English for Specific Purposes

SUMMARY




Disusun oleh :
Rohilah
NIM:41032122101026
Prodi :Pend.Bhs inggris

FKIP
UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NUSANTARA
BANDUNG
2011
APTER 1

The origins of ESP
These trends have operated in a variety oI ways around the world, but we can
identiIy three main reasons common to the emergence oI all ESP.
1) The demands oI brave new word oI brave new word
AIter the second word war in 1945 raises the demands oI brave new world. This
expansion created a world united and dominated by two Iorces-technologies and
commerce-which in their relentless progress soon generated a demand Ior an international
language.
1he effecL was Lo creaLe a whole new mass of people wanLlng Lo learn Lngllsh noL for
pleasure of presLlge of knowlng Lhe language buL because Lngllsh was Lhe key Lo Lhe lnLernaLlonal
currencles of Lechnology and commerce revlously Lhe reasons for learnlng Lngllsh (or any oLher
language) had noL been well deflned
2) A revolution oI linguistic
At the same thin as the demand was growing Ior English course tailored to speciIic
needs, inIluential new ideas began to emerge in the study oI language. Traditionally the aim
oI linguistics had been to describe the rules oI English usage that is the grammar. However
the new studies shiIted attention away Irom deIining the Iormal Ieatures oI language usage
to discovering the ways in which language is actually used in real communication. So some
people have diIIerent method to communication although spoken or written. To process
learned until linguistic learned have explain rules oI English language.


) Focus on the learner
Focus on the learners as important as teaching linguistics knowledge. Care to the
learners more Iocused on the ways in which learners learn the language and know the
diIIerent language.
The learners understand the lesson with diIIerent learning schemes; motivation and
interest oI the learners are also diIIerent.















APTER 2
The development of ESP
From is early beginnings in the 1960s ESP has undergone three main phases oI
development. It is now in a Iourth phase with a IiIth phase starting to emerge. ESP has
developed at diIIerent speeds in diIIerent countries, and examples oI all the approaches we
shall describe can be Iound operating somewhere in the word at the present time.
1) The concept oI special language : register analysis
This stage took place mainly in the 1960s and early 1970s and was associated in
particular with the work oI peter Stevens (Holladay, McIntosh and Stevens 1964), jack
ewer (Ewer and Laborer, 1969) and john swales (1971).
` In Iact, as ewer and Laborer syllabus shows, register analysis revealed that there
was very little that was distinctive in the sentence grammar oI scientiIic English beyond a
tendency to Iavor particular Iorms such as the present simple tense, the passive voice and
nominal compounded.

