1 P. G. DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS AND BALLISTICS F. M.

UNIVERSITY, BALASORE-19 MODERN PHYSICS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT NO: 1
GROUP:1
Smruti Smita Lenka Deepak Kumar Sahu Suman Pradhan APAB/01/2010 APAB/02/2010 APAB/03/2010

2 OBJECTIVES:To SET UP:

1. Dielectric cell-1 2. Dielectric cell-2 3. Samples (Plywood, glass, paper And PZT) 4. CRO 5. Connecting probe 6. Dielectric constant kit 7. Slide calipers 8. Screw gauge calculate dielectric constant of the given samples using dielectric constant kit.

THEORY:
DIELECTRIC CELL:
A dielectric cell (formerly known as condenser or capacitor) is a passive twoterminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical dielectric cells vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). Dielectric cells are used as parts of electrical systems, for example, and consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal dielectric cell is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence dielectric cell conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Dielectric cells are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.

(A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate dielectric cell) A dielectric cell consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[8] The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A dielectric cell is assumed to be selfcontained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[9] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[10]

Sometimes charge build-up affects the dielectric cell mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

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CIRCUIT:

A simple resistor-dielectric cell circuit demonstrates charging of a dielectric cell. Dielectric cells are different from resistors and inductors in that the impedance is inversely proportional to the defining characteristic, i.e. capacitance.

PARALLEL PLATE MODEL:

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and with a separation of d.

DIELECTRIC:
The term "dielectric" was coined by William Whewell (from "dia -electric") in response to a request from Michel Faraday. A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material, as in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates

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an internal electric field which reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient so that their symmetry axis aligns to the field. Although the term "insulator" implies low electrical conduction, "dielectric" is typically used to describe materials with a high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a number called the dielectric constant. If a dielectric material is placed between two plates of a capacitor its capacitance increases k-times of its original value. This k is the dielectric const.

DIELECTRIC POLARISATION:
The diagrammatic representations of dielectric polarizations are as follows;

In the classical approach to the dielectric model, a material is made up of atoms. Each atom consists of a cloud of negative charge (Electrons) bound to and surrounding a positive point charge at its center. In the presence of an electric field the charge cloud is distorted, as shown in the top right of the figure.

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This can be reduced to a simple dipole using the superposition principle. A dipole is characterized by its dipole moment, a vector quantity shown in the figure as the blue arrow labeled M. It is the relationship between the electric field and the dipole moment that gives rise to the behavior of the dielectric. When the electric field is removed the atom returns to its original state. The time required to do so is the so-called relaxation time; an exponential decay. Commercially manufactured capacitors typically use a solid dielectric material with high permittivity, as the intervening medium between the stored positive and negative charges. This material is often referred as the "capacitor dielectric" in technical contexts. The most obvious advantage to using such a dielectric material is that it prevents the conducting plates on which the charges are stored from coming in to direct electrical contact. More significant, however, a high permittivity allows a greater charge to be stored at a given voltage. Dielectric materials used for capacitors are also chosen such that they are resistant to ionization. This allows the capacitor to operate at higher voltages before the insulating dielectric ionizes and begins to allow undesirable current. When designing capacitors, and in other circumstances where a material might be expected to introduce capacitance into a circuit. If a material with a high dielectric constant is placed in an electric field, the magnitude of that field will be measurably reduced within the volume of the dielectric. This fact is commonly used to increase the capacitance of a particular capacitor design. Dielectrics are used in RF transmission lines. In a coaxial cable,

polyethylene can be used between the center conductor and outside shield. It can also be placed inside waveguides to form filters. Optical fibers are examples of dielectric waveguides. They consist of dielectric materials that are purposely doped with impurities so as to control the precise value of k, within the cross-section. This controls the refractive index of the material and therefore also the optical modes of transmission.

WORKING FORMULA:
In this experiment an LC-circuit is used to determine the capacitance of a dielectric cell and hence the dielectric constant. The circuit consists of ;

DC: dielectric cell SC: standard capacitor L: inductor X: sample. An audio oscillator is incorporated inside the instrument whose function is to generate alternating current. Let CSC=capacitance of the standard capacitor VSC=voltage across the standard capacitor CDC=capacitance of containing the sample the dielectric cell (gold-plated brass-discs)

VDC=voltage across the dielectric cell W=angular-frequency of the oscillation Then, by ohms law; V=I/R OR VSC/I=1/ (w C SC ) ------------------ (1) OR I=w.VSC CSC ------------------------- (2)

The same current I passes through the dielectric cell. So, VDC/I=1/ (w. CDC ) OR OR OR CDC=I/w.VDC ---------------- (3)

CDC=w . CSC. VSC/ (w.VDC)

CDC= (CSC.VSC) / VDC =C (say) ------------------ (4)

Let, C0 = the capacitance of the dielectric-cell without the sample r=radius of gold-plated discs

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d=thickness of the air-gap by which the two plates are separated i.e. thickness of the sample A=area of the gold-plated discs So, C0=charge/potential=q/v [Where, v=q. d/ 0.A 0=permittivity of free space] OR C0=q. [(A.0 ) / (q. d)] = (A.0 )/d . 0) =9*109 *9*109)

We know, 1/ (4

OR

0=1/ (4

= [1/ (36 )]*10-9

So, C0= (A. 0 ) /d = [ r2. [1/ (36 )]*10-9] /d . r2]

[As the disc is circular, A= = [r2/36d]*10 -9f

2 = [r /36d] nf.

-------------------- (5)

Then the dielectric constant of the sample is given by, =C/C0. ----------------- (6)

PROCEDURE:
First of all, a C.R.O. is to be connected to the terminals provided on the front-panel of the main-unit of the dielectric constant kit .then the C.R.O. is so adjusted that the sinusoidal wave form will appear on the screen; if not so, the key marked CAL is to be adjusted.

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Then the dielectric cell assembly is connected to the main unit and then the sample is inserted between the two gold-plated brass discs. The unit is switched on. Then, the standard capacitor is to be chosen (with the help of switch

s1,s2,s3)sc1

for materials having low dielectric constants like Bakelite,

glass and plywood samples or constants like PZT samples. The switch

sc2

materials having high dielectric

s1 is to be thrown towards DC to measure voltage across the

dielectric cell. It is again thrown towards SC to measure the voltage across the standard capacitor. Then, C is calculated using the relation (4). Thickness and diameter of the samples is to be measured using screwgauge and slide calipers respectively. Co is to be calculated using relation (5). Then the dielectric constant of the sample can be calculated by using the relation (6).

OBSERVATIONS:
For slide-calipers, 9 MSD =10 VSD OR 10 VSD=9 MSD OR 1 VSD=9/10 MSD So, LC=1 MSD-1 VSD = (1-9/10) MSD =0.1 MSD =0.1*0.1 cm =0.01 cm . For screw-gauge, Circular scale travels 0.5 cm on main-scale in 10 completerotations. So, for one complete rotations it will travel=0.05 cm on main scale. Pitch=0.05 cm. LC=Pitch/100 =0.0005 cm.

10 TABULATION:
Tabulation for calculating thickness of the given specimen; GLASS
NO. OF OBS. PITCH IN cm L.C. ICSR (I) NCR (N) FCSR (F)
(F-I)

PSR PITCH*N

CSR LC*(F-I)

THICKNESS d=(PSR+CSR) IN cm

MEAN d IN cm

1 2 3 4 5
NO. OF OBS.

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

PITCH IN cm

0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005

L.C.

94 59 60 67 85
ICSR (I)

7 6 7 7 7
NCR (N)

77 71 72 63 65
FCSR (F)

83 12 12 96 80
(F-I)

0.35 0.3 0.35 0.35 0.4

PSR PITCH*N

0.0418 0.006 0.006 0.048 0.04

CSR LC*(F-I)

0.3915 0.306 0.356 0.398 044

THICKNESS d=(PSR+CSR) IN cm

0.3783

PLYWOOD
MEAN d IN cm

1 2 3 4 5

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

PITCH IN cm

0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005

L.C.

62 81 82 68 84
ICSR (I)

7 6 6 6 6
NCR (N)

66 69 68 74 65
FCSR (F)

4 88 83 6 81
(F-I)

0.35 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

PSR PITCH*N

0.002 0.044 0.0415 0.003 0.0405

CSR LC*(F-I)

0.352 0.344 0.3418 0.303 0.3408

THICKNESS d=(PSR+CSR) IN cm

0.3362

PZT
NO. OF OBS. MEAN d IN cm

1 2 3 4 5

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005

64 63 65 50 53

3 3 3 3 3

90 87 80 79 80

26 0.15 24 0.15 15 0.15 29 0.15 33 0.15

0.013 0.012

0.163 0.162 0.1621

0.0075 0.1515 0.0145 0.1645 0.0135 0.1635

Tabulation for calculating radius of the given specimen: FOR GLASS

NO. OF MSR IN OBS cm 1 2 3 7.9 7.6 7.7 VC LC VSR IN cm IN cm (VC*LC) 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.06 A=MSR+VSR MEAN RADIUS IN cm A IN IN cm cm 7.97 7.67 7.80 7.80/2= 3.90 7.76

7 7 6

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FOR PLYWOOD
NO. OF MSR IN VC LC VSR OBS cm IN cm IN cm (VC*LC) 1 7.8 6 0.01 0.06 2 7.9 9 0.01 0.09 3 7.8 7 0.01 0.07 A=MSR+VSR MEAN RADIUS IN cm A IN IN cm cm 7.86 7.99 7.573 7.573/2= 3.7865 7.87 A=MSR+VSR IN cm 2.44 2.32 2.44 MEAN RADIUS A IN IN cm cm 2.4 2.4/2= 1.2

FOR PZT
NO. OF MSR IN VC LC VSR OBS cm IN cm IN cm (VC*LC) 1 2.4 4 0.01 0.04 2 2.3 2 0.01 0.02 3 2.4 4 0.01 0.04

CALCULATIONS:

FOR GLASS
CSC=50 pf (given) VDC=1.24 V Vsc=1.61 V d=3.783*10 m -2 r=3.9*10 m By equation (4), C= (50*1.61)/1.24 =64.911 pf. By equation (5), C0= (3.9*10

-3

-2

) ^2/ [36*(3.783*10

-3

)]

=0.11168*10 =11.168 pf. By equation (6), = 5.814

-1

nf

FOR PLYWOOD ,
CSC=50 pf (given)

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VDC=0.84 V VSC=1.36 V -3 d=3.362*10 m -2 r=3.766*10 m By equation (4), C= (50*1.36)/0.84 pf =80.9523 pf. By equation (5), C0 = (3.766*10

-2

) ^2/ [36*(3.362*10

-3

)]

=0.11718*10-1 nf =11.71 pf. By equation (6), = 6.9133

FOR PZT
CSC=11.2 nf (given) VDC= 1.99 V VSC=1.47V d=1.621mm=1.621*10 r=1.241cm=1.241*10
-3

-2

By equation (4), C= (1.47*11.2) / 1.99 = 8.2733 nf. By equation (5), C0= (1.214*10 ) ^2/ [36*(1.621*10 =0.0252 nf. By equation (6), =3309.32

-2

-3

)]

CONCLUSION:
The values of dielectric constant for glass, plywood and PZT are found to be 5.812, 6.9133 & 3309.32 respectively.