderer and publlc enemy e was
beheaded Charles ll execuLed Lhe survlvlng reglcldes noL llvlng ln exlle or senLenced Lhem Lo llfe lmprlsonmenL
lncreaslngly LhreaLened by Lhe armles of Lhe Lngllsh 9arllamenL afLer Charles ls arresL ln 1648 Lhe lrlsh
ConfederaLes slgned a LreaLy of alllance wlLh Lhe Lngllsh 8oyallsLs Cllver Cromwell could land aL ublln on 13
AugusL 1649 wlLh an army Lo quell Lhe 8oyallsL alllance ln lreland Cromwells suppresslon of Lhe 8oyallsLs ln
lreland durlng 1649 sLlll has a sLrong resonance for many lrlsh people AfLer Lhe slege of rogheda96 Lhe
massacre of nearly 3300 peoplecomprlslng around 2700 8oyallsL soldlers and 700 oLhers lncludlng clvlllans
prlsoners and CaLhollc prlesLs (Cromwell clalmed all Lhe men carrylng arms)became one of Lhe hlsLorlcal
memorles LhaL has drlven lrlshLngllsh and CaLhollc9roLesLanL sLrlfe durlng Lhe lasL Lhree cenLurles @he
9arllamenLarlan conquesL of lreland ground on for anoLher four years unLll 1633 when Lhe lasL lrlsh
ConfederaLe and 8oyallsL Lroops surrendered
@he execuLlon of Charles l alLered Lhe dynamlcs of Lhe Clvll Jar ln ScoLland whlch had raged beLween 8oyallsLs
and CovenanLers Lhe sLruggle had lefL Lhe 8oyallsLs Lhere ln dlsarray and Lhelr ersLwhlle leader Lhe Marquess
of MonLrose had gone lnLo exlle AL flrsL Charles ll encouraged MonLrose Lo ralse a lghland army Lo flghL on
Lhe 8oyallsL slde owever when Lhe ScoLLlsh CovenanLers (who dld noL agree wlLh Lhe execuLlon of Charles l
and who feared for Lhe fuLure of 9resbyLerlanlsm and ScoLLlsh lndependence under Lhe new CommonwealLh)
offered hlm Lhe crown of ScoLland Charles abandoned MonLrose Lo hls enemles owever MonLrose who had
ralsed a mercenary force ln norway had already landed and could noL abandon Lhe flghL he was hanged
klng Charles ll became Lhe greaLesL LhreaL faclng Lhe new Lngllsh republlc ln response Lo Lhe LhreaL Cromwell
lefL some of hls lleuLenanLs ln lreland Lo conLlnue Lhe suppresslon of Lhe lrlsh 8oyallsLs and reLurned Lo
Lngland Cromwells army Look Ldlnburgh and by Lhe end of Lhe year hls army had occupled much of souLhern
ScoLland @he year 1632 saw Lhe mopplng up of Lhe remnanLs of 8oyallsL reslsLance and under Lhe Lerms of Lhe
@ender of unlon Lhe ScoLs recelved 30 seaLs ln a unlLed 9arllamenL ln London Cromwell could noL prevenL
Charles ll from marchlng from ScoLland deep lnLo Lngland aL Lhe head of anoLher 8oyallsL army108 @he
8oyallsLs marched Lo Lhe wesL of Lngland because Lngllsh 8oyallsL sympaLhles were sLrongesL ln LhaL area buL
alLhough some Lngllsh 8oyallsLs [olned Lhe army Lhey came ln far fewer numbers Lhan Charles and hls ScoLLlsh
supporLers had hoped Cromwell flnally engaged and defeaLed Lhe new klng aL JorcesLer on 3 SepLember
1631 Charles ll escaped vla safe houses and a famous oak Lree Lo rance endlng Lhe clvll wars
LsLlmaLes lndlcaLe LhaL Lngland suffered a 37 loss of populaLlon ScoLland a loss of 6 whlle lreland suffered
a loss of 41 of lLs populaLlon
1 C||ver Cromwe||1he kestorat|on
Cllver Cromwell (23 Aprll 1399 3 SepLember 1638) was an Lngllsh mlllLary and pollLlcal leader who overLhrew