2) Beyond the sentence: rhetorical or discourse analysis in the Iirst stage oI its
development.
ESP had Iocused language at the sentences level, the second phase oI development
siIted attention to the level above the sentence, as ESP became closely involved with the
emerging Iield oI discourse or rhetorical analysis.
So there is kind oI stage in the linguistic Iist about composing sentence, second change
sentence makes into paragraph.
Je Lake Lhe vlew LhaL dlfflculLles whlch Lhe sLudenLs encounLer arlse no so much from a
defecLlve knowledge of Lhe sysLem of Lngllsh buL unfamlllarlLy wlLh Lngllsh use l Lhlnk for sLudenL
flnd ouL new language especlally Lngllsh language need Lo course for developmenL knowledge ln
Lngllsh language and how Lhe sLudenL use Lngllsh language 8eglsLer analysls had focused on
senLence grammar buL no aLLenLlon shlfLed Lo undersLandlng how senLence were comblned ln
dlscourse Lo produce meanlng
) Target situations analysis
ESP course is to enable learners to Iunctions adequately in target situations, that is
the situations in which the learners will use the language they are learning, then the ESP
course design should process should proceed by Iirst identiIying the target situation then
carrying out a rigorous analysis oI the linguistic Ieatures oI that situations. The identiIied
Ieatures will Iorm the syllabus oI the ESP course.
1he alm of LS ls Lo connecL Lhe analysls of language ln order Lo be closer Lo learners wlLh
learnlng reasons Jhlle Lhe purpose of Lhe LS course ls enable learners Lo funcLlons adequaLely
ln Lhe LargeL slLuaLlons 1he LargeL slLuaLlon ls where learners wlll use Lhe language Lhey are
learnlng 1hls wlll meeL Lhe needs of learners ln communlcaLlon communlcaLlve seLLlngs Lhe
means so communlcaLlon language skllls as well as Lhe funcLlon and sLrucLure of language
4) Skills and strategies
The target situation analysis approach did not really change this, because in it is
analysis oI learner need it still looked mainly at the surIace linguistic Ieatures oI the target
situation.
A skill is one oI the Iirst approaches to ESP but only Iocus on readings skills and
written text. But reading skills allows learners to take the meaning oI the discourse, Ior
example deter mine the meaning oI words Irom the context oI the sentence and determine
the type oI text. Learners should be able to analyst how the meaning oI word produced and
taken Irom written and oral discourse and taking cue Irom the theory being taught. This is
also the taught process oI learners.
5) A learning-centered approach
In the origins oI ESP we identiIied three Iorces which we might characterize as
read, new ideas about language and new ideas about learning. All oI stages outlined so Iar
have been Iundamentally Ilawed, in that they are based on description oI language use. In
my opinion process learned must much reading and learn about grammar with make in to
dictionary as reIerence.
The important and the implications oI the distinction that we have made between
language made use and language learning will hopeIully became clear as we proceed
through the Iollowing chapters.












APTER 3

ESP: approach not product
Basically everybody learning language Ior communication and learning in
communication is the root Ior ESP. so learning without communication is doing nothing.
ESP is important Ior a gap oI communication and ESP has three elements. The Iirst is
language, second is content, and then content.
Communication used in every place, but every place have diIIerent ways to
communication. Such as communication homeless kids are diIIerent with student, lecture
etc. DiIIerences in other places Ior communication called are discourse. From the learning
communication, language teaching and because oI English is international language. So we
should learn ELT.
English language teaching has three elementary. EMT (English as a Mother
Tongue) is language introduce by mother Irom the Iirst born. EFL (English as a Foreign
Language), ESL (English as a Second Language).
The survey above shows brieI history there have been several mayor shiIts in the
development oI ESP both theory and tactic however , we have tried to show that, in spite
oI their diIIerences, the successive stages have all concentrated on the linguistic aspect oI
ESP : they are all essentially language-centered approaches.
The tree represents some oI the common divisions that are made in ELT. The tree
shows the level at which individual ESP courses occur. The branches just below this level
indicate that these may conveniently be divided into two main types oI ESP diIIerentiated
according to whether the learner requires English Ior academic study (EAP: English Ior
Academic Purposes) or Ior work / training (EOP: English Ior Occupational Purposes).
At the next level down it is possible to distinguish ESP courses by the general
nature oI the learners` specialist. Three large categories are usually identiIied here: EST
(English Ior Science and Technology), EBE (English Ior Business and Economic) and ESS
(English Ior the Social Science).
The analogy oI the tree can help us to get a bit closer to a deIinition oI ESP not so
much by showing what ESP is, but rather by showing what ESP is not.
a) ESP is not a matter oI teaching specialist varieties oI English. The Iact that language is
used Ior a speciIic purpose does not imply that it is a special Ior oI the language,
diIIerent in kind Irom other Iorms.
b) ESP is not just a matter oI since words and grammar Ior scientists.
c) ESP is not diIIerent in kind Irom in kind Irom any other Iorm oI language teaching, in
that it should be based in the Iirst instance on principles oI eIIective and eIIiciency
learning.
ESP be seen is an approach not as a product. ESP is do not particular kind oI
language or methodology, nor does it consist oI a particular type oI teaching material.
Understood properly, it is an approach to language learning, which is based on learner
need.
ESP should properly be seen not as any particular language product but as an
approach to language teaching which is directed by speciIic and apparent reasons Ior
learning.




APTER 4

Language descriptions
1. Classical or traditional grammar
Description oI English and other language were based on the grammars oI the
classical language, Greek and Latin. Language were describe in this way because the
classical languages were case based languages where the grammatical Iunctions oI each
word in the sentence was made apparent by the use oI appropriate inIlections.
2. Structural linguistics
In structural descriptions the grammar oI the language is described in terms oI
systematic structures which carry the Iundamental prepositions (statement, interrogative,
negative, imperative) and notions (time, number and gender).
. TransIormational generative (TG) grammar
The concept oI communicative competence has had Iar reaching consequence Ior
ESP. it led to the next three stage oI development which shall consider: language variation
and register analysis; language as Iunction; discourse analysis.
4. Language variations and register analysis
The concept oI language variation gape rise to the type oI ESP which was based on
register analysis. iI language varies according to contexts, it was argued , then it should be
possible to identiIied the kind oI language associated with a speciIic, such as an area oI
knowledge (legal English, social English etc) or an area oI use (technical manual, business
meeting, advertisement and etc ). Much ESP research was Iocused as a result on
determining the Iormal characteristics oI various register in order to establish a basis Ior the
selection oI syllabus items.
5. Functional or notional grammar
The Iunctional view oI language began to have an inIluence on language teaching in
the 1970, largely as result oI the console oI Europe eIIorts to establish some kind oI
equivalence in the syllabuses oI learning various languages.
The attraction oI the Iunctionally syllabus is that it appears to be based on language
in use, in contrast to the structural syllabus, which show only Iorms. For example, compare
this syllabus with the Ewer and Laborer syllabus above.
6. Discourse (rhetorical) analysis
This next development has also a proIound eIIect on ESP. tills this point language
had been viewed in terms oI the sentence. The emphasis moved to looking as now meaning
or generated between sentences.










APTER 5
Theories of learning
There are several theorists oI learning and this are:
1. Behaviorism : learning as habit Iormation
The Iirst coherent theory oI learning was the behaviorist theory based mainly on the work
oI Pavlov in the Soviet Union and oI skinner in the United States. This simple but powerIul theory
said that learning is a mechanical process oI habit Iormation and proceeds by means oI the Irequent
reinIorcement oI a stimulus response sequence.
The simplicity and directness oI this theory had an enormous impact on learning
psychology and on language teaching. It provided theoretical underpinning oI the widely used
Audio lingual Method oI the 1950 and 1960.
The basis exercise technique oI a behaviorist methodology is pattern practice, particularly
in the Iorm oI language laboratory drills.
2. Mentalist: thinking as rule governed activity
There was considerable empirical evidence among language teachers that the audio lingual
method and is behaviorist principles did not deliver the results promised. For apparently perverse
reasons, language learners would conIirm to the behaviorist stereotype: they insisted on translating,
asked Ior rules oI grammar, Iound repeating to a tape recorder boring, and somehow Iiled to learn
something no matter how oIten they repeated it.
The Iirst successIul ask assault on the behaviorist theory came Irom Chomsky (1964). He
tackled behaviorism on the question oI how the mind was able to transIer what has learnt in one
stimulus-response sequence to other novel situation.
His conclusion was that thinking must be rules-governed: a Iinite and Iairly small, set up rules
enables the mind to deal with the potentially in Iinite ranger oI experiences it may encounter.
Having established thinking as rules-governed behavior, it is one short step to the
conclusion that the learning consists not oI Iorming habits but oI acquiring rules-a process in which
individual experiences are used by the mind to Iormulated a hypothesis. This hypothesis is then
tested and modiIied buy subsequent experience.
. Cognitive code: learners ask thinking being
The cognitive view takes the learner to be an active processor oI inIormation. Learning and
using a rule require learners to think, that is, to apply their mental powers in order to distil a
workable generative rule Irom the mass oI data presented, and then to analyze the situations where
the application oI the rule would be useIul or appropriate. Learning, then, is a process in which the
learner actively tries to make sense oI data, managed to impose some sort oI meaningIul
interpretation oI pattern on the data.
Theirs is one Iactor that can`t be delayed in the process oI learning it is a vital Iactor then
the others, and it is an emotional Iactors the important oI the emotional Iactor is easily seen iI we
consider the relationship between the cognitive and aIIective aspects oI the learner. The cognitive
theory tell us that the learners will learn when they presupposes the aIIective Iactor actively think
about something, they must want to think about it. The emotional reaction to the learning
experience is the essential Ioundation Ior the initiation oI the cognitive process.
4. The aIIective Iactor: learners as emotional beings.
The most inIluential study oI motivation in language learning has been Gardner and
Lambert`s (1972) study oI bilingualism in French speaking Canada. They identiIied two
Iorms oI motivation: instrumental and integrative.
5. Learning and acquisition
Learning is seen as a conscious process. This reIlects our view that Ior the second language learner
both processes are likely to play a useIul part and that a good ESP course will try to exploit both.


