Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

3.0 Transformers
3.1 The Ideal Transformer

V p (t ) = N p

d dt d Vs (t ) = N s dt V p (t ) N p = =a Vs (t ) N s N p i p (t ) = N s i s (t ) i p (t ) i s (t ) Vp Vs Ip Is = 1 a

=a = 1 a

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

An Ideal Transformer is based on the following assumptions and their consequences. 1. The core has infinite permeability i.e. it has zero reluctance 2. There is no core loss 3. As a result an ideal transformer does not draw any magnetizing current to establish core flux. 4. No flux can leak through such a core, i.e. all the core flux links primary and secondary windings. As a consequence primary and secondary leakage reactances are zero. 5. Primary and secondary winding resistances are zero. As a consequence there is no copper loss.

3.2 Power in Ideal Transformer Pin = V p I p cos p (1)

p = Angle between the primary voltage and the primary current

Pout = Vs I s cos s (2)

s = Angle between the sec ondary voltage and the sec ondary current
Vs = Vp a and I s = aI p

Vp Pout = a (aI p )cos Pout = V p I p cos = Pin

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

Thus, the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its input power.
Pout = Pin Qout = Qin S out = S in 3.3 Impedance Transformation through a Transformer

Impedance = the ratio of the phasor voltage across the device to the phasor current flowing through it.
ZL = VL IL

The ratio between voltage and current has change and hence change the apparent impedance of the element when voltage and current levels have change. By refer to the next figure, the relationship of primary impedance and secondary impedance can be analyzed as follows:

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

Let ' s Vs = sec ondary voltage I s = sec ondary current ZL = Vs Is

thus,

The apparent impedance of the primary circuit of the transformer is

Z 'L =

Vp Ip

Since the primary voltage and current can be expressed as

V p = aVs Ip = Is a

the apparent impedance of the primary is

Z 'L = Vp Ip = aVs V = a2 s Is / a Is

Z 'L = a 2 Z L
3.4 Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers

To easiest way to analyze the circuits for its voltages and currents that contain an ideal transformer is to replace the portion of the circuit on one side of the transformer by an equivalent circuit with the same terminal characteristics.

The process of replacing one side of a transformer by its equivalent at the other side's voltage level is known as referring the first side of transformer to the second side.

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

The following example will shows the advantages by using transformer in power system network.
Example

a. Refer to the figure 3(a) below, what will the voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line losses be? b. Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of the line as figure 3(b), what will the load voltage be now? What will the transmission line losses be now?
(Answer will be discussed in class)

Figure 3(a) Power system without transformer

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

Figure 3(b) Power system with transformer

3.5 Losses in Transformer

The major items to be considered in the construction of any model of transformer are:

Copper (I2R) Losses. Eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses. Leakage flux.

3.6 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

The model of the real transformer

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

The figure above shows the accurate model of the transformer but it is quite difficult to analyze practical circuits containing transformers. Thus the equivalent circuit normally has converted to the equivalent circuit at a single voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to its primary side or to its secondary side in problem solutions.

The transformer model referred to its primary voltage level

The transformer model referred to its secondary voltage level

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

The excitation branch has a very small current compared to the load current of the transformers. Moreover, it is so small that under normal circumstances it causes a completely negligible voltage drop in Rp and Xp. Thus, it can be simplified into approximate equivalent circuits.

3.7 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model 3.7.1 Open Circuit Test

The values of RC and XM can be determined by opening the output line at the secondary side of transformer as in figure below.

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

Full line voltage is applied to the primary of the transformer, and the input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are measured. From those values, it is possible to determine the power factor of the input current and therefore both the magnitude and the angle of the excitation impedance. The conductance of the core-loss resistor is given by
Gc = 1 Rc

and the susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is given by BM = since these two elements are in parallel, 1 XM

YE = Gc jBM YE = 1 1 j Rc XM

The magnitude of the excitation admittance is

YE =

I oc Voc

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

Power Engineering Foundation and the power angle

Transformers

= cos 1

Poc Voc I oc

The power factor is always lagging for a real transformer. Since the is an impedance
angle and it is positive value, thus the of admittance will be a negative value.
YE = I oc Voc

Compare with the excitation admittance's formula

YE = Gc jBM = Gc jBM = Gc jBM = Thus Rc = 1 1 = I oc Gc cos( ) Voc 1 = jBM 1 j I oc sin( ) Voc I oc Voc

I I oc cos( ) + j oc sin( ) Voc Voc I I oc cos( ) j oc sin( ) V Voc oc

XM =

j j = I oc BM sin( ) Voc 1 1 = I oc BM sin( ) Voc

3.7.2 Short Circuit Test

In short circuit test, the secondary terminals of the transformer are short circuited, and the primary terminals are connected to a fairly low voltage source, as shown in figure below.

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

10

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

Current flowing in excitation branch is neglect since the input voltage is so low during the short-circuit test. Thus the entire voltage drop in the transformer can be attributed to the series elements in the circuit. The magnitude of the series impedances referred to the primary side of the transformer is
Z SE = Vsc I sc

The power angle

= cos 1

Psc Vsc I sc

The power factor is lagging. Thus impedance angle, will be positive since current
lagging the voltage.
Z SE = Vsc I sc

The Series impedance ZSE is equal to

Z SE = Req + jX eq Z SE = ( RP + a 2 Rs ) + j ( X p + a 2 X s )

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

11

Power Engineering Foundation

Example

Transformers

The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVAm 8000/240-V, 60Hz transformer is determined as in table below. All values were performed on the primary side of the transformer.
Open circuit test VOC = 8000 V IOC = 0.214 A POC = 400W Short circuit test VSC = 489 V ISC = 2.5 A PSC = 240W

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred o the primary side and secondary side. Sketch a circuit for the both cases.
(Answer will be discussed in class)

3.8 Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency

Voltage Regulation (VR) is defined a quantity that compares the output voltage of the transformer at no load with the output voltage at full load.

VR =

Vs ,nl Vs , fl Vs , fl

x100%

Since at no load, Vs = Vp/a, the voltage regulation can also be expressed as VR = V p / a Vs , fl Vs , fl x100%

3.9 Transformer Phasor Diagram

It is easy to determine the effect of the impedances and the current phase angles on the transformer voltage regulation by drawing the phasor diagram.

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

12

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

VS is assumed to be at an angle of 0o, and all other voltages and currents are compared to that references. A transformer phasor diagram is presented by applying Kirchhoff's Voltage law to the transformer equivalent circuit and an equation will be as follows. Vp a = Vs + Req I s + jX eq I s

Figure below shows phasor diagram for all three conditions of power factor i.e. lagging, unity and leading.

Lagging Power Factor

Unity Power Factor

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

13

Power Engineering Foundation

Leading Power Factor

Transformers

3.10 Transformer Efficiency

Pout x100% Pin

Pout x100% Pout + Ploss

Vs I s cos x100% PCu + Pcore + Vs I s cos

Or
=
VA * pf x100% + Pcore + VA * cos

PCu

Or
=
( I 2 ) 2 R2 + V s I s cos (V p / a) 2 Rc + V s I s cos x100% ------- (3)

Pcore is taken during open circuit and Pcu is taken during short circuit.

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

14

Power Engineering Foundation

N-load Efficiency

Transformers

For n-load efficiency, the general formula can be written as: Efficiency at n-load:
nL =
nVA * pf ------------ (4) nVA * pf + n 2 Pcu + Pcore

Maximum Efficiency

For maximum Efficiency, the derivative for equation (3) above should be done by considering I2 varied. To obtain maximum,
d =0 dI 2

In summary, the derivative equation yield as below:

2 n 2 I 2 R2 = Pcore

Therefore
n= Pcore
2 I 2 R2

Pcore Pcu

To find maximum efficiency, substitute the n value into equation (4).

Example 1

A 15-kVA, 2300/230-V transformer is to be tested to determine its excitation branch components, its series impedances, and its voltage regulation. The following test data have been taken from the primary side of the transformer.
Open circuit test VOC = 2300 V IOC = 0.21 A POC = 50W Short circuit test VSC = 47 V ISC = 6.0 A PSC = 160W

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

15

Power Engineering Foundation

Transformers

a. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side. b. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side. c. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, 1.0 power factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor. d. What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8 lagging?
(Answer will be discussed in a class)

Example 2

The following data were obtained in a test on a 20kVA 2400/240V 60Hz transformer.
Open circuit test VOC = 2400 V IOC = 2.4 A POC = 170W Short circuit test VSC = 72 V ISC = 8.33 A PSC = 268W

Determine the transformer parameters referred to the primary side. Also calculate the voltage regulation, full-load and half-load efficiency at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Draw the phasor diagram for the system.
(Answer will be discussed in a class)

Prepared by Fuad Latip 2006

16