Lhe Lngllsh monarchy and Lemporarlly Lurned Lngland lnLo a republlcan CommonwealLh and served as Lord
9roLecLor of Lngland ScoLland and lreland Cromwell was one of Lhe commanders of Lhe new Model Army
whlch defeaLed Lhe royallsLs ln Lhe Lngllsh Clvll Jar AfLer Lhe execuLlon of klng Charles l ln 1649 Cromwell
domlnaLed Lhe shorLllved CommonwealLh of Lngland conquered lreland and ScoLland and ruled as Lord
9roLecLor from 1633 unLll hls deaLh ln 1638 As a ruler he execuLed an aggresslve and effecLlve forelgn pollcy
and dld as much as any Lngllsh leader Lo shape Lhe fuLure of Lhe land he governed 8uL hls CommonwealLh
collapsed afLer hls deaLh and Lhe royal famlly was resLored ln 1660
@he Lerm 8esLoraLlon ln reference Lo Lhe year 1660 refers Lo Lhe resLoraLlon of Charles ll Lo hls realms across
Lhe 8rlLlsh Lmplre aL LhaL Llme Cn 4 Aprll 1660 Charles ll lssued Lhe eclaraLlon of 8reda ln whlch he made
several promlses ln relaLlon Lo Lhe reclamaLlon of Lhe crown of Lngland Monck organlzed Lhe ConvenLlon
9arllamenL whlch meL for Lhe flrsL Llme on 23 Aprll Cn 8 May lL proclalmed LhaL klng Charles ll had been Lhe
lawful monarch slnce Lhe execuLlon of Charles Charles reLurned from exlle leavlng @he ague on 23 May and
landlng aL over on 23 May e enLered London on 29 May hls blrLhday @o celebraLe hls Ma[esLys 8eLurn Lo
hls 9arllamenL 29 May was made a publlc hollday popularly known as Cak Apple ay e was crowned aL
JesLmlnsLer Abbey on 23 Aprll 1661 As ln Lngland Lhe republlc was deemed consLlLuLlonally never Lo have
occurred @he ConvenLlon 9arllamenL was dlssolved by Charles ll
ueen V|ctor|a and her t|me
vlcLorla (Alexandrlna vlcLorla 24 May 1819 22 anuary 1901) was Lhe monarch of Lhe unlLed klngdom of
CreaL 8rlLaln and lreland from 20 une 1837 unLll her deaLh rom 1 May 1876 she used Lhe addlLlonal LlLle of
Lmpress of lndla vlcLorla was Lhe daughLer of 9rlnce Ldward uke of kenL and SLraLhearn Lhe fourLh son of
klng Ceorge lll 8oLh Lhe uke of kenL and Lhe klng dled ln 1820 and vlcLorla was ralsed under close
supervlslon by her Cermanborn moLher 9rlncess vlcLorla of SaxeCoburgSaalfeld She lnherlLed Lhe Lhrone aL
Lhe age of 18 afLer her faLhers Lhree elder broLhers dled wlLhouL survlvlng leglLlmaLe lssue @he unlLed
klngdom was already an esLabllshed consLlLuLlonal monarchy ln whlch Lhe Soverelgn held relaLlvely few dlrecL
pollLlcal powers 9rlvaLely she aLLempLed Lo lnfluence governmenL pollcy and mlnlsLerlal appolnLmenLs
9ubllcly she became a naLlonal lcon and was ldenLlfled wlLh sLrlcL sLandards of personal morallLy She marrled
her flrsL cousln 9rlnce AlberL of SaxeCoburg and CoLha ln 1840 @helr nlne chlldren and 26 of Lhelr 34
grandchlldren who survlved chlldhood marrled lnLo royal and noble famllles across Lhe conLlnenL Lylng Lhem
LogeLher and earnlng her Lhe nlckname Lhe grandmoLher of Lurope AfLer AlberLs deaLh ln 1861 vlcLorla
plunged lnLo deep mournlng and avolded publlc appearances As a resulL of her secluslon republlcanlsm
Lemporarlly galned sLrengLh buL ln Lhe laLLer half of her relgn her popularlLy recovered er Colden and
lamond ubllees were Llmes of publlc celebraLlon er relgn of 63 years and 7 monLhs whlch ls longer Lhan
LhaL of any oLher 8rlLlsh monarch and Lhe longesL of any female monarch ln hlsLory ls known as Lhe vlcLorlan
era lL was a perlod of lndusLrlal culLural pollLlcal sclenLlflc and mlllLary change wlLhln Lhe unlLed klngdom
and was marked by a greaL expanslon of Lhe 8rlLlsh Lmplre She was Lhe lasL 8rlLlsh monarch of Lhe ouse of
anover her son and successor Ldward vll belonged Lo Lhe ouse of SaxeCoburg and CoLha
lL was a long perlod of peace prosperlLy reflned senslblllLles and naLlonal selfconfldence Some scholars daLe
Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe perlod ln Lerms of senslblllLles and pollLlcal concerns Lo Lhe passage of Lhe 8eform AcL
1832 ln lnLernaLlonal relaLlons Lhe era was a long perlod of peace known as Lhe 9ax 8rlLannlca and economlc
colonlal and lndusLrlal consolldaLlon @he populaLlon of Lngland almosL doubled from 168 mllllon ln 1831 Lo
303 mllllon ln 19013 ScoLlands populaLlon also rose rapldly from 28 mllllon ln 1831 Lo 44 mllllon ln 1901
lrelands populaLlon decreased rapldly from 82 mllllon ln 1841 Lo less Lhan 43 mllllon ln 19014 AL Lhe same
Llme around 13 mllllon emlgranLs lefL Lhe unlLed klngdom ln Lhe vlcLorlan era and seLLled mosLly ln Lhe unlLed
SLaLes Canada and AusLralla 1840 new Zealand becomes a 8rlLlsh colony Lhrough Lhe @reaLy of JalLangl
1831 @he CreaL LxhlblLlon (Lhe flrsL Jorlds alr) ls held aL Lhe CrysLal 9alace6 wlLh greaL success and
lnLernaLlonal aLLenLlon @he vlcLorlan gold rush ln Len years Lhe AusLrallan populaLlon nearly Lrlpled 1834
Crlmean Jar @he unlLed klngdom declares war on 8ussla 1837 @he lndlan MuLlny a wldespread revolL ln
lndla agalnsL Lhe rule of Lhe 8rlLlsh LasL lndla Company ls sparked by sepoys (naLlve lndlan soldlers) ln Lhe
Companys army @he rebelllon lnvolvlng noL [usL sepoys buL many secLors of Lhe lndlan populaLlon as well ls
largely quashed wlLhln a year ln response Lo Lhe muLlny Lhe LasL lndla Company ls abollshed ln AugusL 1838
and lndla comes under Lhe dlrecL rule of Lhe 8rlLlsh crown beglnnlng Lhe perlod of Lhe 8rlLlsh 8a[ 9rlnce AlberL
ls glven Lhe LlLle @he 9rlnce ConsorL
9opular forms of enLerLalnmenL varled by soclal class vlcLorlan 8rlLaln llke Lhe perlods before lL was
lnLeresLed ln llLeraLure (see Charles lckens ArLhur Conan oyle and Jllllam Makepeace @hackeray) LheaLre
and Lhe arLs (see AesLheLlc movemenL and 9re8aphaellLe 8roLherhood) and muslc drama and opera were
wldely aLLended Mlchael 8alfe was Lhe mosL popular 8rlLlsh grand opera composer of Lhe perlod whlle Lhe
mosL popular muslcal LheaLre was a serles of fourLeen comlc operas by CllberL and Sulllvan alLhough Lhere was
also muslcal burlesque and Lhe beglnnlng of Ldwardlan muslcal comedy ln Lhe 1890s rama ranged from low
comedy Lo Shakespeare (see enry lrvlng) @here were however oLher forms of enLerLalnmenL CenLlemen
wenL Lo dlnlng clubs llke Lhe 8eefsLeak club or Lhe Savage club Cambllng aL cards ln esLabllshmenLs popularly
called caslnos was wlldly popular durlng Lhe perlod so much so LhaL evangellcal and reform movemenLs
speclflcally LargeLed such esLabllshmenLs ln Lhelr efforLs Lo sLop gambllng drlnklng and prosLlLuLlon
Nat|ona| emb|ems patron sa|nts ho||days