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Sint-Romboutscollege Mechelen

Fascinating Magnetism!
The phenomena caused by the magnetic field of the sun

Promotor: de Heer L. VERVOORT

C. VERBEKE Grieks-Wiskunde 6D, nr. 5 Schooljaar 2008-2009

Preface
Satisfaction: this is what I first felt when I realised I finished my final work. Its great to be capable of saying I reached my purpose and overlook the result. To realise it, I spent a lot of time on it, learning tremendously and having fun at the same time. Thats why I would like to thank some people who supported and helped me to complete this paper. First I would like to thank my Dad because he has been supporting me from the very beginning, starting at creating ideas for my final work until finishing the very last bit. I would like to thank my Mum for driving me to the library every time and the people of Urania who made it possible for me to lend out the books I needed for this paper and especially Mrs Jozefa De Laet. I thank my school, the Sint-Romboutscollege, for making it possible to make this paper and for letting me experience this. I thank Mrs Messiaen because she checked my final work on English grammar and spelling. I want to thank Mr Onsia too for willing to answer questions and for his concern. Last but not least I would like to thank my promoter, Mr Vervoort, for the great confidence in me, for helping me, for reading my final work and giving good advice. Thanks to all. Enjoy the reading! Christine Verbeke

A summary of my paper generated by Wordle.

Table of contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 6 Chapter 1: Anatomy of the sun ............................................................................................... 7 1.1 The three outer layers of the sun ...................................................................................... 7 1.2 The photosphere ............................................................................................................... 7 1.3 The chromosphere ............................................................................................................ 7 1.4 The corona ........................................................................................................................ 8 Chapter 2: Observation of the sun........................................................................................ 10 2.1 History ............................................................................................................................ 10 2.2 Light ............................................................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 Visible light ............................................................................................................. 10 2.2.2 Composition of light ................................................................................................ 11 2.2.3 Non-visible light ...................................................................................................... 11 2.3 Spectroscopy .................................................................................................................. 11 2.3.1. Introduction to spectroscopy .................................................................................. 11 2.3.2 Continuous spectrum ............................................................................................... 11 2.3.3 Line spectrum .......................................................................................................... 11 2.3.3.1 Absorption spectrum ........................................................................................ 11 2.3.3.2 Emission spectrum............................................................................................ 12 2.3.4 The Zeemaneffect..................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 3: The solar cycle ..................................................................................................... 13 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 13 3.2 Differential rotation ........................................................................................................ 13 3.3 When the years pass ................................................................................................... 13 3.4 Other cycles .................................................................................................................... 15 3.4.1 The 22-year-cycle .................................................................................................... 15 3.4.2 The 27-day-cycle ..................................................................................................... 15 3.4.3 Other cycles? ........................................................................................................... 16 3.5 Solar maximum and minimum ....................................................................................... 16 3.6 Mysteries of the solar cycle ............................................................................................ 16 Chapter 4: Phenomena caused by the magnetic field of the sun ....................................... 17 4.1 Sunspots ......................................................................................................................... 17 4.1.1 What are sunspots? ................................................................................................. 17 4.1.2 What do sunspots look like? .................................................................................... 17 4.2 Prominences ................................................................................................................... 18 4.2.1 What is a prominence? ............................................................................................ 18 4.2.2 What is a prominence made of? .............................................................................. 19 4.2.3 How do prominences originate? ............................................................................. 19 4.2.4 What do prominences look like? ............................................................................. 20 4.2.4.1 Different groups of prominences ...................................................................... 20 4.2.4.2 Quiescent prominences .................................................................................... 20 4.2.4.3 Active prominences .......................................................................................... 20 4.2.4.4 Eruptive prominences ....................................................................................... 20 4.3 Coronal holes.................................................................................................................. 21 4.4 Corona loops .................................................................................................................. 21

5 4.4.1 What is a corona loop? ........................................................................................... 21 4.4.2 Where and when do corona loops originate? ......................................................... 21 4.5 Solar flare ....................................................................................................................... 22 4.5.1 What is a solar flare? .............................................................................................. 22 4.5.2 Where and how do sun flares originate? ................................................................ 23 4.6 Coronal mass ejections ................................................................................................... 24 4.6.1 What is a coronal mass ejection? ............................................................................ 24 4.6.2 Reconnection ........................................................................................................... 24 4.7 Solar wind ...................................................................................................................... 25 4.7.1 What is the solar wind? ........................................................................................... 25 4.7.2 What do we know about the solar wind?................................................................. 25 4.7.3 Heliosphere ............................................................................................................. 26 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 27 Glossary ................................................................................................................................... 28 Appendix I: The sun in figures.............................................................................................. 31 Appendix II: Anatomy of the sun ......................................................................................... 33 Appendix III: Granulation .................................................................................................... 34 Appendix IV: Spicules ........................................................................................................... 35 Appendix V: The most important satellites observing the sun .......................................... 36 Appendix VI: Wavelengths ................................................................................................... 41 Appendix VII: Absorption lines in the suns spectrum ...................................................... 42 Appendix VIII: The solar cycle ............................................................................................. 43 Appendix IX: Butterfly-diagram .......................................................................................... 44 Appendix X: The Wolf-numbers .......................................................................................... 45 Appendix XI: Filaments and prominences .......................................................................... 49 Appendix XII: The reconnection of magnetic loops ........................................................... 50 Appendix XIII: Different prominences ................................................................................ 51 Appendix XIV: Polar crown.................................................................................................. 53 Appendix XV: Coronal holes ................................................................................................ 54 Appendix XVI: Coronal mass ejection ................................................................................. 55 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 56 Webography ............................................................................................................................ 58

Introduction
The suns magnetic field and its effect on the suns plasma* 1 are complex phenomena to understand and to explain. However, even if youre not an expert on this subject, you still should be capable to understand this paper on the magnetic field of the sun. In the first chapter you will find an introduction to the anatomy of the sun which can be helpful to understand the phenomena described in the following chapters. Chapter two contains some history and facts about the observation of the sun: always interesting to know. Next you will find a brief explanation of the suns magnetic field in chapter three and four. Chapter three deals with the magnetic field from a long term perspective. It describes the socalled solar cycle*. Chapter four is about the magnetic field on a smaller scale. Sunspots and solar flares* are well-known, but what is the underlying explanation for these phenomena? I must admit that science is not yet capable to fully explain all the phenomena that originate from the suns magnetic field. Most of the time, astronomers can explain what happens, but they cannot tell exactly why. Thats why astronomy is an important science and even today a lot of questions remain unresolved!

Words which are explained in the glossary are marked with a *.

Chapter 1: Anatomy of the sun

1.1 The three outer layers of the sun The three outer layers of the sun are: the photosphere*, the chromosphere* and the corona*. In these three layers the phenomena caused by the magnetic field take place. You can find the sun in figures in appendix I and a cross-cut of the sun in appendix II. 1.2 The photosphere 2 If we look at the sun 3 , it is the photosphere* ('sphere of light') we can see. The photosphere is the innermost of the three outer layers and it is about 500km thick, which is negligible in comparison with the suns total diameter. Because the other two layers are transparent to most wavelengths of visible light, we see through them and hence we see the photosphere. The photosphere has a temperature of around 5800K and consists of plasma*. It emits 99% of the total radiation. 4 Only by observing the sun's surface, we can already spot different phenomena: for example granulation* (see appendix III) caused by convection*. A super granule can even reach a diameter larger than the earths and can contain more than 900 smaller granules! We can also observe sun spots that are caused by the sun's magnetic field. This phenomenon will be discussed in section 4.1. 1.3 The chromosphere 5 The chromosphere* (colour sphere) is the layer above the photosphere*. It is about 10 000 kilometres thick. Hence it is also a thin layer of the suns structure because it is just one percent of the suns total diameter. For centuries, this layer has been only visible during total solar eclipses* (see figure 1). Nowadays astronomers are able to continuously observe the chromosphere by using special filters that let only pass light with wavelengths that are strongly emitted by the chromosphere and (almost) not by the photosphere. In observation, many different emission lines* can be detected, but the H is the brightest for the photosphere. H means that the emitted light of the chromosphere is coming from hydrogen atoms. Thats why the chromosphere spreads out a red glue. The chromosphere is colder than the photosphere. The temperature falls to 4000K, but if we move further away from the sun, the temperature will increase again, which is very surprising, since we move outwards. It will even reach a temperature of 10 000K. In the colder chromosphere we can find lots of jets of gas, which are called spicules*. Spicules can last for several minutes and every second more than 300 000 spicules cover the suns chromosphere. 6 A picture of such spicules can be found in appendix IV.

2 COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, p. 288-289. 3 Never try to look at the sun without special eye protection or, if you are using a telescope, without a safe solar filter. 4 LILENSTEN, J. and BORNAREL, J., Sous les feux du soleil, EDP Sciences, Les Ulis Cedex A, 2001, p. 24. 5 COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eight edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, p. 290. 6 COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, p.291.