6. A model Ior learning
W have discussed we will now present a model oI the learning process, which will provide a
practical source oI reIerence Ior the ESP teacher and course designer. The same applies to the
settlements beyond the mountains. There is no limit to the number oI links possible. Indeed the
more links a place already has the more it is likely to attract.
a) Individual items oI knowledge, like the towns, have little signiIicance on their own.
b) It is the existing network that makes it possible to construct new connection.
c) Items oI knowledge are not oI equal signiIicance. Some items are harder to acquire, but
may open up wide possibilities Ior Iurther learning.













APTER 6
Needs analysis
We have deIined ESP as an approach to course design which starts with the question why do these
learners need to learn English?` but it could be argued that this should be the starting question to
any course, general or ESP.
1. What are target needs?
Target needs` is something oI an umbrella term, which in practice hides a number oI important
distinctions. It is more useIul to look at the target situation in terms oI necessities, lacks and wants.
a) Necessities
We can call necessities` the type oI need determined by the demands oI the target situation, that is,
what the learner has to know in order to Iunction aIIectively in the target situation. For example, a
businessman or woman might need to understand business letters, to communicate eIIectively at
sales conIerences, to get the necessary inIormation Irom sales catalogues and so on.
b) Lacks
To identiIy necessities alone, however, is not enough, since the concern in ESP is with the needs oI
particular learners. You also need to know what the learner knows already, so that you can then
decide which oI the necessities the learner lacks. The gap between the two can be reIerred to as the
learner`s lacks.
c) Wants
We have stressed above that it is an awareness oI need that characterizes the ESP situation. But
awareness is a matter oI perception, and perception may vary according to one`s standpoint.
2. Gathering inIormation about target needs
It Iollows Irom the above account that the analysis oI target needs involves Iar more than simply
identiIying the linguistic Ieatures oI the target situation.
"uestionnaires;
Interviews;
Observation;
Data collection e.g. gathering texts;
InIormal consultations with sponsors, learners and others.
The analysis oI target situation needs is in essence a matter oI asking questions about the target
situation and the attitudes towards that situations oI the various participants in the learning process.
A target situation analysis Iramework
Why is the language need?
O For study
O For work
O For training
O For a combination oI these
How will the language be used?
O Medium: speaking, writing, reading etc
O Channel: e.g. telephone, Iace two Iace
O Type oI text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, inIormal conversations, technical
manuals, catalog.
What will the content be?
O Subjects: e.g. medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, engineering
O Level: e.g. technician, craItsman, postgraduate, secondary school.
Who will the learner use the language with?
O Native speakers or non-native
O Level oI knowledge oI receiver: e.g. expert, layman, students
O elationship: e.g. colleague, teacher, customer, superior, subordinate.
Where will the language be used?
O Physical setting: e.g. oIIice, lecture theatre, hotel, workshop, library
O Human context: e.g. alone, meetings, demonstrations, on telephone
O Linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad.
When will the language be used?
O Concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently
O Frequently, seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks.