1st

HOW ARTS EDUCATION CREATES BETTER STUDENTS, BETTER OPPORTUNITIES AND BETTER FUTURES

OVERVIEW

"Let's remember why societies have always included the arts in every child's education. The reason is simple. The arts are a fundamentally important part of culture, and an education without them is an impoverished education leading to an impoverished society. Studying the arts should not have to be justified in terms of anything else. The arts are as important as the sciences: they are timehonored ways of learning, knowing and expressing."
Ellen Winner, Principal Investigator for Project Zero's REAP, Boston College and Harvard Graduate School of Education

When young people become engaged in the arts, something changes in their lives.
Arts advocates know this intuitively, but in a society that values measurement and datadriven research, the smiling faces of students are not enough to allocate scarce resources to funding arts education programs. During the past 10 years, however, a growing body of educational research has vindicated the intuition of the arts advocates. The verdict: Not only does arts education matter, but it can make an extraordinary difference in the educational experience and success of students:

Exposure to the arts changes the learning experience. This change touches everyone arts education comes into contact with, offering new challenges for successful students and often providing the only engagement opportunity for students considered classroom failures. Arts education transforms the learning environment, connecting classroom activities to the increasingly idea-based economy and workplace. These changes are broad, beneficial, and of long-term impact to students' lives. The impacts of an arts-rich learning experience go far beyond students' knowledge of the humanities and range from better overall academic achievement and lower dropout rates to a greater recognition of the importance of community service. The positive impacts in urban settings are particularly significant. A 10-year study of high school students across the nation found that while an arts-rich education helped all students, the impact to students from a low-income background was particularly strong. This evidence is correlated in Chicago, where arts education played a significant role in one of the highest profile district turnarounds of the past 20 years. Arts education works both inside and outside the classroom. Research indicates that non-school programs that center on the arts such as community youth programs in Boys and Girls Clubs, YMCAs, and performing and cultural arts centers and museumsoffer highly effective learning environments for older children and teenagers who face circumstances that place them at risk.

In 1999, the findings from several major studies were compiled into Champions of Change: The Impact of the Arts on Learning. This report, funded by the GE Fund and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, presented qualitative and quantitative data on how the arts can improve academic performance, energize teachers, and transform learning environments. Much of this paper is drawn from Champions of Change or from its root research sources. Critical Links: Learning in the Arts and Student Academic and Social Development, YouthARTS: Arts Programs for Youth at Risk, Imaginative Actuality: Learning in the Arts During the Nonschool Hours and other research papers provided valuable information as well. A full listing is contained in the appendix.

CHANGING

THE

LEARNING

EXPERIENCE

"The arts teach young people how to learn by giving them the first steps: the desire to learn. If young Americans are to succeed and to contribute to what Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan describes as our 'economy of ideas,' they will need an education that develops imaginative, flexible and toughminded thinking. The arts powerfully nurture the ability to think in this manner."
Richard W. Riley, Former U.S. Secretary of Education

Including the arts in a student's education changes the learning experience at a very basicand very positive level.
This conclusion, reached independently by multiple researchers over more than 10 years, has enormous impact in how we as a community educate our children and allocate resources. Why do arts change the learning experience? Consider the research results: The arts reach students who are not otherwise being reached. Researchers found that the arts provided a reason, and sometimes the only reason, for disengaged youth to become engaged with school or other organizations. The arts reach students in untraditional ways. Young people considered classroom failures often became the high achievers in arts-learning settings. Success in the arts became a bridge to learning and eventual success in other areas of learning. The arts connect students to themselves and each other. By engaging his or her whole person in creating an artwork, the student feels invested in ways that are deeper than "knowing the answer." Attitudes of young people toward one another also are altered through their arts learning experiences. The arts transform the environment for learning. When the arts become integrated into the learning environment, schools and other settings become places of discovery. The school culture is changed and the conditions for learning are improved. The arts provide learning opportunities for the adults as well as young people. In effective programs, teachers, parents, and other adults become coaches and active facilitators of learning. Young people gain an understanding that learning in any field is a never-ending process, and the dynamics between the young and the less-young learners are altered. The arts provide new challenges for those students already considered successful. Boredom and complacency are barriers to success. For students who outgrow their established learning environments, the arts can offer a chance for unlimited challenge. In some situations, older students may also teach and mentor younger students, providing them additional challenges and opportunities for growth. The arts connect learning experiences to the world of real work. The arts mirror the workplace, where ideas and knowledge matter. The ability to generate ideas, to bring them to life and to communicate them both in the classroom, in the community and in the workplace are keys to success. The arts impact students in need of an extra boost. Arts education increases learning and achievement among economically disadvantaged and learning disabled students. Students needing remedial instruction and very young children also benefit greatly from arts education.

EFFECTIVE

ARTS

EDUCATION

"During the past quarter century, literally thousands of school-based programs nave demonstrated beyond question that the arts can not only bring coherence to our fragmented academic world, but through the arts, students' performance in other academic disciplines can be enhanced as well"
Ernest L. Boyer. Former President of The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching

The most effective arts programs share common traits that could be applied as best practices.
The research showed that to be effective, arts learning experiences must: Enable young people to have direct involvement with the arts and artists through hands-on experiences that actively engage them with artistic content, materials, and methods. Require significant staff development, adequate staff preparation, and strong administrative support. Support extended engagement in the artistic process through expanded program length and enhanced learning opportunities that are not limited to place. School is just one of many settings where this learning occurs. Encourage self-directed learning, whereby students become their own toughest critics. Learners develop the capacity to experience "flow," self-regulation, identity, and resilience qualities regularly associated with personal success. Promote complexity in the learning experience, discouraging boredom and allowing for multiple outcomes. Allow management of risk by the learners, allowing them "permission to fail" and to make decisions concerning artistic outcomes and even their lives. Encourage community leaders and resources to pursue active engagement and to take a role in shaping and implementing the policies and programs.

The Champions of Change and Critical Links studies demonstrate how involvement with the arts provides unparalleled opportunities for learning, enabling young people to reach for and attain higher levels of achievement. This research provides examples and evidence of why the arts should be more widely recognized for its current and potential contributions to the improvement of American education, both inside and outside the formal classroom. Research data and case studies have provided compelling evidence that the arts can and do serve as champions of change in learning. Yet realizing the full potential of learning through the arts for all American children will require commitment and support from all segments of our society. To meet and exceed the challenge of giving our young people the best possible preparation we can offer them, we must make involvement with the arts a basic part of their learning experience. In doing so, we will become champions for our children and their children.

THE

ARTS

IN

LEARNING:

BY

THE

NUMBERS

"Young people who are involved in making something beautiful today are less likely to turn to acts of violence and destruction tomorrow. The arts provide opportunities for youth from all backgrounds to do something positive and creative with their talents and their time. We all need to support the arts. In doing so, we are telling America's youth that we believe in them and value what they can be."
Janet Reno, Former Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice

Students with high levels of arts participation outperform "arts-poor" students on virtually every measure; learning in and through the arts helps level the playing field for those from disadvantaged circumstances.
Based on an analysis of Department of Education data covering more than 25,000 students over 10 years, UCLA Graduate School of Education and Information Studies Professor James. S. Catterall found that sustained involvement in the arts correlates with success in other subjects and in developing positive attitudes about community both generally and also for children in poverty. Catterall's study used a definition of "involvement in the arts" that gave students credit for taking arts-related classes in or out of school as well as involvement and leadership in school activities such as theater, band, orchestra, chorus, dance, and the visual arts. His research revealed:

Involvement in the arts contributes to: higher academic performance, increased standardized test scores, more community service and lower drop-out rates. Educational benefits were reaped by students regardless of their socioeconomic status (SES). Other benefits of arts-intensive education curricula included marked differences in television watching habits, with arts-involved youngsters watching considerably less. The relative advantage of involvement in the arts increases appreciably over time. Students involved consistently with the arts at a younger age benefit more than those exposed later in their education. This general pattern of increasing advantages goes beyond test scores. High arts youngsters did comparatively better on multiple measures as they passed from grade 8 to grade 12. Sustained involvement in particular art forms music and theater are highly correlated with success in mathematics and reading.