Figure 1: The chromosphere, spreading out red. http://www.windows.ucar.edu/sun/images/eclipse/chromosphere_sun_eclipse_1999.jpg

1.4 The corona 7 A lot of people have already seen a (partial) solar eclipse*. On some places, when the moon is completely in front of the sun, we can see a wonderful glow appearing around the dark shadow of the moon. This wide-stretched expanding glue of light is called the corona*. However, we cannot see the sun's corona when there isn't a solar eclipse, because the light emitted by the sun's surface outshines the corona's light by far. Yet, we can use a coronagraph to observe the sun. This instrument is like a telescope, but it covers the surface of the sun with a black circle. If we take a closer look at the sun's corona, we can distinguish some visible structures, such as corona loops, which are explained in chapter 4. The lines which can be observed in the corona, suggest that the sun has a strong magnetic field.

Figure 2: The suns corona. http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap060407.html

The corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is a very tenuous layer of the sun. Yet, it reaches a temperature of over one million Kelvin. This enormous increase of the temperature was discovered around 1940 by Bengt Edln (a Swedish professor of physics and astronomer who was specialized in spectroscopy*, 1906-1993), who did some experiments with ionized gas. 8 The spectrum* of the suns corona contained much emission lines* from
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SMITS, F., De corona. Heelal, February 1999, p. 40-42. GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, p. 31.

9 some highly ionised elements, for example Fe13+, which tells us that the corona has a temperature from one million Kelvin up to two million Kelvin. 9 Despite this very high temperature, the corona has a very low density. If it had the density of the suns surface, it would certainly outshine the photosphere*. 10 Yet, not all the secrets of the corona have been solved yet. Some scientists already had some ideas of where the high temperature of the corona comes from but none of them are fully satisfactory. One of the explanations is the theory of the spicules*. These spicules would heat the temperature of the corona, since they are very common on the suns surface. On the other hand it is possible that little solar flares* heat up the corona. Their amount seems so large, that these small solar flares can be an important element in the explanation for the high temperature of the suns corona. But the most acceptable explanation so far is the one of the Alfvn waves. 11 Alfvn waves are formed by the local movement of the magnetic fields. The gas in the corona moves upwards and downwards along the magnetic field lines. But the gas struggles against this vibration. The Alfvn wave will lose its energy and it will convert this energy into heat. But there are also many other possible explanations for the extremely high temperature of the suns corona. Recently the idea of reconnection* has been developed. The concept of the reconnection is briefly explained in the section of solar flares. 12 The suns corona may look ordinary, but yet, it gives birth to an event that is called the solar wind* (see chapter 4). This solar wind is caused by an outflow of gases, coming from the sun. 13 Its important to understand how the solar wind works, because the solar wind can cause some aggravating side effects on earth, for example it can cut off the electricity on earth for millions of people or disturb the working of satellites, if it gets too strong. But the solar wind also causes the beautiful phenomenon of the aurora* on earth! Yet, this is not the focus of this paper.

GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, p. 31. 10 NASA, The corona. Internet (http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/corona.shtml), 18/01/07. COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, p. 291. 11 DAY, C., Alfvn waves may heat the Suns corona. Internet (http://blogs.physicstoday.org/update/2009/03/ alfven-waves-may-heat-the-suns.html), 31/03/09. 12 JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 49. 13 BEATTY, J.K., PETERSEN, C.C. and CHAIKIN, A., The new solar system, eighth edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, p. 28.

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Chapter 2: Observation of the sun

2.1 History Men have been observing the sun from the very beginning. We know that the sun was very important for the prehistoric people; many historical monuments testify this. One of the most famous monuments is Stonehenge. 14 Men were constructing Stonehenge for centuries during the Stone Age. We cannot assume that ancient observers of the sun could predict solar eclipses*, but they were able to build a construction, that was adjusted to the rising of the sun on special days, such as Solstice*. Stonehenge is not the only example of the importance of the sun over the years. There is also Newgrange, a well-known passage-tomb situated in Ireland, north of Dublin and many other monuments. In the beginning, our sun was regarded as a God. Nowadays, we no longer see the sun as a God or a natural force. But still the sun is strongly influencing our lives. It still provides us with light and warmth and makes it possible to live on earth. Many scientists have been interested in the sun. All of them wanted to know how the sun really functions. Lets take a quick tour through the history of the observation of the sun. Scientists of ancient China made the first record of a solar eclipse in 2134 B.C. In the Middle Ages Galileo (15641642) used the first telescope to map the sunspots* he saw on the suns surface. Unfortunately, he watched through his telescope without a special filter, blinding himself. On April 2, 1845, Louis Fzeau and Lon Foucault had a world scoop: they took the first photograph of the sun, clearly registrating the sunspots. 15 Years later, the first satellites observing the sun, called OSOs (Orbiting Solar Observatories) 16 have been launched into space to observe the 11-year-solar cycle* between 1962 and 1975. 17 Many of them followed: the most important satellites observing the sun are described in appendix V. Nowadays satellites keep an eye on the sun every second. Still, the mystery of the sun and her magnetic field hasnt been solved completely yet. 2.2 Light 18 2.2.1 Visible light Light is a form of electromagnetic waves. The light we see, is actually only a small fraction of all the light emitted in the universe. A huge part of all the emitted light is not visible to our eyes. Thats why men made telescopes especially designed to observe the light we cant see with our eyes.
OFFICIAL SITE OF STONEHENGE, About Stonehenge. Internet (http://www.stonehenge.co.uk/), (03/02/2009). 15 HILL, S. and CARLOWITZ, M., The sun, Abrams, New York, 2006, p. 82, 83, 93. 16 JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 89. 17 WIKIPEDIA, Orbiting Solar Observatory. Internet (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting_Solar_Observatory), 24/01/2009. 18 COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, chapter 4. GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, p. 18-26.
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11 2.2.2 Composition of light Light is composed of waves. Different wavelengths represent different colours. The colour of the light depends on the wavelength . Wavelength is measured in nanometre. Visible light has a range from 400 nanometre to 700 nanometre. It consists of red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. Of all the visible light, violet light has the shortest wavelength and red light the longest.

2.2.3 Non-visible light As previously mentioned, visible light is not the only light in the universe. There are many more wavelengths. Maxwell (1831-1879) discovered the infrared radiation. This light has a longer wavelength than red light. This, however, is not visible to the human eye. Apart from infrared light, much other not-visible light has been discovered. Radio waves have the longest wavelength of all. We use them for example for our mobile phones. Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength of all. We use gamma rays for cancer radiotherapy. The other wavelengths of light are visible in appendix VI. 2.3 Spectroscopy 19 2.3.1. Introduction to spectroscopy An interesting way of observing the sun is using spectroscopy*. We can distinguish 3 different types of spectra: continuous spectrum, absorption spectrum and emission spectrum. The last two are called line spectra. This means we will not observe the spectrum of the emitting body itself, but we will use another medium, in this case thin gas.

2.3.2 Continuous spectrum Continuous spectrum means we use the unbroken range of wavelengths to observe objects emitting light. We observe the light emitted by an object directly without using a medium. This method, however, isnt used very often because its difficult to observe an object directly. 2.3.3 Line spectrum 20 2.3.3.1 Absorption spectrum For the absorption spectrum we use absorption lines*. These lines are created by the thin gas (which gas doesnt matter, but the absorption lines will be different then). The wavelengths of the body we want to observe go through the tin gas, but the atoms of the gas will absorb some of the wavelengths. Because those wavelengths are absorbed by the atoms of the gas, the
GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, p. 20-26. 20 COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, p. 109-113.
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12 wavelengths cannot appear in the absorption spectrum of the body we observe. We can notice in appendix VII the absence of some wavelengths by the black lines. Such lines are called absorption lines. They correspond to the wavelengths that are absorbed by the gas.

2.3.3.2 Emission spectrum We can also examine the light emitted by the gas. The atoms of the gas absorb some wavelengths emitted by the object we actually want to observe, but afterwards they will emit those wavelengths again, as photons. This gives us a number of bright lines, called emission lines*. For many gases, the wavelengths of the absorption lines* will be the same as those from the emission lines. 2.3.4 The Zeemaneffect 21 In 1896, Pieter Zeeman (1865-1943) discovered that some spectrum lines split up. A spectrum line emitted in a magnetic field will split up into different spectrum lines, close to each other. This is called the Zeemaneffect*. If the magnetic field is strong enough and is parallel with the direction of observation, the absorption line* splits up into two lines: one on the left side of the normal absorption line (which means a smaller wavelength) and one on the right side of the absorption line (which means a higher wavelength). If there is a magnetic field straight on our direction of observation, the absorption line will even split up into three lines: one line will represent the normal absorption line; the other two will be just like with a parallel magnetic field.

Figure 3: The Zeemaneffect. http://chemteam.info/Gallery/Gallery16.html

How does a magnetic field influence an electron? We can find an explanation in the Quantum theory*. The magnetic field will interact with the atoms, so that the electrons will reach slightly different energy levels. Atoms with different energy levels will emit different wavelengths. This explains the multiple lines of the Zeemaneffect. The divergence of the splitting depends on the force of the magnetic field, which means we can determine the size of the magnetic field by observing the Zeemaneffect.

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VAN DEN BERGHE, S., Het Zeemaneffect. Heelal, september 1998, p. 228-231. KOPANSKI, J., Atom. Internet (http://knol.google.com/k/jan-kopanski/atom/1amrwrct7rvi2/7#), 06/02/09.

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Chapter 3: The solar cycle

3.1 Introduction In this chapter we will concentrate on the long term evolution of the global magnetic field of the sun. It is important to understand the long-term evolution of the global magnetic field of the sun, because the global magnetic field has a great influence on the magnetic field on a local scale. The suns magnetic field changes every 11 years. This is why we call it the 11year-solar cycle. However, strictly speaking, it is a 22-year-cycle. This will be explained later on in this chapter. The record of the first solar cycle started in 1755. 22 Since then, its currently already the 24th solar cycle. 3.2 Differential rotation As well as the earth, the sun rotates. But the sun isnt made of the same matter as our earth on the surface. The suns surface is made of plasma*. Because of the plasma, the sun will rotate at different speeds, depending on latitude. At the equator the sun makes a full rotation every 25 days. But the rotation will slow down when the latitude increases. This means that at the poles the sun will rotate much slower. At the poles the rotation time is 36 days. This creates a gap of more than 10 days. 23 Astronomers believe that it is only the surface of the sun that undergoes differential rotation*. The inner core moves more like a solid body, such as the earth, but it is still unclear if this is the case. 24 3.3 When the years pass 25 Differential rotation* is the main cause of all the complex phenomena that will be discussed later on, because this differential rotation causes the solar cycle and magnetic disturbance. As mentioned previously before, the suns surface rotates much faster at the equator than at the poles; the plasma* around the equator will move faster. This is shown in figure 4 on the next page. Since the sun keeps on rotating in the same direction, the plasma at the equator will move much faster. 26 The magnetic field that the sun normally would have is the same type as the magnetic field of the earth. This means the sun normally has the magnetic field resembling to the magnetic field of a bar magnet. Magnetic field lines move from north to south and at the poles the density of the magnetic field is compact because there the magnetic field lines come together.
JANSSENS, J., The case of the missing solar cycle (published in heelal, January 2008). Internet (http://users. telenet. be/ j.janssens/MSCwebEng.pdf). 23 DETHIER, T., Het zonnestelsel, Standaard Uitgeverij, 1992, p. 77-78. 24 RUSSELL, R., Rotation of the sun. Internet (http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/sun/Solar_interior/ Sun_layers/differential_rotation.html), 16/08/2005. 25 CUYPERS. J., and others, La recherch en hliophysique en Belgique. Space connection, October 2007, p. 6-7. 26 GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, p. 72-73.
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Figure 4: The magnetic field lines of the sun change because of the differential rotation. http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/lectures/sun.htm

If we apply the differential rotation on this magnetic field, the magnetic field lines under the photosphere* of the sun will move faster at the equator. This will cause the following structure, seen on figure 4 on the sun in the middle. The magnetic field lines will continue to get mixed up and the magnetic field lines will pile up. This process takes several years. Finally, the magnetic field lines will be stacked almost parallel to the suns equator. This is the sun on the right side in figure 4. 27 You can find a more specific drawing of this process in appendix VIII. Eventually, after approximately eleven years, the magnetic field lines will be piled up in such a way that finally the magnetic field lines will start to pop out of the suns surface. This will cause sunspots*. Sunspots appear in pairs, one with a south pole and one with a north pole. The north pole contains magnetic field lines that are directed outwards and the south pole contains magnetic field lines that point inwards. 28 Sunspots are discussed in more detail in the next chapter. When the sunspots almost come to an end, the loops will reconnect with another sunspot over the equator. This connection will cause a switch of the poles (see figure 5). The South Pole will become the North Pole and vice versa. This model is called the magnetic dynamo*, proposed by Horace Babcock (1912-2003). 29

GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, p. 72-73. 28 LANG, K.R., Sun, earth and sky, Springer, Germany, 1995, p. 82. 29 COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, p. 297-298. JANSSENS, J., het maximum van de 23ste zonnenvlekkencyclus (II). Heelal, November 1998, p. 284.

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Figure 5: The switching of the magnetic poles of the sun. GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, p.73.

When finally the poles have switched and the magnetic field lines are disentangled, the cycle will just start over again for another eleven years. Because the magnetic poles of the sun switch every eleven years, the cycle is called the 11-year-solar cycle. 3.4 Other cycles 3.4.1 The 22-year-cycle If we take the magnetic poles into account, however, the 11-year-cycle becomes a 22-yearcycle because the magnetic poles switch. If we want to consider the strict cycle, which means that we take the magnetic poles into account, we have to call the solar cycle a 22-year-cycle. It takes eleven years to switch the magnetic North Pole into a South Pole and another eleven years to switch them back. This cycle is called the Hale-cycle, named after George Ellery Hale (1868-1938) who was an American solar astonomer and active in different observatories. 30 3.4.2 The 27-day-cycle 31 The 27-day-cycle, taking the average of the suns rotation time, is a cycle that is directly connected to the rotation time of the sun. The sunspots*, the coronal holes* and other phenomena that are related to the activity of the sun rotate too. This means that the activity of the sun is connected to the rotation cycle. For example; the part of the sun that we can see will be less active when the sunspots are not visible because the sunspots influence the solar activity. When the sunspots appear again, the activity of the sun will rise. This cycle is also known because of the coronal holes that influence the solar wind*.

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JANSSENS, J., het maximum van de 23ste zonnenvlekkencyclus (II). Heelal, November 1998, p. 284-290. JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 113.

16 3.4.3 Other cycles? Astronomers believe that there must be some other cycles of an even longer basis. Different researchers have been looking for other solar cycles. Some thought they found a 55-year cycle. However this cycle was very irregular. Max Waldmeier (1912-2000, a very eminent solar astronomer of the 20th century) found a 90-year-cycle. However, lots of other cycles have been found. There have been postulated a 2300-year-cycle too. But the records of solar cycles are too recent to prove this cycle. 32 3.5 Solar maximum and minimum The Royal Greenwich Observatory has been observing the sunspots* since 1874. The information of their observations includes the size, the position and the number of sunspots during all the recorded solar cycles. If we put all this information into a graph, we can see the so-called butterfly-graph (appendix IX). With this information we can conclude that sunspots do not appear at random. 33 At the beginning of a new solar cycle the first sunspots appear at latitude of 45 degrees. Later on sunspots will appear at the equator too. When the sunspots begin to appear at 45 degrees, a new cycle has started again. 34 The solar minimum is the starting point of the solar cycle. At the beginning sunspots are very rare, sometimes there are none. If there are any sunspots they will occur at higher latitudes. The solar activity is the least on solar minimum. Then it is a good time for astronauts to go into space because there are less sunspots and less solar flares* and other phenomena that can influence the solar wind* and so the space weather. When the solar activity is the highest, the solar cycle reaches its maximum. There will be a lot of sunspots which now occur on lower latitudes too. 35 The time to go from a solar minimum to a solar maximum is around four years. During this time the solar activity will rise and when it reaches its maximum, it will slowly decline. The decrease takes much more time than the increase of the solar activity: around 7 years. The time between a solar minimum and maximum and between a solar maximum and minimum can vary and is different for every solar cycle. 36 3.6 Mysteries of the solar cycle Astronomers have been able to find out a lot of details about the solar cycle. However, we are still not able to predict the maximums and minimums of the solar cycles precisely. Astronomers havent been capable to draw up a model that allows us to predict the exact number of sunspots, You can compare it to predictions for the weather to come

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JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 113-114. HATHAWAY, D. H., The sunspot cycle. Internet (http://spacescience.spaceref.com/ssl/pad/solar/sunspots. htm), 04/01/2000. 34 JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 103. 35 WINDOWS TEAM, Maunders Butterfly Diagram. Internet (http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/sun/ activity/butterfly.html), 2000. 36 JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 99-100.

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Chapter 4: Phenomena caused by the magnetic field of the sun

4.1 Sunspots 4.1.1 What are sunspots? Sunspots* appear on the suns surface when the magnetic field lines under the photosphere* are piled up too much and they finally pop out into the chromosphere*. Sunspots are normally found in groups. The number of sunspots is dependent on the solar activity: when the solar activity reaches its maximum there will be many more sunspots than at solar minimum. Measuring the magnetic field in sunspots with the Zeemaneffect* makes clear that the strength of the magnetic field is much stronger in sunspots than in the surrounding photosphere. Its more than thousand times stronger: the magnetic field strength in magnetic fields varies from 1000 to 4000 Gauss while the surrounding area circles around 1 Gauss (comparison: the earths magnetic field strength is about 0.5 Gauss). 37

4.1.2 What do sunspots look like? When magnetic field lines pop out of the photosphere*, they will form magnetic loops (figure 6 on the right side). Between this magnetic loops there will be formed a flux tube*. The magnetic field lines in the sunspot will distort the convection* under the surface (see figure 6 on the left side). They will pull the plasma* downwards and will prevent the warm plasma from going upwards and reach the suns surface. Eventually the temperature in the sunspot will cool down. 38

Figure 6: Left side: convection in sunspots. Right side: magnetic field lines in sunspots. JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p.41.
37

RUSSELL, R., Sunspots and magnetic fields. Internet (http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/sun/ atmosphere/sunspot_magnetism.html&edu=high), 06/09/08. 38 JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 40-41.

18 We can distinguish 2 areas: the black sunspot and the surrounding bright surface of the sun. The sunspot itself consists of the very dark centre, called the umbra*, and the surrounding orange-brown environment, called the penumbra*. The penumbra consists of an amount of small little striated figures that come out of the umbra. A sunspot can reach a diameter of 300 000 kilometres. 39 The temperature in the sunspots centre is much cooler than in the photosphere* because of the convection* explained above. It measures around 4 200 K, while the photosphere has a temperature of 6000 K. 40

Figure 7: The composition of a sunspot. http://www.jaxa.jp/article/special/astro/shimizu02_e.html

A sunspot appears black to our eyes. However, appearances are deceptive: the dark sunspot only seems dark because we see it against a much warmer environment. If we had seen it against a black surface, it would have been much brighter than the moons glowing! 41 The amount of sunspots varies from very few till over more than a hundred. The amount of sunspots can be predicted by the Wolf-numbers, named after Johann Rudolf Wolf (18161893), a Swiss astronomer best known for his research on sunspots. 42 However, I wont explain this method in this paper. You can find a briefly explanation in appendix X. Yet, this method is only capable to predict the amount of sunspots approximately. 4.2 Prominences 4.2.1 What is a prominence? The luminosity of the sun outshines lots of phenomena that take place on the surface of the sun, and even far away from the sun. The suns corona* is one example. But luckily prominences* are quite visibly when we observe the sun. A prominence is a huge cloud of gas that is cooler than his environment. It is trapped between two horizontal magnetic field lines. For human eyes it seems to spread out dark, but this is only because a prominence has a much
39 40

LILENSTEN, J. and BORNAREL, J., Sous les feux du soleil, EDP Sciences, Les Ulis Cedex A, 2001, p. 35. OTTERSDORF, M., Astronomy: On the sunspot cycle. Internet (http://users.zoominternet.net/~matto/ M.C.A.S/sunspot_cycle.htm#Zeeman effect:), 03/11/03. 41 JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 41. 42 JANSSENS, J., Het maximum van de 23ste zonnevlekkencyclus (I). Heelal, October 1998, p. 256-263.

19 lower temperature then the suns chromosphere* (similar to sunspots which spread out dark too). The dark lines in appendix XI are also known as filaments*. A filament is a line between to magnetic fields with opposite polarities (appendix XI). 43

Figure 8: A solar prominence. http://cosmic-web.co.uk/?p=274#more-274

4.2.2 What is a prominence made of? The gas from the prominence* is coming from the chromosphere*. So the prominences have approximately the same composition as the chromosphere. A good way to observe prominences is to use red H or blue H spectrum lines. H absorption lines* indicate a temperature lower than 10 000 Kelvin. These spectrum lines justify that the temperature of a prominence is remarkably lower than the temperature of the corona. 44

4.2.3 How do prominences originate? A prominence* is a result of the magnetic field. Particles of the sun can transport warmth very fast if they move alongside magnetic field lines. If they want to move straight to a magnetic field line, the transport of warmth is negligible. So, prominences that are trapped between 2 magnetic fields only have one way to be heated. This brings on a temperature that is notably lower then the temperature in the corona. 45 The origin of prominences is similar to the origin of solar flares*. When two magnetic loops of opposite polarity start to approach each other they will reconnect and form some new loops. This is shown in appendix XII. Some mass from the sun will be trapped between the new magnetic field lines and will form a solar prominence. 46
43

COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, p. 299. 44 SMITS, F., Protuberanzen. Heelal, Juli 1991, p. 183. 45 LANG, K.R., Sun, earth and sky, Springer, Germany, 1995, p. 134-140. 46 MARTENS, P.C. and ZWAAN, C., Origin and evolution of filament-prominence systems. Internet (http:// www.iop.org/EJ/article/0004-637X/558/2/872/53575.web.pdf?request-id=73e38daa-69ae-4e01-b9a6b4bd0ba071dd), 09/2001.

20 4.2.4 What do prominences look like? 47 4.2.4.1 Different groups of prominences As you can see on the pictures in appendix XIII, prominences* can have different shapes and forms. Thats why astronomers classify them into different groups: the quiescent prominences, the active prominences and eruptive prominences.

4.2.4.2 Quiescent prominences Quiescent prominences can appear everywhere on the sun and are not depending on latitude. They can reach into the corona* over 2 500 till 40 000 kilometres. Quiescent prominences last the longest of all prominences. Some of them even last several solar rotations long! These prominences are very long and not so wide. During its lifetime a quiescent prominence moves slowly to the poles. When they are found at the poles of the sun they are called a polar crown (appendix XIV). 48

4.2.4.3 Active prominences Their name already suggests where they can be found: active prominences are found in the active regions of the sun, moreover in the presence of sunspots*. These prominences, however, only have a short lifespan; only several hours. But within this short lifespan, they do change form, adjusting to the magnetic field lines, within a short period of time. Because these prominences are located in active regions there are many more reconnections* and so the form will change more rapidly.

4.2.4.4 Eruptive prominences These prominences only last a couple of minutes and are connected to active sunspots as well. It is possible that after one died out, another immediately gives birth in the same region. Other eruptive prominences are known to be bubbles of gas that are issued from active sunspots. There have been some records of eruptive prominences that bump into other prominences and push the other prominences back in the sunspot. 49

47

KNISELY, D., Solar prominences. Internet (http://www.icstars.com/HTML/SolarSection/HAlpha/ OBSERVINGTHESUNHAlpha3.html), (03/04/2009). SMITS, F., Protuberanzen. Heelal, Juli 1991, p. 182-185. ELLERMAN, F., Solar prominences. Internet (http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/ 1928ASPL....1...73E/ 0000074.000.html), (03/04/2009). 48 KNISLEY, D., Solar prominences. Internet (http://www.icstars.com/HTML/SolarSection/HAlpha/ OBSERVINGTHESUNHAlpha3.html), (03/04/2009). 49 PRIEST, E. R., Dynamics and Structure of Quiescent Solar Prominences. Internet (http://books.google.be/ books?id=h599q3jz1w4C&dq=quiescent+prominences&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=58b79Qeyab&sig =1eklQ-WszOIebZZaq7fq7gm6bxA&hl=nl&ei=urPtSe7ZCo61-Qa166jHDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result &resnum=3#PPA6,M2), 1989.

21 4.3 Coronal holes 50 When looking at the sun with an x-ray telescope, we can see dark regions across the sun. These dark regions are called coronal holes*. Coronal holes have an open magnetic field structure. This means that the magnetic fields lines do not angle downwards, but they extend into space indefinitely. Due to this the particles of the sun are capable to reach out far into space without any struggles against the magnetic field. With this outflow of gases from the sun, coronal holes are one of the most important sources of the (high-speed) solar wind* (appendix XV). 4.4 Corona loops 4.4.1 What is a corona loop? If we look closer at a pair of sunspots*, we can see an emission of plasma* alongside magnetic field lines that originate in the sun spots. A corona loop* can extend into the corona, as the name suggests. Those loops contain plasma that can reach a temperature higher than 106 Kelvin. Corona loops can best be observed by ultra-violet and x-ray images, because of the high temperature. The high temperature brings on a high vibration of the atoms. This trembling causes the emission of x-rays. 51

Figure 9: A close up of corona loops. http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/coronal_loop.html

4.4.2 Where and when do corona loops originate? The magnetic field lines of sunspots move outwards from the sun into the corona* and form broad loops. This makes it possible to trap hot gas, with a temperature up to 40 million K. Those magnetic field loops trap hot plasma* into the suns atmosphere. The magnetic force pushes particles around along the magnetic lines, but at the same time, the atoms circulate around the magnetic field lines (see figure 10). The speed of their movements depends on the
50

ENCYCLODPEDIA OF SCIENCE, Corona hole. Internet (http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/ coronal_hole.html), (04/04/2009). 51 JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 52-54.

22 density of the magnetic field. So, if a particle moves from the top of a loop to the bottom it will slow down just like in traffic jams. Eventually it will reach the bottom, but the bottom is highly compressed (because the magnetic field lines converge at the bottom of the loops), so that the particle will be shot back along the magnetic field line (see figure 10).

Figure 10: the movement of particles in corona loops. G.D. HOLMAN, The mysterious origins of solar flares. Scientific America, April 2006, p.24-29, volume 294, number 4.

Hence, the particles will move up and down along the magnetic field lines. Atoms that are charged the same will cause electric currents (just like in a battery). These currents will generate a new magnetic field, and the old magnetic field in combination with the new one will cause a high distortion in the magnetic field of the sun. This is the moment when the corona loop* will transform into a solar flare*. 4.5 Solar flare 52 4.5.1 What is a solar flare? A solar flare* is a sudden powerful explosion in the solar atmosphere, caused by a disruption in the magnetic field of the sun. Because of the disruption, mass from the sun will be moved up and form a solar flare. A solar flare can equal the energy of billions of atomic bombs within a few minutes. The strongest solar flares are measured during the solar maximums, because then the suns magnetic activity is the strongest. 53 Since the sunspots* in the presence of solar flare have a very high magnetic field it is likely that a solar flare would even have a higher magnetic field. But in reality, the magnetic field of a solar flare is only half of the magnetic field of a sunspot. The intensity of the magnetic field is only 500 Gauss. 54

HOLMAN, G.D., The mysterious origins of solar flares. Scientific America, April 2006, p. 24-31, volume 294, number 4. 53 JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 55-57. 54 JANSSENS, J., Zonnefakkels. Heelal, Oktober 1994, p. 256.

52

23

Figure 11: You can see the magnetic fieldlines in the solar flare on the right side. Large solar flare recorded by SOHO EIT304 instrument. 512x512 version. Animation (980kMPEG). Courtesy SOHO(ESA&NASA). http://www.teachersparadise.com/ency/en/wikipedia/s/su/sun.html

4.5.2 Where and how do sun flares originate? Astronomers have long been speculating how solar flares exactly originate. In 1992, Satoshi Masuda (graduated at the University of Tokyo) discovered on pictures of the Japanese Yohkoh Satellite that the far end of a solar flare emitted unusually short wavelengths, very short x-rays. The source must be a concentration of gas with a temperature of about 100 million K, concluded Masuda. But this discovery provoked some new questions: why was the high temperature at the top of the flare and not at the bottom, where the gas is more compact? Why does the plasma* stay confined instead of spreading out into the universe? In order to obtain more information to try to solve this problem, astronomers started observing the suns radiation of ultraviolet and x-rays frequently. In 2002 NASA even launched the RHESSI (Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager) which was intended to bring solar flares into pictures. 55 These observations provided evidence that sun flares surge up in regions where the magnetic field is very strong most common in the presence of sun spots. At this point we have to call over the corona loops*. As mentioned before, corona loops are electric currents of atoms which move alongside magnetic field lines. When the atoms are shot back alongside the magnetic field line, there seems to occur a distortion of the magnetic field. This distortion will end up in a solar flare. All the mass of the corona loop will be shot into space and form a solar flare. But how can such enormous mass of the solar flares be shot into space? This has been a very interesting question. However, Peter Alan Sweet (1921-2005) 56 succeeded in finding an
G.D. HOLMAN, The mysterious origins of solar flares. Scientific America, April 2006, p. 27, volume 294, number 4. 56 UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW, Bibliography of Peter Sweet. Internet (http://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/ biography/?id=WH2144&type=P), (10/04/2009).
55

24 answer already in 1956. If magnetic field lines break apart and then reconnect, they bring together two opposing fields that will cancel each other and cause a huge burst of energy. The reconnection* will create new magnetic field lines. This reconnection is called the SweetParker reconnection. Yet, this is a slow reconnection, which cannot take place at the base of a solar flare with a dazzling speed. Fortunately, Harry P. Petschek published an article about reconnection in 1964 and solved that problem: under certain circumstances it is possible to reconnect much faster, which explains solar flares. This faster reconnection is also called the Petschek reconnection. But unfortunately, with the current technology it is not yet possible to take pictures of those reconnections. 57 If the energy comes from the reconnection, then where does this reconnection take place? From pictures of solar flares astronomers discovered that at the top of the corona loop a mysterious x-ray source was found. The x-ray source began to give a higher energy level and at the same time the particles move down towards the suns surface. Yet, the x-ray source stays at the same placeThen, when the x-rays reach their maximum, the loop suddenly changes direction. But this time the x-ray source will move upwards too, unexpectedly it moves at the speed of light, approximately three hundred thousands kilometres an hour, away from the sun. This is the same speed as the coronal mass ejections*. 4.6 Coronal mass ejections 4.6.1 What is a coronal mass ejection? 58 Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (appendix XVI) are huge amounts of gas, some billions of plasma*, from the sun that are ejected into space. Their temperature can reach 25 million K. 59 A coronal mass ejection can last for several hours and it can, at last, enter the solar wind*. A CME can reach a speed of 50km/s- 2000km/s, which means more than 7 million kilometres an hour. 60 The mass of a large CME varies from 5 x 106 to 5 x 1013 kg 61 . During a solar maximum there are more coronal mass ejections than during a minimum, but they can occur at any time of the solar cycle*. Coronal mass ejections are related both to solar flares* and prominences*. Very heavy coronal mass ejections can cause some geomagnetic storms* on earth.

4.6.2 Reconnection The reconnection* of a solar flare* can end up in a coronal mass ejection. When magnetic field lines that are opposite are starting to reconnect and form new magnetic field lines, half of the magnetic field lines will point downwards and join some existing magnetic loops. However, the other part of the magnetic field lines will move upwards at a very high speed and will form some loops more upwards. Between those loops that moved downwards and those that moved upwards there is some mass that isnt connected to the sun anymore. It is
G.D. HOLMAN, The mysterious origins of solar flares. Scientific America, April 2006, p. 29, volume 294, number 4. 58 BRAEUNIG, R. A., Glossary. Internet (http://www.braeunig.us/space/glossary.htm), 2006. 59 LILENSTEN, J. and BORNAREL, J., Sous les feux du soleil, EDP Sciences, Les Ulis Cedex A, 2001, p. 44. 60 Cuypers. J., and others, La recherch en hliophysique en Belgique. Space connection, October 2007, p. 1011. 61 GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, p. 68.
57

25 known that for an amount of solar flares that this mass between the loops will end up in a coronal mass ejection. Yet, this doesnt count for all the solar flares. The coronal mass ejection only takes place if the magnetic field lines twist around each other while forming the letter S (see figure 12). 62

Figure 12: Here you can see the reconnection that takes place before the coronal mass ejection starts. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/solar-b/solar_005.html

Certainly we will be capable to answer all the questions about solar flares and coronal mass ejections in the nearby future. But there are also some very interesting questions left: what is at the basis of the acceleration of the atoms in solar flares? How does magnetic reconnection originate? Hopefully we will find the answers in the near future! 4.7 Solar wind 4.7.1 What is the solar wind? Every second of every day of the year the suns corona* emits a continuous stream of mass from the sun. The temperature of the corona is so high that the suns magnetic field just cannot control the outflow of particles. We know that the particles are accelerated, but astronomers cannot explain all the details about the solar wind* yet.

4.7.2 What do we know about the solar wind? The speed of the solar wind can change: it differs from 300km/h up to 800km/h. This speed depends on the outflow of gases. If there is a corona hole* pointing towards the earth the solar wind will reach a speed of around 800km/h. The different speeds can interact with each other and form a new speed according to the rules of light emission. When two emissions connect with each other they can form a faster or slower solar wind, just like waves can interact and form new waves.

BOEN, B., Birth of a coronal mass ejection. Internet (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/solar-b/ solar_005.html), 29/04/08.

62

26 The ionized atoms with very high temperature coming from the suns corona are one of the most important parts of the solar wind, but the magnetic fields are important too. The magnetic field outside the sun gets wrapped into a spiral, called the Parker-spiral, named after the scientist who described it as the first one (because the sun rotates). This influences the magnetic field of the sun from the outside. The solar wind is emitted in spiral too (see figure 13).

Figure 13: The course of the solar wind caused by the rotation of the sun. http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/solarmag.html

4.7.3 Heliosphere We can describe the heliosphere* as a gigantic magnetic bubble around the sun. This is everywhere in space till where the suns magnetic field reaches and still has an influence. The heliosphere is filled with solar wind*, although the solar wind has a very low density. Yet, it is a very hot wind, but because of the very low density it does not have such a great influence on earth. However, it can cause some energetic storms on earth. 63

63

NASA, The heliosphere. Internet (http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/heliosph.html), 20/01/2009.

27

Conclusion
The suns magnetic field is a complex system to understand. Yet, I hope you have learned a lot from this paper and that you do understand the exiting phenomena described in the previous chapters. We can discuss the suns magnetic field from two perspectives. The first one is looking at the magnetic field for global long-term changing dimensions. The second way is based on phenomena on lower scale. The global changes involve the solar cycle and the switch of the magnetic poles. The solar cycle is divided into a decrease of the solar activity until it reaches solar minimum and an increase of the solar activity until it reaches solar maximum. The frequency of the phenomena that can be found in the outer layers of the sun are directly connected to the solar activity and thus, to the solar cycle. Sunspots are the easiest to see: they appear as black spots against the much brighter surface of the sun. Corona loops are connected to sunspots and can extend into solar flares and solar prominences. These flares and prominences can burst out into a coronal mass ejection. All these phenomena influence the sun and its solar wind, how small their part may be. The solar wind has a directly influence on the earth. There is still much to be discovered. Astronomers hope to discover much more about the magnetic field of the sun. Today many astronomers and scientists are observing the sun and every day they discover more and more aspects of the sun. Recently, a group of researchers led by David Jess of Queen's University Belfast has revealed why the suns atmosphere is hotter than its surface. 64 As you can see, astronomy is a very developing science!

64

CORDIS, Researchers reveal why Sun's atmosphere is hotter than its surface. Internet (http://cordis.europa.eu/ search/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.document&N_LANG=EN&N_RCN=30598&pid=0&q=87F36474805A6BE C0B89404F72D0351F&type=sim), 20/03/2009.

28

Glossary
Absorption lines: A dark line superimposed on a continuous spectrum when a gas absorbs light from a continuous source that is hotter than the absorbing gas. Aurora: Light radiated by atoms and ions formed by the solar wind in the earths upper atmosphere; seen most commonly in the polar regions. Chromosphere: The layer in the solar atmosphere between the photosphere and the corona. It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, characterized by reddish hue, and by an increase of the temperature with altitude through all but its lower regions. Convection: The transfer of heat from a region of high temperature to a region of lower temperature by the displacement of the cooler molecules by the warmer molecules. The hot gas will be moved upwards, the cool gas will be pushed downwards into the sun. Corona: The suns outer atmosphere. It is very extensive and has a very low density. It is extremely hot. Coronal hole: A dark region of the suns inner corona as seen at X-ray wavelengths. Coronal loop: Closed loops of magnetic field lines, extending from the suns photosphere into the corona, which contain plasma at high temperature. They are typically observed through ultraviolet or x-ray emission from the hot plasma. Coronal mass ejection: Large volumes of high energy gas released from the suns corona. Differential rotation: The rotation of a non rigid object in which parts at different latitudes or different radial distances move at different speeds. Dynamo theory: The generation of a magnetic field by circulating electric charges. Eclipse: The blocking of a part or all of the light from the moon by the earth (lunar eclipse) or from the sun by the moon (solar eclipse). Emission lines: Emission lines are used in physics, chemistry, and astronomy to determine what kind of gas is doing the emission. Every element has a different electronic structure, and will thus have a different emission line fingerprint. Emission lines are produced when electrons in atoms jump from one energy level to lower energy level. Filament: A dark curve seen above the suns photosphere that is the top view of a solar prominence. Flux tube: Is a generally tube-like (cylindrical) region of space containing a magnetic field, such that the field at the side surfaces is parallel to them. Both the cross-sectional area of the tube and the field contained may vary along the length of the tube, but the magnetic flux is always constant.

29 Geomagnetic storm: When unusually strong surges of solar wind (charged particles from the Sun) hit the Earth. This effect causes variations in the magnetic field which surrounds the Earth. The visible results are e.g. the aurora (Northern and Southern lights). Granulation: Granules are related to the convective zone. The granulation that shows up in the photosphere is a result of the rising and falling of hot gas that takes place in the convective zone. H absorption line: An absorption line due to an electronic transition in hydrogen atoms, in which the atom absorbs a photon, so that the electron makes a transition from a state corresponding to the electronic energy level with n=2, to the one above with n=3. The photon wavelength in a vacuum is 656.3 nm. Heliosphere: The volume of space within which the sun, through the solar wind, influences its environment in the interstellar medium. Magnetic dynamo: A theory that explains phenomena of the solar cycle as a result of periodic winding and unwinding of the suns magnetic field in the solar atmosphere. Magnetic reconnection: A process taking place in a plasma, in which neighbouring, oppositely directed, magnetic field lines suddenly part and reconnect in a new configuration. The abrupt change in a magnetic field represented by this process can release large amounts of energy and it is thought to be important in explaining solar flares and other phenomena. Penumbra: The portion of a shadow in which only part of the light source is covered by the shadow-making body. Photosphere: The region in the solar atmosphere from which most of the visible light escapes into space. Plasma: A fourth state of matter (not found naturally on Earth) of very hot gases. Plasma is a fluid with the ability to carry electric currents with no local accumulations of electric charge. Prominence: Flamelike protrusion seen near the limb of the sun and extending into the solar corona. The side view of a filament. Quantum theory: A theory in physics based on the principle that matter and energy have the properties of both particles and waves, created to explain the radiation of energy from a blackbody, the photoelectric effect, and the Bohr theory, and now used to account for a wide range of physical phenomena, including the existence of discrete packets of energy and matter, the uncertainty principle, and the exclusion principle. Its a theory of the interaction of matter and radiation developed early in the twentieth century which is based on the quantization of energy and applied to a wide variety of processes that involve an exchange of energy at the atomic level. Reconnection: See magnetic reconnection. Solar cycle: A 22-year-cycle during which the suns magnetic field reverses its polarity twice. Solar flare: A violent eruption on the suns surface.

30

Solar wind: An outward flow of particles (mostly electrons and protons) from the sun. Solstice: Either of two points along the ecliptic at which the Sun reaches its maximum distance north or south of the celestial equator. Spectroscopy: Concerns the production and study of spectra. Spectrum: The result of electromagnetic radiation passing through a prism or grating so that different wavelengths are separated. Spicule: Short-lived (lifetime from rising to falling is about 15 minutes) jets vertical to the solar surface that are several thousand kilometres long and about 1 kilometre thick (see also appendix IV) in the solar chromosphere. Sunspot: A temporary cool region in the solar photosphere created by protruding magnetic fields. Umbra: The central, completely dark portion of a shadow. Zeemaneffect: A splitting of spectra lines in the presence of a magnetic field. Bibliography and webography of the glossary: COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, 535 p. GREEN, S.F. and JONES, M. H., An introduction to the Sun and Stars, The Open University, Cambridge, 2004, 373 p. http://en.mimi.hu/astronomy/granulation.html http://en.mimi.hu/astronomy/plasma.html http://www.space.com/spacewatch/space_weather_glossary.html http://en.mimi.hu/astronomy/emission_line.html http://en.mimi.hu/astronomy/absorption_line.html http://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/physgloss/qm-body.html http://www.answers.com/topic/quantum-theory http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_tube

31

Appendix I: The sun in figures

Physical quantity Radius Mass Mass sun in the solar system Volume Age Luminosity Magnitude Density center Density mean Pressure center Pressure photosphere Temperature center Temperature photosphere 695 510 km 1.989 x1030 kg 99.86 % 1.412 x10 cm 4.55 milliard years 3.854 x 10 ergs/s -27.73 151.3 g/cm 1.409 g/cm 2.334 x1011 bars 0.0001 bar 15 557 000 K 5 780 K 2 000 000 to 3 000 000 K up to 35 days on earth 25 days on earth The difference in rotation times is called differential rotation. * Various sources mention different grades. Comment 109 x earths radius 332 946 earths mass Total mass sun / total mass of our solar system 1.3 million x earths volume

Temperature corona Rotation time at North or South pole Rotation time at Equator

Rotation time general Mean distance sun-earth (A.U.) Chemical composition of the sun (% of total number of atoms)

25.38 days on earth 1.4959787 x108 km Hydrogen 92.1 % Helium 7.8 % All others 0.1 % 1 A.U. = 1 Astronomical Unit = 149 598 000 km Various sources mention slightly different percentages.

32 Chemical composition of the sun (% of total mass) Hydrogen 73.46 % Helium 24.85 % All others 1.69 % 700 billions of kilograms of hydrogen are transformed into 695.7 billions of kilograms of helium each second Various sources mention slightly different percentages.

Total transforming of hydrogen into helium per second

Based on the following references: - BEATTY, J.K., PETERSEN, C.C. and CHAIKIN, A., The new solar system, fourth edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, p. 421. - LILENSTEN, J. and BORNAREL, J., Sous les feux du soleil, EDP Sciences, Les Ulis Cedex A, 2001, p. 247. - LANG, K.R., Sun, earth and sky, Springer, Germany, 1995, p. 282.
- DENTHIER, T., Het zonnestelsel, Standaard Uitgeverij, 1992, p. 415.

- JANSSENS, J., Zon en aarde: een unieke relatie, Garant, Antwerpen, 2003, p. 254.
- VOLKSSTERRENWACHT URANIA VZW., De zon. Internet (http://www.urania.be/sterrenkunde/zonnestelsel/zon.php), (01/01/2009).

33

Appendix II: Anatomy of the sun

http://www.cosmographica.com/gallery/infographics/solar_anatomy.html

The middle the sun consists of a heavy core: this consists of plasma*, just as the outer layers of the sun, but the pressure in the core is so high that it behaves much more like a solid body. The most outer layer is the corona*: it reaches far into space. More to the inside there is the chromosphere* and then the photosphere*. The corona, the chromosphere and the photosphere are explained in chapter 1.

34

Appendix III: Granulation

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/sun/Solar_interior/solar_furnace.html

At the surface of the sun we can find granules. These are created by convection*: the warmest parts of the suns interior move upwards and the colder parts at the surface move downwards. This causes currents of plasma. The dark lines are the colder particles. We see them darker because they emit less light than their surrounding neighbourhood.

35

Appendix IV: Spicules

Picture: http://lpc1.clpccd.cc.ca.us/lpc/harpell/astro20/a20deinfo_s09.htm Information: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/spicule.html

On this picture you can see spicules*. Spicules only last for several minutes and can be found in the chromosphere*. They are little jets of gas. There also exist macrospicules that can be approximately ten times larger than a normal spicule.

36

Appendix V: The most important satellites observing the sun

Here you can find the most important satellites observing the sun and their missions. Solar and Heliospheric Obseratory (SOHO)
http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/about/about.html

SOHO, the Solar & Heliospheric Observatory, is a project of international collaboration between ESA and NASA to study the Sun from its deep core to the outer corona and the solar wind. SOHO was launched on December 2, 1995. The SOHO spacecraft was built in Europe by an industry team led by prime contractor Matra Marconi Space (now EADS Astrium) under overall management by ESA. The twelve instruments on board SOHO were provided by European and American scientists. Nine of the international instrument consortia are led by European Principal Investigators (PI's), three by PI's from the US. Large engineering teams and more than 200 co-investigators from many institutions supported the PI's in the development of the instruments and in the preparation of their operations and data analysis. NASA was responsible for the launch and is now responsible for mission operations. Large radio dishes around the world which form NASA's Deep Space Network are used for data downlink and commanding. Mission control is based at Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. More information about SOHO can be found on: http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/about/docs/SOHO_Fact_Sheet.pdf

37 Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE)

http://trace.lmsal.com/Project/Mission/mission.htm

TRACE enables solar physicists to study the connections between fine-scale magnetic fields and the associated plasma structures on the Sun in a quantitative way by observing the photosphere, the transition region, and the corona. With TRACE, these temperature domains are observed nearly simultaneously (with as little delay as only a second between different wavelengths), with a spatial resolution of one second of arc. This is accomplished by obtaining precisely coaligned image sequences of photosphere, transition region, and corona, with high spatial resolution and uninterrupted viewing of the Sun for up to eight months. TRACE Mission TRACE explores the magnetic field in the solar atmosphere by studying: The 3-dimensional field structure Its temporal evolution in response to photospheric flows The time-dependent coronal fine structure The coronal and transition region thermal topology. TRACE was launched on a Pegasus launch vehicle from Vandenberg Air Force Base in April 1998. The launch was scheduled to allow joint observations with SOHO during the rising phase of the solar cycle to sunspot maximum. No transition region or coronal imager has witnessed the onset and rise of a solar cycle. Pegasus in flight The two satellites provide complementary observations: TRACE produces the high spatial and temporal resolution images, while SoHO yields images and spectral data out to 30 solar radii at much lower spatial and temporal resolution. Jointly they provide the opportunity to obtain simultaneous digital measurements of all the temperature regimes of the solar atmosphere, in both high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy. With these data, we expect to shatter the current ignorance of coronal heating and impulsive MHD phenomena, with benefits not only to solar physics, but also to studies ranging from stellar activity to the MHD of accretion disks. The magnetograms produced by MDI on SoHO provide a complete record of the eruption and distribution of photosphere magnetic fields which will be invaluable for understanding TRACE observations of coronal hole formation and coronal mass ejections. Both of these phenomena have profound effects on our space environment and the Earth`s magnetic field. TRACE is the first U.S. solar research satellite since the Solar Maximum Mission. Coordination with SOHO provides an unprecedented opportunity to follow the emergence of magnetic flux from the base of the convection zone deep inside the Sun, through the photosphere, chromosphere and transitional region, to the low-beta outer corona, while observing the effects of this emergence, such as coronal mass ejections, with high spatial and temporal resolution.

38

The transition from the photosphere, where magnetic fields and plasma are in rough equipartition, to the corona, where magnetic fields dominate, is extremely difficult to model and, until recently, to observe at high temporal and spatial resolution. Many of the physical problems that arise here, such as plasma confinement, reconnection, wave propagation, and plasma heating arise throughout space physics and astrophysics. The detailed study of these processed in the solar outer atmosphere is invaluable to astrophysics in general, and stellar studies in particular. More information about TRACE observations can be found on: http://trace.lmsal.com/Operations/General/operatio.htm

39 Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI)

http://hesperia.gsfc.nasa.gov/hessi/brochure.htm

What Questions will HESSI Address? How is such a large amount of energy released so rapidly during a flare? How are so many electrons and protons accelerated so quickly to such high energies? Where are the electrons and protons accelerated in the solar atmosphere and where do they deposit their energy?

How will HESSI Address these Questions? HESSI, shown below, will concentrate on electrons and protons accelerated in solar flares through observations of the X-rays and gamma rays that they produce: HESSI will obtain the first ever X-ray and gamma-ray images of flares from 100 keV to 20 MeV. HESSI will do the first ever nuclear gamma-ray line spectroscopy of solar flares. HESSI will obtain pictures of flares in X-rays with an angular resolution of 2 arcseconds, a factor of three better than previously possible. HESSI will measure X-ray and gamma-ray spectra with less than 1 keV energy resolution, a factor of 20-40 better than previously possible with scintillation counters. More information about the RHESSIs Mission can be found on: http://hesperia.gsfc.nasa.gov/hessi/concept.htm

40 Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE)

http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/science/background.htm

The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that is providing state-of-the-art measurements of incoming x-ray, ultraviolet, visible, near-infrared, and total solar radiation. The measurements provided by SORCE specifically address long-term climate change, natural variability and enhanced climate prediction, and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation. These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun; its effect on our Earth system; and its influence on humankind. The SORCE spacecraft was launched on January 25, 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA's Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) with precise measurements of solar radiation. It launched into a 645 km, 40 degree orbit and is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado (CU) in Boulder, Colorado, USA. It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance (TSI) that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements. SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1nm to 2000nm, accounting for 95% of the spectral contribution to TSI. SORCE carries four instruments including the Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM), Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE), Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM), and the XUV Photometer System (XPS). The primary goal of the NASA Earth Observing Systems (EOS) SOlar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) is to enable solar-terrestrial studies by providing precise daily measurements of the total solar irradiance (TSI) and the solar spectral irradiance at wavelengths extending from the ultraviolet to the near infrared. The following lists the SORCE science objectives: 1. Make accurate measurements with high precision of total solar irradiance, connect them to previous TSI measurements, and continue this long-term climate record. Provide TSI with an accuracy of 0.01% (100 parts per million) based on SI units and with a long-term repeatability of 0.001%/yr. 2. Make daily measurements of the solar ultraviolet irradiance from 120 to 300 nm, with a spectral resolution of 1 nm. Achieve this spectral irradiance measurement with an accuracy of better than 5%, and with a long-term repeatability of 0.5%/yr. Use the solar/stellar comparison technique to relate the solar irradiance to the ensemble average flux from a number of bright, early-type stars (same stars used by the UARS SOLSTICE program). 3. Make the first measurements of the visible and near IR solar irradiance with sufficient precision for future climate studies. Obtain daily measurements of solar spectral irradiance between 0.3 and 2 m with a spectral resolution of at least 1/30, an accuracy of 0.03%, and a long-term repeatability of better than 0.01%/yr. 4. Improve the understanding of how and why solar irradiance varies, estimate past and future solar behavior, and investigate climate responses. More information about SORCE can be found on: http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/science/science_ops.htm

41

Appendix VI: Wavelengths

http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/EDDOCS/Wavelengths_for_Colors.html

As you can see on the figure, visible light situates in the centre of the wavelengths, having not the shortest, nor the longest wavelengths. Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength, radio ways the longest. All sort of wavelengths are used for daily purpose, like radio waves for radio and TV and gamma rays for treatments.

42

Appendix VII: Absorption lines in the suns spectrum

Picture: http://www.solarnavigator.net/the_sun.htm Explanation: COMINS, N.F. and KAUFMANN III, W.J., Discovering the universe, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2008, p. 109.

This photo is called a spectrogram. It contains the spectrum* of the sun. All the black lines are absorption lines*. The amount of black lines is related to the amount of elements that the sun is emitting. From a spectrogram we can deduct a lot of things including their mass, the temperature of the surface, the chemical composition of the sun, rotation rates and much more!

43

Appendix VIII: The solar cycle

http://ibex.swri.edu/students/How_does_the_Sun.shtml

44

Appendix IX: Butterfly-diagram

http://spacescience.spaceref.com/ssl/pad/solar/images/bfly.gif

A butterfly-diagram. In a butterfly-diagram we can find the sunspots* with their latitude (y-axis) through the years (x-axis). As you can see, the sunspots appear like butterflies: this was discovered in 1904 by Edward Maunder (1851-1928, an English astronomer best remembered for his study of sunspots and the solar magnetic cycle). Thats why this graph is also called Maunders butterfly diagram.

45

Appendix X: The Wolf-numbers

http://sidc.oma.be/news/106/sunspotnumberclarified.pdf

The sunspot number clarified

By Petra Vanlommel

Which kinds of daily International Sunspot Numbers (ISN) are currently published by the SIDC?
Three daily indices are currently published by the SIDC: the Estimated ISN (EISN), the Provisional ISN (PISN), the Definitive ISN (DISN). Although they are all based on the same type of observations, i.e. visual sunspot counts as a measure of solar activity, they are obtained from different data sets, by different processing methods, with different accuracies and they serve different purposes. In the ideal case the three numbers are equal, but in practice it is inevitable that there are small differences. Therefore, It is useful to explain what each index actually means.

What is the source of the Wolf number?

Once per day, observers worldwide communicate their measured Wolf number (= 10G + S), based on visual sunspot (S) and group (G) counts, to the World Data Center for the Sunspot Index. Presently, this is done through a dedicated password-protected WEB form: the Wolf interface. However, some observers still use the old way of reporting their observations on paper, through regular mail. This method slows down the final processing, but for the sake of continuity in the index it is important to keep these observers included, as some of them represent the longest individual datasets. The observers give the exact observing time, the observing conditions, the total numbers (group count, sunspot count and Wolf number), and optionally, the North/South and central zone numbers. The observers using the web interface can provide their results to the SIDC immediately after each observation. However, some users prefer to insert their data as a block, creating some delay, but this must be done at least once a month.

The personal reduction coefficient K

A personal reduction coefficient K is calculated for each station. It has values typically in the range 0.4 and 1.7 and leads to a normalized sunspot number K(10G+S). In other words, the K factor rescales the raw sunspot counts of each observer to the ones of Rudolph Wolf, the astronomer who introduced the above Wolf formula, thus simulating the same eyes, same telescope and same conditions. During the procedure for calculating the Provisional ISN, the K factor of every station is computed for every observation that passes the elimination procedure. Once a year, a personal K factor for every station and for every month of the previous year is calculated. A yearly mean K value per station is also computed.

The estimated sunspot index

The Estimated ISN (EISN) is calculated and issued on a daily basis for the day of calculation and the day before. Only the total EISN is calculated, with no hemispheric index. It is an automated procedure and no manual intervention is done. The EISN is meant as a quick temporary and approximate index for real-time applications.

46
We use the raw Wolf number from all observatories, that have provided counts early in the day, i.e. before 12:30 UT. Typically, there is between 10 and 20 stations available. The calculation of the EISN is based on a simple and straightforward statistical method. The Wolf numbers are multiplied with the yearly mean K factor (see paragraph about the personal reduction coefficient K). The EISN is a simple average of the K-scaled values after excluding any individual value that deviates abnormally from the other values. Once the Provisional ISN (PISN) is calculated after the end of a month, the temporary EISN is dropped and replaced by the PISN.

The provisional sunspot Index

The Provisional ISN (PISN) is calculated and issued on the first of every month. The outcome is a daily total and hemispheric sunspot number for the entire elapsed month. An example: on the first of September, we calculate the daily PISN for each day of August. The PISN is computed semi-automatically with as little manual intervention as possible. To calculate the PISN values for the concerned month, we use all Wolf numbers. Typically there is data from around 65 stations available. The calculation of the PISN is based on an extensive statistical treatment. This treatment filters out any abnormal daily observation, or the complete data set from an erratic station (quality control). This prevents long-term drifts in the resulting index. One of the key elements derived from this processing is to update the K reduction coefficients for each station: the evolution of each station is monitored for each day relative to the entire network. A subset of the contributing stations also provides hemispheric counts. A similar process is applied to the North and South counts to derive the hemispheric PISN. There is an additional constraint: the sum of the North and South ISN must match the total ISN. The PISN replaces the EISN. And, once the Definitive ISN (DISN) is calculated, the DISN replaces the PISN.

The definitive sunspot index

The Definitive ISN is calculated and issued on a quarterly basis, when we have collected data from all the contributing observatories. This is the final index and it is appended to the historical sunspot index time series. The same semi-automated treatment, as for the PISN, is now applied to the full data set. If the result agrees within 5% of the PISN value, the PISN is kept and becomes definitive. Otherwise, the new calculated value replaces the PISN and becomes the definitive ISN. It is only at this stage, and only in peculiar situations that a manual verification by our scientific staff is required. For example, this happens when the observed raw Wolf values from the whole network are clustered around two distinct values. This special case can be caused by small short-lived isolated sunspots (lifetimes < 24 hours) or by the appearance or disappearance of a large group at the solar limb in the course of one UT day. The DISN replaces the provisional and estimated International Sunspot Number.

Handling very low activity levels

One of the situations requiring a human arbitration is associated with single small isolated and short-lived sunspots. This is most noticeable around the minimum of the solar activity cycle, like the one occurring now in 2008. Due to the 24hour binning (observations are grouped between 0hUT and 24hUT) and the variable ability of each observer to detect the smallest sunspots, we end up with some stations reporting one sunspot and others who did no see any sunspot. Let us explain further. *No sunspot* may mean that the sunspot was present but the observer was unable to see it because of poor observational conditions, such as weather, a small telescope... On the other hand, it may also indicate that the sunspot had actually vanished by that time, while it was present earlier on the same day.

47
Individual stations do not observe at exactly the same time. In order to validate the existence of such a marginal reported sunspot, a qualified SIDC scientist must then check the detailed chronology within that day and consider the overall observer capability (value of K coefficient). In common practice, the fact that a sunspot is reported by a significant group of observers leads to the inclusion of the sunspot on that date, thus neglecting the nosunspotobservations. The rationale is: multiple observations of a sunspot exclude the possibility that the reported sunspot was an independent false detection. So, a sunspot was really present on that day, although it may have existed only for part of the day or it was small enough to be missed by part of the observers with smaller instruments or imperfect atmospheric conditions. Also keep in mind that the sunspot index is derived with a limited precision, just like any other index. If the monthly mean sunspot number is 0 or 0.5, you can definitely say that activity was low.

What index should be used?

If you want to perform long-term investigations, the definitive ISN series is definitely the most suitable. However, there is a delay of a few months. So, when investigating the last cycle and recent evolution, use the definitive numbers in combination with the provisional ISN to be up to date to the last month. The provisional numbers are also used in models forecasting the sunspot number for the coming months. Now, if you need a proxy for solar activity in a model that runs in real-time, then you may use the estimated ISN. Improvements and rethinking of the processing method is an ongoing project. We are currently developing an alternative program for calculating the PISN. Of course, long-term consistency is vital. Therefore, a cross-analysis between the output from the old and new software must be applied over an extended period.

48

Above graphs show different kinds of the International Sunspot Number. The left plot gives an overview from 1700 up to now from the yearly (black) and monthly smoothed Sunspot Number. The graph in the right top corner shows the monthly and monthly smoothed sunspot number, while the graph in the right bottom corner show the daily, monthly, smoothed monthly sunspot number. For every the time range of investigation, there is an appropriate sunspot number.

49

Appendix XI: Filaments and prominences

http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/pickoftheweek/old/26feb2004/

This is a picture taken by SOHO on 26 February 2004.

50

Appendix XII: The reconnection of magnetic loops

http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/0004-637X/558/2/872/53575.web.pdf?request-id=73e38daa-69ae-4e01-b9a6b4bd0ba071dd

In (a) sunspot* B and C have different polarity and move towards each other. The two magnetic loops will reconnect and form one big magnetic loop showed in (b). This will happen to other magnetic loops too as can be seen in (c). When G en F are close enough they will reconnect and so E en H will reconnect too. It is possible that the magnetic field line is trapped around another, in this case AD. The mass ejected from the sun will be trapped between the magnetic field lines and form a solar prominence*.

51

Appendix XIII: Different prominences

http://www.lib.fit.edu/pubs/librarydisplays/SunBurst.gif

An eruptive prominence.

http://www.enterprisemission.com/hyperquake2.htm

52
http://theinvisibleagent.wordpress.com/2009/01/17/amazing-celestial-images/

An group of active prominences.

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap051109.html

http://whassupinthemilkyway.blogspot.com/2009/03/cloudy-plan.html

A picture taken by SOHO. In the left corner you can see the prominence with twisted magnetic field lines.

53

Appendix XIV: Polar crown

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2008/17sep_polarcrown.htm

Photograph of a polar crown taken on 13 June 1999 by the Meudon Observatory.

54

Appendix XV: Coronal holes

http://sunearthday.nasa.gov/2007/multimedia/gal_020.php

The black segment is a huge coronal hole*. The bright parts are x-rays from sunspots*.

55

Appendix XVI: Coronal mass ejection

http://zuserver2.star.ucl.ac.uk/~idh/apod/ap000309.html

Picture of a CME taken by SOHO in February 2000.

56

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