Olivia W.

and Margaret Pesikov Professor Kim Labor Economics December 6, 2011 The Gender Wage Gap Introduction In the United States of America, as well as in many other countries, there is a significant difference between female and male wages for similar jobs and careers. This situation is known as a gender wage gap, which is an index described as a percentage that depicts how much women earn in comparison to men. This wage gap index is also frequently used to evaluate the difference in wages between various races, geographic locations, and cultures. The index is typically shown in dollar amounts and is calculated by dividing median annual earnings for women by median annual earnings for men (Baldwin). For example, a wage gap may be described as women earning a certain amount of each dollar that a man earns. This paper will focus on evaluating the disparity between male and female pay and salaries. The concept of comparable worth states that jobs which require similar abilities, knowledge, and skills should be compensated the same wage or salary rate regardless of the employees age, race, sex, or any other difference. All companies are aware of this issue, however, it appears that there is still a pay difference between men and women. Throughout history, it has been common for women to earn significantly less than men for similar jobs. There are various views of the reasons for this reoccurring phenomena including blatant discrimination, fewer women having professional degrees than men, womens discontinuous commitment to the labor market, and many others. In an attempt to correct the inconsistency in wages, several acts and laws have been passed by the government to help control the reoccurring inequity. These acts include the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Title VII of
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the Civil Rights Act. Although there have been improvements in the gender wage gap, it appears that women are still being paid less than men in equivalent jobs, even in the present day. The purpose of this paper is to locate the main factors causing the gender wage gap. Although there are many different views and beliefs as to why the gender wage gap exists, this papers focus to locate the specific causes. After locating the causes, this paper will make suggestions on how to decrease the gender wage gap to make women more equal in the workforce. To this day, there are many inequalities that must be fixed in the United States, as well as other countries.

Contributing Factors Legislation Several laws have been passed in the United States to address the issue of discrimination in the workplace, including the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. These acts strive to minimize the gap between female and male salaries, and to reinforce to companies that discriminatory practices are unethical, unacceptable, and may result in legal actions against the company. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA) states that men and women who hold equal jobs in similar work environments should be paid the same for equal work. There are many different forms of pay: salary, bonus plans, benefits, profit sharing, life insurance, overtime pay, stock options, life insurance, vacation and holiday pay, reimbursement, cleaning and gasoline allowances, and hotel accommodations. The EPA makes it illegal to discriminate against women by such acts as offering them lower wages or benefits than males in an equal position. Nevertheless, these practices still occur within some organizations, whether they are intentional
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or not. If these discriminatory practices are identified, the company may face lawsuits and a tarnished reputation (Equal Pay and Compensation Discrimination). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act proclaims that discrimination in the workplace is illegal with reasons including race, religion, gender, and disability. This act is directed toward company hiring and firing policies, as well as fair practices regarding wages for men and women. In 2009, President Barack Obama signed his first legislation targeting the United States gender wage gap by reinforced that men and women should be paid in an equitable manner (Equal Pay and the Gender Gap: Men Still Outearn Women TIME). The law that President Obama signed was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act, named after a women who suffered from wage discrimination at her place of work. This acts focus is to change the current United States laws so that it is easier for individuals to sue companies for pay discrimination. President Obama is quoted saying, making
our economy work means making sure it works for everyone (President Obamas First Law

- ABC News). President Obama continued by saying, It is fitting that with the very first bill I sign, we are upholding one of this nations first principles: that we are all created equal and each deserve a chance to pursue our own version of happiness (President Obamas First Law - ABC News). This proves that to this day there is discrimination in the workplace and the
government is struggling to fix this. New laws are passed continually to combat these wage discrepancies and give women more equality in the workplace.

Oaxaca Decomposition In order to measure discrimination in pay, economists use a method called the Oaxaca Decomposition to determine discrimination rates. The Oaxaca Decomposition was created by Ronald L. Oaxaca, an economics professor at the University of Arizona. The Oaxaca Decomposition is used around the world because it is considered an effective method of
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measurement. This calculation takes into consideration all factors that can contribute to the vast differences in pay rates between males and females. These factors include skills, attitudes, education, time in the labor force, and other varying factors that may affect ones pay. It may also be used to determine discrimination rates for other groups including different races, as well as inequalities in health for poor and non-poor people (Explaining Differences Between Groups: Oaxaca Decomposition). Once all of these factors are accounted for, the remaining unexplained amount of the pay difference is determined to be resulting from discrimination. Once calculated, this measure is still uncertain because it may not consider all possible factors that contribute to the wage differential. All factors considered, economists will have an accurate measure of discrimination. Professor Joseph Altonji of Yale University came to the conclusion that factors such as differences in education can only account for approximately 27 percent of the wage gap, meaning that over 70 percent is most likely attributed to discrimination (Altonji). It is nearly impossible, however, to accurately determine this because it is impossible to consider all of the factors that can be involved in the difference due to the bounded rationality of researchers and personal biases. Occupational Crowding Occupational Crowding involves the concept of a self-fulfilling prophecy. Womens perceptions of their roles within society become their reality. The theory of occupational crowding states that women are intentionally segregated into particular occupations (Borjas 401). This is a result of social stereotypes and perceptions of female roles within society. There are latent beliefs in society that make people believe that women do not belong in certain career paths because they are manly or unfeminine. Especially several decades ago, women were
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pushed into more feminine occupations such as caretaker or secretary. To this day, there are many occupations that tend to employ mostly women. For example, truck drivers are generally men and secretaries are usually women. More often than not, these positions pay less than jobs that mostly men hold, resulting in lower wages for women. Though this seems like there is discrimination taking place, there is not. Women have the opportunity to go into other careers but often times they choose the socially accepted and encouraged career. In the modern day, occupational crowding is decreasing because women are more likely to go into manly careers than they would have been years ago. It is no longer unusual to find a woman engineer or a male nurse because certain social stigmas are either decreasing or being completely eliminated. A recent study found that a woman working in an occupation where at least 75 percent of coworkers are women earns about 14 percent less than a comparable woman working in an occupation where more than 75 percent of workers are men. The study also reports that a man working in an occupation that is predominantly female also earns 14 percent less than a man working in an occupation that is predominantly male. In short, it is the femaleness of the job that leads to lower wages, regardless of whether the worker employed is a man or woman (Borjas 401). In addition to choosing jobs that may be generally appealing to women, women may often choose lower paying jobs. This may be because many lower paying jobs offer flexibility and women can efficiently manage time for both work and family. Many high paying jobs, such as surgeons or CEOs, make it difficult to have and take care of a family because of the time commitment. A lot of women see this as a set back and would rather work a job that has more flexibility (Do the Ambitions of High School Valedictorians Differ by Gender?).
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Salary Negotiation Studies show that women tend to be less aggressive than men when it comes to negotiating salaries. Men are more likely to aim high and put a lot of effort into convincing a potential employer to increase the salary offer. Women, on the other-hand, are believed to be more likely to settle for an offer without questioning whether or not there is opportunity for an increase. Similar to mens willingness to take risk in negotiations, research also depicts that men are also more willing to work in jobs that are dangerous. Consequently, this results in a larger salary because of their willingness to put themselves in risky situations (Bruzzese). Human Capital Depreciation Another argument for the cause of the gender wage gap in the United States is the discontinuity in womens labor market attachment (Borjas 398). Many women choose to bear children and take time off from participating in the labor force in order to raise them. Due to this discontinuity, womens skills tend to depreciate over this time period and may account for why pay may be lowered. Childbirth and childcare contributes to the gender wage gap because womens skills depreciate during the time period that they have off for these reasons. Skills that are not used or kept up-to-date either are forgotten or become obsolete (Borjas 399). Men, however, typically stay committed to the labor market and therefore receive a higher payout for their continuous efforts. Women may not stay at a job long enough to receive a pay increase while men do.

Literature Survey

The gender wage gap is a controversial topic. Many views are held about the topic from different individuals. It is important to research and be aware of peoples views of this topic to see the factors of the gender wage gap and why it still exists. Labor Economics, by George Borjas, states that the discontinuity in womens labor market attachment may help explain a substantial part of the wage gap (Borjas 400). This implies that women are more likely to quit their jobs than males in order to raise children. This statistic could be a critical factor in understanding why women earn less than men. One other fact that has been studied by economists and even psychologists is that women are less likely to be promoted. This may be caused by intentional or subconscious discrimination and their superiors believing that they are less capable than men to handle more responsibility. Socially, men are generally seen to be smarter and more competent than women. Evan Fransen, Janneke Plantenga, and Jan Dirk Vlasblom, authors of Why do women still earn less than men? Decomposing the Dutch gender pay gap, 1996-2006, have their own perceptions of the gender wage gap. The authors discuss the improvements in womens attachment to the labor market compared to the past. Women in the present day have greater desires to work than women in the past. The authors analyzed why the gender wage gap still exists, and they believe that the gap was diminishing but it was being counteracted by changes in the wage structure. This analysis proved to be false. It appears that most changes to the Dutch wage structure have been favorable to the women in the labor force. The reason for the differences in gender wages is because of the Dutch wage structures gender bias (Fransen, E., Plantenga, J., & Vlasblom, J.). Authors Ellen K. Nyhus and Empar Pons had a different perspective where they considered whether personalities and personality traits are reasons for the gender wage gap in
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their article, Personality and the gender wage gap. Their research conducted involved looking at personality traits including personal self efficacy (locus of control) and time performance to see how they affect the wages of women and men. The Big Five personality traits, consisting of extraversion, openness to experiences, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism are also evaluated and associated with gender earnings. In their research, the authors found that 11.5 percent of the Dutch gender wage gap could be caused by differences in personality trait scores. The main characteristics of personality that affected this were agreeableness and intellect. When considering personality traits as a factor of the gender wage gap, the unexplained section of the gender wage gap decreased from 75.2 percent to 62.7 percent. Nyhus and Pons research exemplified that personality traits do play a factor of the gender wage gap (Nyhus, E., & Pons, E.). USA Todays article, Gender Pay Gap is Smallest on Record, written by Dennis Cauchon, states that the reason for the shrinking of the earnings gap between men and women is because women are flourishing in the current economy while men have been hit hard by the recession. This article explains that the gap has been decreasing, but for the wrong reasons. Men are losing their jobs in the construction industry, manufacturing industries, and other similar industries because of how the recession is affecting those industries. On an opposite side of the spectrum, government jobs and the health care industry are still growing with low job loss. These two industries tend to have more female workers than male (Cauchon). In the article, Sex Based Differences in School Content and the Male/Female Wage Gap, Charles Brown and Mary Corcoran hypothesize that the wage gap may be partially accounted for by the differences in courses that males and females choose to take in college. Their studies have shown that in in high school boys are more likely than girls to take advanced
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math and science courses while girls are more likely to take foreign languages. In college, women enroll in very different majors than do men (Brown 1). Women are more likely to take more cultural classes, including studying foreign languages and social sciences. These courses tend to not have a large payout in the future, which may cause men to have higher wages because they often take more rigorous courses. Some professionals believe that a contributing factor to the gender wage gap is the fact that consumers are more likely to judge performance of a male employee as better than a female even when their performances were identical. For example, people tend to rate male doctors better than their female doctors even though both are equally competent. David R. Hekman, a management professor at the University of Wisconsin, has studied this and through his and his teams research has determined that customer satisfaction surveys are typically better for men. He used his findings and published, An Examination of Whether and How Racial and Gender Biases Influence Customer Satisfaction. This is a result of consumer biases and cannot be prevented through any legislation or from company involvement. Hekman suggests that companys take these biases into consideration when determining wages for female workers (Hekman 240). These biases do not likely play a significant role in the wage discrepancy between men and women, but researchers such as Hekman believe that they make a difference.

Data and Analysis The gender wage gap is a quantitative topic, meaning that it depends heavily on statistics and numerical data. As previously mentioned, the gender wage gap differs depending on demographics, such as the state, the laws, and individual mentalities of both employees and

compensation managers. This section will discuss the empirical data of the gender wage gap throughout the years and the extent to which the wage gap fluctuates based on external factors. The 2007 United States wage gap statistics showed women earning average annual wags of 78 cents to a dollar earned by males. In 2008, the statistics appeared to show that womens earnings dropped by one cent, so that women were earning 77 cents to a males dollar (Thomas). The U.S. Census Bureau is the main source of the gender wage gap statistics. Money Income of People- Number by Income Level and by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 2009 (Exhibit A) depicts the 2009 gender wage gap. This chart shows the income of males and females in the United States. By looking at the highest income level listed, $250,000 and above, there is a large difference between the number of men and women earning that income level. Males, 1,181,000 of them to be exact, earned $250,000 or above, while only 279,000 female earned this amount. All incomes, except for the lowest income level ($29,999 and below), have more males earning the incomes than females. There is a wide gap between the number of men and women who earn under $10,000. The number of women who earn under $10,000 is 45,180,000 compared to 27,653,000 males. The chart depicts the large gap between the number of men and women earning high incomes. Four times more men than women earn an income of $250,000 a year (The 2012 Statistical Abstract: Income, Expenditures, Poverty, & Wealth). It appears that there is a direct correlation between the gender pay gap and the age of the individuals being discussed. With an increase in age, the wage gap between men and women increases. An example is that female employees under the age of 25 face a 15 percent pay gap from males under the age of 25. This means that women under 25 earn 85 cents to the under 25 year old males dollar. The gender wage gap increases for women who are older than 25 but younger than 35. The average wage gap of this age group is 19 percent. For middle-aged women,
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the gap expands to an average of 25 percent pay gap. Middle-aged women earn 75 cents to every middle-aged males dollar. Women over 50 earn 73 cents to every dollar of what men their age make (Gender wage gap widens with age - March 2011). It is interesting to note that even in fields that are mainly women, men still earn higher wages. For example, female secretaries earn only 83.4% as much as male secretaries (Thomas). The bar graph Male and Female Earnings By Educational Attainment (Exhibit B) depicts the average earnings that men and women can expect for various degrees. This data is based on data from 2007 to 2009. It is evident that though both male and female salaries increase with each level of education, however, male salaries increase at a significantly higher rate. As shown by the red text, research finds that men that have attended college but who do not have a degree can expect to earn as much as a woman with a Bachelors degree. Also, women that have received a Doctoral Degree earn approximately as much as a male with a Bachelors. Looking at these statistics may discourage women from obtaining higher degrees because their male counterparts are valued more even with less education (Carnevale). The graph, Percentage Gap Between Median Mens and Womens Wages, for All FullTime Workers (Exhibit C) demonstrates the average wage gap in various countries around the globe. This graph shows that the United States has a significantly higher percentage gender wage gap than many other developed countries. Although it is not the worst, the United States still falls closely behind countries like Finland, Portugal, and Spain. Based on 2006 data, Belgium had the smallest gap from this selection of countries with women earning 90% of mens salaries. Korea, however, has the widest gap with women earning on average only 60% of mens salaries. Data shows that compared to other similar and developed countries, the United States gender gap in wages in considerably high (Wade).
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The median weekly earnings of full-time, United States employees during the third quarter of 2011, depicts the pay difference between men and women. The countrys 101.4 million full-time employers had average median weekly earnings of $753. The median for men during this quarter was $827, while womens median weekly pay was $673. Womens weekly earnings amounted to 81.4 percent of mens earnings. These statistics are from the graph, Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, not seasonally adjusted, third quarter 2011 (Exhibit D) (Median weekly earnings, third quarter 2011). The earnings ratio between females and males is even greater when race and ethnicity are accounted. Although it is expected that white women have the lowest gender wage gap, this is actually not true. Hispanic women earn 92.9 percent as much as their male counterparts. White women earn 82.5 percent as much as white males. Comparable ratios consist of African American women earning 90.2 percent of African American males pay and Asian women earning 70.1 percent. The gender wage gap is smaller for non-white groups in comparison to their own race because males of different races are often paid lower wages and salaries than white males. The median weekly earning for full-time African American men was $661 per week in the third quarter of 2011. This is 78.0 percent of the median pay for white males, which amounts to $847. African American males and white males have a larger wage gap (78.0 percent) than African American females compared against white females (85.3 percent) (Median weekly earnings, third quarter 2011). Although the overall gender earnings gap is large, it is even greater for women of color and different cultures. When comparing women of colors wages to non-Hispanic males, the difference in extraordinary. African American women only earn 61 cents to every dollar that a
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white non-Hispanic male earns. Latina women are paid even less, earning 52 cents to every white males dollar (Thomas). Empirical Results For women in the labor force, the gender wage gap is a sensitive topic. Women believe that they are equally qualified, have a strong work ethic, and many other strengths that justify pay equality. It appears that the gender wage gap is shrinking compared to past numbers, which provides hope to women who are currently and also entering into the labor force. Through our research we have determined that there are a variety of different factors that may explain the wage gap. Some people believe that the wage gap is entirely explained by these factors, whereas others claim that the wage gap is fictional. We believe that the wage gap exists but is overestimated. The Oaxaca Decomposition seems to be the most accurate and reliable calculation currently available to determine discrimination. Although not all contributory factors are accounted for in this calculation due to imperfect information, the Oaxaca Decomposition provides a generally good idea of the current wage gap percentage in society. Our research provides us with the views that the gender wage gap is mostly attributed to biases against women, occupational crowding, and womens personalities. Even with laws and acts that enforce the illegal acts of discrimination, it is hard to change individuals perceptions. Individuals who have biases against women will not be able to overwrite them just because there are laws enacted against it. Companies and individuals may be unaware of such biases even though they may be partaking in such practices. Occupation crowding is a factor in the gender wage gap because women have been segregated into specific occupations since they have been able to work. This is related to the biases against women, because they are seen as not being able to have high roles in society.
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Our research also proves that females personalities are a factor of the gender wage gap because they are not extremely persistence in the workplace. Women are less likely to ask for salary increases from their employers. Women are also quieter about their work and accomplishments causing them to sometimes go unnoticed. These factors are the major reasons for the gender wage gap in the United States and in many other countries. Due to the fact that we are both females soon-to-be entering the labor market, all of this data and analysis is important to us. We will be facing this discrimination once we begin out careers and the research presented in this paper will help us understand and better evaluate whether or not we are being paid enough for the amount of work that we do. Prior to this research we were informed that there was a wage gap but were not aware of neither its significance nor any possible causes and explanations. Now, we are capable of understanding this topic and applying our knowledge to the world around us.

Summary and Conclusions In the United States, the gender wage gap is still present despite the initiatives that are being made by the government, the United States, and President Obama. It is apparent that it is still unclear how to solve the problem and eliminate the gender wage gap. After our research, we believe that more enforcement needs to be taken to ensure that discrimination and biases against women is not occurring in the workplace. In order to enforce this, we believe there should be a similar process of auditing companies to ensure that they are not participating in any inequality practices. If companies are caught using these practices then there will be severe consequences. Also, we hope that the possible occurrence of being audited could cause companies to ensure that they are participating in completely ethical and unbiased acts.
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If the gender wage gap were to close, social stereotypes, biases, and prejudices need to be eliminated. Mostly, perceptions of women need to be improved and revolutionized. As of present, this is unlikely to occur. Economists believe that a reduction in the gender wage gap would be beneficial for countries and their economies. A decrease in the gender wage gap is expected to provide substantial increases in GDP. It appears that a gender wage gap reduction will not only be beneficial for women, but also for the economy as a whole, which is needed as of the current times.

Appendix Exhibit A- Money Income of People- Number by Income Level and by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 2009

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"The 2012 Statistical Abstract: Income, Expenditures, Poverty, & Wealth." Census Bureau Home Page. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2011. <http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/income_expenditures_poverty_wealth.ht ml>.

Exhibit B- Male and Female Earnings By Educational Attainment

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Carnevale, Anthony P., Stephen J. Rose, and Ban Cheah. "The College Payoff: Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings." Georgetown University. Georgetown Univesity. Web. 2 Dec. 2011. <http://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/collegepayoffcomplete.pdf>.

Exhibit C- Percentage Gap Between Median Mens and Womens Wages, for All Full-Time Workers
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Wade, Lisa. "Comparing the Gender Wage Gap Across Countries Sociological Images."The Society Pages. The Society Pages, 3 Apr. 2010. Web. 01 Dec. 2011. <http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2010/04/03/comparing-the-gender-wage-gapacross-countries/>.

Exhibit D- Median Usual Weekly Earnings of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers, Not Seasonally Adjusted, Third Quarter 2011

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"Median weekly earnings, third quarter 2011." U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 27 October, 2011. Web. 7 December, 2011. <http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2011/ted_20111027.htm>.

References Altonji, Joseph G. and Rebecca M. Blank (1999). Race and Gender in the Labor Market. Handbook of Labor Economics, Vol. 3. Print.
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Baldwin, David A. The Library Compensation Handbook: a Guide for Administrators, Librarians, and Staff. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited, 2003. Print. Borjas, George. Labor Economics. Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2010. Print. Brown, Charles and Mary Corcoran. "Sex-Based Differences In School Content And The Male/Female Wage Gap," Journal of Labor Economics, 1997, v15(3,Jul), Part 1, 431465. Bruzzese, Anita. "Women's Pay Gap Often Starts with No Negotiation on Salary USATODAY.com." News, Travel, Weather, Entertainment, Sports, Technology, U.S. & World - USATODAY.com. USA Today, 6 Apr. 2011. Web. 04 Dec. 2011. <http://www.usatoday.com/money/jobcenter/workplace/bruzzese/2011-04-06-womenneed-negotiating-skills_N.htm>. Carnevale, Anthony P., Stephen J. Rose, and Ban Cheah. "The College Payoff: Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings." Georgetown University. Georgetown Univesity. Web. 2 Dec. 2011. <http://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/collegepayoffcomplete.pdf>. Cauchon, Dennis. "Gender pay gap is smallest on record - USATODAY.com." News, Travel, Weather, Entertainment, Sports, Technology, U.S. & World - USATODAY.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. <http://www.usatoday.com/money/workplace/2010-09-13-wagegaps_N.htm>. Do the Ambitions of High School Valedictorians Differ by Gender? New York Times. June 1, 2009. Print. "Equal Pay and Compensation Discrimination." US EEOC Home Page. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Dec. 2011. <http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/equalcompensation.cfm>. Fransen, E., Plantenga, J., & Vlasblom, J.. (2012). "Equal Pay and the Gender Gap: Men Still Outearn Women - TIME." Breaking News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, Video, Tech Reviews - TIME.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. <http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1983185,00.html>. Explaining Differences Between Groups: Oaxaca Decomposition. World Bank. <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPAH/Resources/Publications/4598431195594469249/HealthEquityCh12.pdf>. "Gender wage gap widens with age - March 2011." Salary Checks -World Wide Wage Comparison -WageIndicator.org . N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. <http://www.wageindicator.org/main/WageIndicatorgazette/wageindicator-news/genderwage-gap-widens-with-age-march-2011>. Hekman, David R., Karl Aquino, Brad P. Ownes, Terence R. Mitchell, Pauline Schilpzand, Keith Leavitt (2010). An Examination of Whether and How Racial and Gender Biases Influence Customer Satisfaction. Academy of Manangment Journal, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 238-264. "Median weekly earnings, third quarter 2011." U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 27 October, 2011. Web. 7 December, 2011. <http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2011/ted_20111027.htm>. Nyhus, E., & Pons, E.. (2012). Personality and the gender wage gap. Applied Economics, 44(1), 105. Retrieved December 7, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 2422537241). "President Obamas First Law - ABC News." ABCNews.com: Daily News, Breaking News and Video Broadcasts - ABC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. <http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2009/01/president-ob-14-5/>.
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"Study Alleges Louisiana Has Largest Male-Female Wage Gap In U.S. | The Pelican Post." The Pelican Post: Louisiana Politics and Policy. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Dec. 2011. <http://www.thepelicanpost.org/2011/12/01/study-alleges-louisiana-has-largest-malefemale-wage-gap-in-u-s/>. "The 2012 Statistical Abstract: Income, Expenditures, Poverty, & Wealth." Census Bureau Home Page. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2011. <http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/income_expenditures_poverty_wealth.ht ml>. "The Gender Pay Gap by Industry - NYTimes.com." The Economy and the Economics of Everyday Life - Economix Blog - NYTimes.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. <http://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/the-gender-pay-gap-by-industry/>. Thomas, Kate. "77 Cents On A Man's Dollar: Women Still Earn Less Than Men." SEIU Service Employees International Union. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. <http://www.seiu.org/2010/04/77-cents-on-a-mans-dollar-women-still-earn-less-thanmen.php>. Wade, Lisa. "Comparing the Gender Wage Gap Across Countries Sociological Images."The Society Pages. The Society Pages, 3 Apr. 2010. Web. 01 Dec. 2011. <http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2010/04/03/comparing-the-gender-wage-gapacross-countries/>. "What is comparable worth? Definition and meaning." BusinessDictionary.com - Online Business Dictionary. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. <http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/comparable-worth.html>. Why do women still earn less than men? Decomposing the Dutch gender pay gap, 1996-2006. Applied Economics, 44(33), 4343. Retrieved December 7, 2011, from Research Library. (Document ID: 2466496371).

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