There are substantial differences in the family income and education levels between the high arts and low arts groups high arts participation remains almost twice as high for students from economically advantaged families, and the probability of low arts involvement is about twice as high if one comes from an economically disadvantaged family. However, high arts participation makes a more significant difference to students from low-income backgrounds than for high-income students. Math and readingtwo of the core skills most clearly tied to academic success in college and lifelong learning capability benefit particularly from an arts-intensive education. For example, both high- and low-SES students who were involved in music did substantially better in mathematics than average. Similarly, involvement in theater indicates a strong correlation to reading proficiency.

In addition, increased self-esteem is often considered a corollary benefit of involvement with drama and theater, so Catterall examined the progression of self-concept over grades 8 through 12 and compared theater-involved to non-involved low SES students. His findings show that the high drama group maintained a small edge in self concept throughout the study. Both groups gain over the four years involved, and a slightly bigger gap favoring those intensively involved in theater opened up by grade 12. How Chicago used arts to boost academics in high-poverty areas A real-world example is the Chicago Public School District, which saw significant student improvement in reading and mathematics in 14 high-poverty schools in which the Chicago Arts Partnerships in Education (CAPE) developed arts-integrated curricula over a six-year period. Schools across Chicago, including all those in the study, had been improving student performance. But, when compared to arts-poor schools in the same neighborhoods, the CAPE schools advanced even more quickly and now boast a significant gap in achievement along many dimensions. There were many benefits for both teachers and students in the program, but CAPE academic impacts were most substantial in the areas of mathematics and reading. Prior to CAPE, CPS schools averaged about 28 percent at or above grade level; CAPE schools averaged about 40 percent. By 1998, more than 60 percent of CAPE sixth graders were performing at grade level on standard tests, while the remainder of the CPS schools averaged just over 40 percent. This gain is sizeable and significant. Beyond classrooms: The arts in after-school programs After a decade study, Shirley Brice Heath of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and Stanford University found that youth in arts programs were achieving more in both school and their personal lives than those from the same socioeconomic categories. In fact, students involved in the arts programs were doing even better than those in programs that focused on sports and community involvement. Compared to the national sample, youths in non-school arts-based programs are:

"It's time we realize just how much our future depends on how well we integrate the magic and creativity of the arts into the lives of future generations. With the pervasive nature of violence, crime and drugs in our society today, we must pursue every avenue to diminish the destructive impact these social problems have on our young people. Participation in the arts can be that positive, engaging vehicle that sparks the imagination of our children, makes a difference in their lives, and enriches their communities." William Ivey, Former Chairman, National Endowment for the Arts

25% more likely to report feeling satisfied with themselves 31% more likely to say they plan to continue education after high school Eight times more likely to receive a community service award Three times more likely to win an award for school attendance Twice as likely to win an award for academic achievement Four times more likely to participate in a science or math fair 23% more likely to say they can do things as well as most other people 23% more likely to feel they can make plans and work from them More frequent attendees of music, art, and dance classes by a factor of three More frequent participants in youth groups by nearly a factor of four More than twice as likely to read for pleasure More than four times as likely to perform community service

In fact, the correlation between arts education and higher achievement was so striking that Heath wrote: "Our research has led us to refer to 'the arts creep.' We use this phrase to refer to the ability of the arts to slip into many aspects of modern life, whether com-puter technology, advertising or the law. At a deeper level, it refers to the capacity of the habits of mind, developed through engagement in the arts, to seep into and through other aspects of learning" Learning through the arts improves learning in other domains Judy Burton, Rob Horowitz and Hal Abeles at the Center for Arts Education Research at Teachers College Columbia University in New York provide compelling evidence that student achievement is heightened in an environment with high quality arts education and a school climate supportive of active, productive learning. Their study, "Learning In and Through the Arts," and other Champions of Change studies found much evidence that learning in the arts has significant effect on learning in other domains. The study suggests a dynamic model in which learning in one domain supports and stimulates learning in others, which in turn supports and stimulates learning in a complex web of influence described as a "constellation." Findings in Critical Links: Learning in the Arts and Student Academic and Social Development also show a relationship between arts education and learning in other academic areas. In the study overview, James S. Catterall notes that learning in the arts "transfers" to assist learning in other contexts. The sixty-two studies included in Critical Links link arts learning to capacities such as spatial reasoning, persistence, social tolerance and even SAT scores. Arts experiences enhance critical thinking abilities and outcomes Students preparing for what Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan describes as America's "economy of ideas" need an education that develops imaginative, flexible, and tough-minded thinking. In examining the offerings of ArtsConnection, the largest outside provider of arts education for the New York City public school system, researchers at the National Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development at the University of Connecticut found that students involved in the arts were motivated to learn not just for test results or other performance outcomes, but for the learning experience itself. The Young Talent program, developed and implemented by ArtsConnection over the past 20 years, provided researchers with a unique opportunity to examine the conditions, experiences and realities of talent development for a diverse spectrum of urban students over an extended period of time. A large majority of the students in the study achieved a high level of success in the arts, in school, and in their career choices. In addition, the study revealed how the development of artistic talents can positively affect personal qualities and behavioral indicators such as resilience, self-regulation, identity, and the ability to experience flow. Four major factors emerged as key to the students' continued pursuit of arts training in the face of obstacles. These were: family support; instructional opportunities; community, peer and school support; and innate personal considerations and motivation. The interaction among these factors helped fuel the students' progress in talent development.

"Pyramids, cathedrals and rockets exist not because of geometry, theories of structures or thermodynamics, but because they were first a picture literally a vision in the minds of those who built them."
Eugene Ferguson, Historian

CONCLUSIONS

"When I examine myself and my method of thought, I come to the conclusion that the gift of fantasy has meant more to me than my talent for absorbing knowledge."
Albert Einstein

The arts matter immensely as a critical tool for preparing tomorrow's leaders, workers and professionals. They are not something to be considered "only when the basics are in place" The arts are basic.
After more than a decade of research and thousands of data points, the results are conclusive: Arts education isn't cutting edge, experimental, or unproven it has demonstrated its value in higher grades and other positive trends across urban and suburban student groups and across the full range of socioeconomic levels. The arts teach skills that cut across all other disciplines and particularly bolster the core areas of reading and math. Arts education reaches students that might otherwise be classroom failures, giving them both a channel for learning and the skills to master other areas. Arts education is portable, providing benefits both as in-classroom curricula and as special or after-school programs. Although all socioeconomic classes of students benefit from arts education, the impact is particularly strong among disadvantaged students. Arts education directly mirrors the multifaceted, knowledgebased economy that we must prepare students to work in. Arts education provides scholastic achievement and community involvement benefits as great or greater than sports programs.

Arts education requires students to engage in learning activities that require use of higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Therefore, education isabove allan activity of the mind. In finding systemic ways to make the arts a meaningful part of every American child's life, we can make the everyday learning experiences of young children less ordinary and more extraordinary.

APPENDIX AND TABLES

Figure 1: Comparisons of High Arts vs. Low Arts Students in Grades 8 and 10, All vs. Low SES Background

All Students High Arts Grade 8 Academic Performance Earning mostly As and Bs in English Scoring in top 2 quartiles on standard tests Dropping out by grade 10 Bored in school half or most of the time Grade 10 Academic Performance Scoring in top 2 quartiles, Grade 10 standard test composite Scoring in top 2 quartiles in Reading Scoring in top 2 quartiles in history, citizenship, geography Grade 10 Attitudes and Behaviors Consider community service important or very important Percentage watching 1 hour or less of weekday television Percentage watching 3 hours or more of weekday television
Figure 2: Involvement in the Arts and Academic Performance

Low SES Students High Arts 64.5% 29.5% 6.5% 41.0% 41.4% 43.8% 41.6% 49.2% 16.4% 33.6% Low Arts 56.4% 24.5% 9.4% 46.0% 24.9% 28.4% 28.6% 40.7% 13.3% 42.0%

Low Arts 64.2% 42.7% 4.8% 48.9% 45.0% 45.1% 46.3% 33.9% 15.1% 34.9%

79.2% 66.8% 1.4% 42.2% 72.5% 70.9% 70.9% 46.6% 28.2% 20.6%

High Involvement 8th Grade Earning mostly As and Bs in English Scoring in top 2 quartiles on standard tests Dropping out by grade 10 Bored in school half or most of the time 10th Grade Top 2 quartiles, standard tests Top 2 quartiles, reading Level 2 (high) reading proficiency Top 2 quartiles in history, citizenship, geography 12th Grade Top 2 quartiles, standard tests Top 2 quartiles, reading Level 2 (high) reading proficiency Top 2 quartiles in history, citizenship, geography

Low Involvement

82.6% 67.3% 1.4% 37.9% 65.7% 64.7%

61.0%

67.2% 49.6% 3.7% 45.9% 47.5% 45.4%

43.5%

62.9% 57.4% 56.5%

58.8%

47.4% 39.3% 37.7%

42.9%

54.6%

39.7%

Source for figures 1 and 2: Involvement in the Arts and Human Development: General Involvement and Intensive Involvement in Music and Theater Arts, James S. Catterall, Richard Chapleau, and John Iwanaga

Figure 3: Comparative Advantages in Composite Test Scores, High vs. Low Arts, Grades 8 through 12

Figure 4: Comparative Advantages, High vs. Low Arts, Low SES Students, Grades 8 through 12, Standardized Test Scores

Figure 5: Percentage of Students Scoring High Math Proficiency, by involvement level in instrumental music, Low SES

Figure 6: CAPE vs. All Chicago Elementary Schools, Grade 6 ITBS Math, Percent above grade level, 1992-1998

Source for figures 3, 4, and 5: Involvement in the Arts and Human Development: General Involvement and Intensive Involvement in Music and Theater Arts, James S. Catterall, Richard Chapleau, and John Iwanaga Source for figure 6: Chicago Arts Partnerships in Education: Summary Evaluation, James S. Catterall and Lynn Waldorf

Figure 7: CAPE vs. Matched Elementary Schools, Grade 6 ITBS Reading, Percent above grade level, 1992-1998

Figure 8: CAPE vs. All Chicago High Schools, Grade 9 TAP Reading, average grade level, 1992-1998

Source for figures 7 and 8: Chicago Arts Partnerships in Education: Summary Evaluation, James S. Catterall and Lynn Waldorf

Figure 9: Creative Thinking Abilities

Source for figure 9: Learning in and Through the Arts: Curriculum Implications, Judith Burton, Robert Horowitz, and Hal Abeles

Figure 10: Arts Involvement and General Competencies

Source for figure 10: Learning in and Through the Arts: Curriculum Implications, Judith Burton, Robert Horowitz, and Hal Abeles

Multi-arts Programs Integrated arts/academics Reading, verbal and mathematics skills. Creative thinking. Achievement motivation. Cognitive engagement. Instructional practice in the school. Professional culture of the school. School climate. Community engagement and identity. Intensive arts experience Self-confidence. Risk-taking. Paying attention. Persevering. Empathy for others. Self-initiating. Task persistence. Ownership of learning. Collaboration skills. Leadership. Reduced dropout rates. Educational aspirations. Higher-order thinking skills. Arts-rich school environment Creativity. Engagement/attendance. Range of personal and social developments. Higher-order thinking skills.

Figure 11: Compendium Summary. The Arts and Academic and Social Outcomes

Arts Learning:

Cognitive Capacities and Motivations to Learn:

Visual Arts Drawing...........................................................Content and organization of writing. Visualization training ...................................Sophisticated reading skills/interpretation of text. Reasoning about art ......................................Reasoning about scientific images. Instruction in visual art .................................Reading readiness. Music Early childhood music training....................Cognitive development. Music listening ...............................................Spatial reasoning. Spatial temporal reasoning. Quality of writing. Prolixity of writing. Piano/keyboard learning..............................Mathematics proficiency. Spatial reasoning. Piano and voice .............................................Long-term spatial temporal reasoning. Music performance ........................................Self-efficacy. Self-concept. Instrument training........................................Reading. SAT Verbal scores. Music with language learning .....................English skills for ESL learners. Classroom Drama Dramatic enactment.......................................Story comprehension (oral and written). Character identification. Character motivation. Increased peer interaction. Writing proficiency and prolixity. Conflict resolution skills. Concentrated thought. Understanding social relationships. Ability to understand complex issues and emotions. Engagement. Skill with subsequently read, unrelated texts. Problem-solving dispositions/strategies. General self-concept. Dance Traditional Dance...........................................Self-confidence. Persistence. Reading skills. Nonverbal reasoning. Expressive skills. Creativity in poetry. Social tolerance. Appreciation of individual/group social development. Creative Dance ...............................................General creative thinking - fluency. General creative thinking - originality, elaboration, flexibility.

Additional case studies show arts benefits for the community at large The U.S. Department of Juvenile Justice in its YouthARTS Development Project in Atlanta, Portland, and San Antonio, found that programs designed to deter delinquent behavior of at-risk youth improved academic performance, reduced delinquency, and increased the skills of communication, conflict resolution, completion of challenging tasks, and teamwork. The program includes these preliminary findings:

A greater proportion of YouthARTS program participants showed improvements in their attitudes toward school, self-esteem, self-efficacy, positive peer associations, and resistance to peer pressure than did comparison youth. In Atlanta, comparing self-reported youth attitudes for eight core participants before and after the program, 25% of the youth who participated in the arts program had a more favorable attitude toward school than they did at the beginning of the program, 12.5% had a more favorable attitude toward not using drugs and 50% reported a decrease in their delinquent behaviors. In Portland, 31.6% of the 19 participants' attitudes toward school changed to more favorable with only 7.7% of the 13 comparison youth attitudes changing to more favorable. In San Antonio, the greatest change in attitudes between 111 participants and 29 comparison youth was a change in reporting delinquent behavior 16.4% of participant youth reported less frequent delinquent behavior with only 3.4% of comparison youth reporting that they committed delinquent behavior less frequently. The majority of YouthARTS participants maintained or showed noticeable improvements in their program-related skills by the end of the program. In Atlanta, 28% of the eight core youth were communicating effectively with peers at the beginning of the program. By the end of the program, this percentage increased to 85.7%. Skills necessary to produce art changed from 51.7% at pre-program to 100% at post-program, and cooperating with others changed from 42.9% at pre-program to 85.7% at post-program. In Portland, while only 43% of the 21 demonstrated an ability to cooperate with others at the start of the program, 100% of the participants did so by the end of the 12 weeks. In San Antonio, approximately 72% of 78 participants worked on tasks from start to finish at the start of the program, whereas nearly 85% did so by the end of the program. While only 65% of participants demonstrated the skills necessary to produce quality artwork at the start of the program, 82% did so by the end of the program.

The arts also prepare students for jobs and bolster economic development:

Skill requirements for all workers are going up, including those in production and support jobs. In the modern business environment, the ability to communicate, adapt, diagnose problems, and find creative solutions is more important than ever before. These attributes can be nurtured and honed through studying the arts. In a study of 142 businesses, most agreed that cultural amenities, including arts education, were important "quality of life" factors in their location decisions. Businesses say that schools are the most important vehicle for enhancing awareness of and interest in the arts. (Source: A Study of the Perceptions of Business ~ and Community Leaders Regarding the Economic Importance of the Arts and Arts Education in Mississippi, 1991.) Employers look at educational levels and certificates, but what is more important to employers is how the applicant presents himself or herself in terms of attitude and communication skills. (Source: Educational Quality of the Workforce National Employer Survey: First Findings, 1995.) The $36 billion nonprofit arts industry is a source of future employment for students. The arts provide about 1.3 million jobs per year, a fact sometimes overlooked by educators. The economic dimensions of the nonprofit arts sector are extensive at $36 billion. It jumps to $314 billion when the commercial arts sector is added. (Source: Arts in the Local Economy, National Assembly of Local Arts Agencies, 1994; 1992 State of the Arts Report, National Endowment for the Arts.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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O'Farrell, L. (1993). Enhancing the practice of drama in education through research. Palmer Wolf, D. (1999). Why the Arts Matter in Education: Or Just What do Children Learn When They Create an Opera. In E. B. Fiske (Ed.), Champions of Change: The Impact of the Arts on Learning (pp. 91-98). Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership. Seidel, S. (1999). Stand and Unfold Yourself: A Monograph on the Shakespeare & Company Research Study. In E. B. Fiske (Ed.), Champions of Change: The Impact of the Arts on Learning (pp. 79-90). Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership. U.S. Labor Department's Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. (1994). Arts in the Local Economy, National Assembly of Local Arts Agencies. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. U.S. Labor Department's Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. (1992). 1992 State of the Arts report, National Endowment for the Arts. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor.