Net: Histor

Introduction to the Quantum Hall Effect

Yiming Qiu
Department of Phsics and Astronom
Johns Hopkins Universit
Abstract
The discover of Quantum Hall Effect(QHE) is a remarkable achievement in condensed matter phsics. At low
temperatures and in strong magnetic fields, it is found that the Hall resistance of a two dimensional electron
sstem has plateaus as a function of the number of electrons. In integer quantum Hall effect(IQHE), the Hall
resistance at the plateaus turns out to be , where i is an integer. In fractional quantum Hall
effect(FQHE), i can be a fractional number. Due to the high precision of the measurement, the quantiation of the
Hall resistance is now used as the standard of resistance. In this paper I tr to cover the main aspects of this
field. This webpage is a requirement of the first ear graduate seminar in the Department of Phsics and
Astronom of the Johns Hopkins Universit.

Histor
Basics of Hall Effect
Two Dimensional Electron Sstems
The Integer Quantum Hall Effect
The Fractional Quantum Hall Effect
Applications
References
Acknowledgement & About this document ...
Yiming Qi
Sn Apr 27 22:51:18 EDT 1997

Net: Basics of Hall Effect Up: Introduction to the Quantum Previous: Introduction to the Quantum
Histor
The Hall effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879 when he was a graduate student in the Johns Hopkins
University under the advisory of Professor Henry A. Rowland, after whose name this department is named now.
But at that time, even the electron was not experimentally discovered. Clear understanding had to wait until
quantum mechanics came into apperance.
In 1930, Landau showed that for quantum electrons, unlike classical electrons, the electron's orbital motion gave
a contribution to the magnetic susceptibility. He also remarked that the kinetic energy quantization gave rise to a
contribution to the magnetic susceptibility which was periodic in inverse magnetic field. We can see later that
Landau levels along with localization can explain the integer quantum Hall effect satisfactorily.
The first inversion layer Hall conductivity measurements in strong magnetic fields were done by S.Kawaji and his
colleagues in 1975. Using a somewhat different experimental arrangement which measured the Hall voltage
rather than the Hall current, Klaus von Klitzing and Th. Englert had found flat Hall plateaus in 1978. However,
the precise quantization of the Hall conductance in units of was not recognized until February of 1980. Five
years later, in 1985, Klaus von Klitzing was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of quantum Hall
effect.
This was not the end of the story. In 1982 D.C.Tsui, H.L.Strmer, and A.C.Gossard discovered the existance
of Hall steps with rational fractional quantum numbers, which is called fractional quantum Hall effect.
R.B.Laughlin's wave functions established a very good, though not yet perfect understanding of this phenomenon.
Today, the study of quasiparticles of fractional charge and fractional statistics are still active areas of research.
Yiming Qi
Sn Apr 27 22:51:18 EDT 1997

Net: T Dieia Eec Se Up: Idci he Qa Previous: Hi
Basics of Hall Effect
I he Dde he f he eecica cdcii f a ea, a eec i acceeaed b he eecic fied f a
aeage ie , he eaai ea fee ie, befe beig caeed b iiie, aice iefeci ad
h a ae hich ha aeage eci e. The aeage dif eci f he eec i

hee i he eecic fied ad i he eec a. The ce dei i h

hee

ad i he eec dei.
I he eece f a ead ageic fied, he cdcii ad eiii bece e

ad , . Si aig ha he eaai ie i , he Le fce be added he
fce f he eecic fied i E. (1),

I he ead ae, . We i aa ae ha he ageic fied i i dieci . The i
ae

hee i defied i E. (3),

i he cc feec. F E. (6), e ca eai ge

E. (8) diec ead he eai beee cdcii ad eiii

We ca ee ha if , he cdcii aihe he he eiii aihe. O he he had,

Theefe he , , hee i gie b he fi e i E. (10), i.e. Ha cdcii

In the experiment we can let E =0,

The above discussion is the classical result. In quantum mechanics, the Hamiltonian is ( is along x direction)

For this problem it is convenient to choose the Landau gauge, in which the vector potential is independent of y
coordinate

This choice allows us to choose a wavefunction which has a plane-wave dependence on the y coordinate

Substituting Eq. (15) into Eq. (13), the Schrdinger equation becomes

where

is the classical cyclotron orbit radius.
Eq. (16) can be easily solved by transformation to a familiar harmonic oscillator equation. The eigenvalues and
eigenstates are

where i=0,1,2,3, , and . The different oscillator levels are also called Landau
Levels. The electric field simply shifts the eigenvalues by a value without changing the structure of the energy
spectrum. From Figure 1 we can see that in two-dimensional systems, the Landau energy levels are completely
seperate while in three-dimensional systems the spectrum is continuous due to the free movement of electrons in
the direction of the magnetic field.
From the wave functions, we can calculate the mean value of the velocities

Thus =-neEc/B, which is the same as Eq. (11) of the classical result. The current along the direction of electric
field (x) is zero at Landau levels.
Fig. 1 Schematic dagram of the densit of states of two and three-dimensional electron sstems

Net: Two Dimensional Electron Sstems Up: Introduction to the Quantum Previous: Histor
Yiming Qi
Sn Apr 27 22:51:18 EDT 1997

Ne: The Iege Qa Ha Up: Idci he Qa Peio: Baic f Ha Effec
To Dimenional Elecon Sem
A ee, hee ae ai hee e f 2-D eec e acheied i eeie
MOSFET-Mea Oide Seicdc Fied Effec Tai
Seaice
Liid Hei Sface
Fig.2 Scheaic ide ie f a iic MOSFET
I MOSFET, iei ae ae fed a he ieface beee a eicdc ad a ia beee
eicdc, ih e f he acig a a ia. The e i hich he Qa Ha Effec(QHE)
a diceed ha Si f he eicdc, SiO f he ia. Fige 2 i a cheaic ide ie f a iic
MOSFET hig he ai gae, he SiO ia ad he -e Si ca bae. The icie f he
iei ae i ie ie. I i aaged ha a eecic fied eedica he ieface aac eec
f he eicdc i. Thee eec i i a a e ceaed b hi fied ad he ieface. The
i eedica he ieface i aied ad h ha a fdaea igidi hich feee ia
degee f feed i hi dieci. The e i a -dieia e f eec. Fhe, he
aeegh f hee eec ae g ha a effecie a aiai ih aabic bad i ie
gd. The a ef-cie eia ee b he eec i ceie decibed b he ice f "bad
bedig". Tha i a, he eidic aice eia gie ie eeg bad, ad he aig eecic
eia he i egaded a bedig hee bad. Fige 3 gie he cheaic diaga f hi ce.(Chage
dei )
Fig.3 Eec eeg ee diaga f a iic MOSFET ih a iie age aied he ai gae
Ahe e f -dieia eec e i fed i he heece f eicdc. Uig
eca bea eia(MBE) echie, ee ca g eicdc aeae f a e
dieia adich ie ce. Each ae ha a idh f ab eea aee. The ae caed
eaice. The ca a be g b ea-gaic cheica a deii(MOCVD). F eae, i
GaA-Ga eaice, a ceai ced be f ae f GaA i fed b a a
efec ached eece f ae f GaAA. The GaAA i deibeae ded -e, hich bie
eec i i cdci bad. Thee eec i igae fi he fe he he f he GaA
aece bad b f he i ed i ae ea he b f he GaA cdci bad. Hee,
hee i a iie chage ef he d iiie hich aac hee eec he ieface ad bed he
bad i he ce. Thi i he ce f he eecic fied i hi e. The afe f eec f GaAA
GaA i cie i he die ae fed f he iie d ad he egaie iei ae i
fficie g. Thi die ae gie ie a eia dicii hich fia ae he Fei ee f
he GaA ea ha f he GaAA. Fige 4 h he bad ce. (Chage dei )
Fig.4 Eec eeg ee diaga f a GaA-AGaA heece deice
T-dieia eec e ca a be fed i he face f iid Hei. Thee ei a eia
baie f ab 1eV i he face f iid Hei hich ee eec f aiig i he iid. O
he he had, he i eia aac he eec i he face, eig a 2D eec e.(Chage
dei )
Qa Ha effec ha bee beed i he fi e.

Net: The Iege Qa Ha Up: Idci he Qa Previous: Baic f Ha Effec
Yiming Qi
Sn Apr 27 22:51:18 EDT 1997

Net: The Facia Qa Ha Up: Idci he Qa Previous: T Dieia Eec
Se
The Integer Quantum Hall Effect
I ei dici, e dea ih eiiiie ad cdciiie, b e ha he cdcace ad
eiace ae he fdaea aiie f iee bh eeiea ad heeica. If i ee he
cdcii ahe ha he cdcace hich ee aied he ecii eaee d be
iibe ice e d hae ie ai f a hgee edi ih a e-defied gee
i de ife he iccic cdcii f he accic cdcace. I i a eaabe feae f
he QHE ha hi i ecea.
Accdig Seda, heee he Fei ee ie i a ga he Ha cdcace i be gie b

F a dieia e, he dei f ae a he abcece f ageic fied i g(E)=/2 . Afe
aig a ageic fied, he eeg ae cac i eeae Lada ee. Each Lada ee i
degeeae, icdig ae. If he eec cee cc a he i ee-eaig a
he ee e, he he chage dei

E. (20) ad E. (21) a be cbied ied

Ne ha he Ha eiace i aca iee ia he chage dei. E. (22) i cec i
ceai eicific ae. F he iei ae f Si-MOSFET, i ia he gae age V . S
Ha eiace hd be iee ia he gae age. B i 1980, K. Kiig ec. diceed
aied Ha aea. Uig a Ha age ehd iabe f ecii eaee he baied gd
e i high-bii Si-MOSFET deice ad fd ha R (i)=h/ i a accac f a ea 5 a-e-
ii(). Fige 6 i he eeiea e.
Fig.5 IQHE observed in Si-MOSFET
Fig.6 Experiment setup
The experiments show that between two adjacent Landau levels, the Hall resistance has Iixed values and the
longitudinal resistance R vanishes, which means that the electrons are localized in this region. Localization is a
key point to interpret IQHE.
Due to impurity, the density oI states will evolve Irom sharp Landau levels to a broader spectrum oI levels(Figure
7). There are two kinds oI levels , localized and extended , in the new spectrum , and it is expected that the
extended states occupy a core near the orighinal Landau level energy while the localized states are more spread
out in energy. Only the extended states can carry current at zero temperautre. ThereIore, iI the occupation oI the
extended states does not change, neither will the current change. An argument due to Laughlin(1981) and
Halperin(1982) shows that extended states indeed exist at the cores oI the Landau levels and iI these states are
Iull, (i.e., the Fermi level is not in the core oI extended states) then they carry exactly the right current to give
Eq. (22).
Fig.7 Diagam of Landa leel
The eience of he localied ae can eplain he appeaance of plaea. A he deni i inceaed (o he
magneic field i deceaed) he localied ae gadall fill p iho an change in occpaion of he eended
ae, h iho an change in he Hall eiance. Fo hee deniie he Hall eiance i on a ep in he
Fige and he longidinal eiance anihe(a eo empeae). I i onl a he Femi leel pae hogh
he coe of eended ae ha he longidinal eiance become appeciable and he Hall eiance make i
aniion fom one plaea ep o he ne.
Finall, a finie empeae hee i a mall longidinal eiance de o hopping pocee beeen localied
ae a he Femi leel.

Net: The Facional Qanm Hall Up: Inodcion o he Qanm Previous: To Dimenional Elecon
Sem
Yiming Qi
Sn Apr 27 22:51:18 EDT 1997
06/12/2011 The Fractional Quantum Hall Effect
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Net: Aicai Up: Idci he Qa Previous: The Iege Qa Ha
The Fractional Quantum Hall Effect
I 1982, Ti ec. diceed facia a Ha effec(FQHE).The FQHE cc he he Lada ee
fiig fac

hee ad ae iege. ca be eihe dd ee be. Fige 8 i a ica e.
Fig.8 FQHE
Facia aied Ha eiace i ibe f -ieaci eec. B idcig a ieaci
eia , E. (13) bece

B eicig dici he eee a ii i hich he Lada ee degeeac i age egh
06/12/2011 The Fractional Quantum Hall Effect
2/2 www.pha.jhu.edu/qiuym/qhe/node5.html#SECTION00050000000000000000
that all electrons can be accommodated within the lowest Landau level, the single-partilce waveIunctions in the
lowest Landau level can be written as

where zxiy. Note that these waveIunctions describe electrons located within one magnetic length oI a circle
centered on the origin and enclosing an area

Any many-electron wave Iunction Iormed entirely within the lowest Landau level must be a products oI one-
electron orbitals Ior each coordinate which are oI the Iorm given by Eq. (25). According to Laughlin, the wave
Iunction can be written as

This wave Iunction corresponds to a bound liquid droplet. For a large but Iinite number oI electrons, N, the
maximum power to which (or any other coordinate) in is

and hence the area occupied by the wave Iunction, according to Eq. (26), is

It Iollows Irom Eq. (29) that in the thermodynamic limit A/2 . Thus as the electron
density is increased at constant magnetic Iield so that the Iilling Iactor crosses we go Irom a regime
where it is possible to Iorm states with to a regime where vanishes only as
. This qualitative change in the ability oI electrons to avoid each other causes a jump in the chemical potential
when the Iilling Iactro crosses 1/m and, invoking Eq. (20), also causes the Hall conductance to be quantized at
at Iilling Iactor 1/m.
Detailed discussions on FQHE and Iractional charge quasiparticles can be Iound on the listed reIerences.

Net: Applications Up: Introduction to the Quantum Previous: The Integer Quantum Hall
Yiming Qi
Sn Apr 27 22:51:18 EDT 1997

Net: References Up: Introduction to the Quantum Previous: The Fractional Quantum Hall
Applications
Resistance standard since 1990: h/ =25812.806 Ohms (precision )
Fine structure constant: (uncertaint )
Yiming Qi
Sn Apr 27 22:51:18 EDT 1997

Net: Acknowledgemetn & About this document Up: Introduction to the Quantum Previous: Applications
References
R.E.Prange and S.M.Girvin(eds.), The Quantum Hall Effect, 2nd Edition, Springer-Verlag, New
York(1990)
Allan H. Macdonald(eds), Quantum Hall Effect: A Perspective, Kluwer Academic Publishers(1990)
Feng Duan and Jin Guo-jun, New Perspective on Condensed Matter Phsics, Shanghai
Scientific&Technical Publishers(1992)
Yiming Qi
Sn Apr 27 22:51:18 EDT 1997