1. To a psychologist, memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time.

It is our ability to store and retrieve information. They suggest one information-processing model called three-stage processing. This is broken into 3 steps: I. registers fleeting sensory memories II. Processed into working (short term) memory that is III. Encoded for long-term memory and later retrieval. 2. Parallel processing allows us to handle many aspects of a problem simultaneously. Automatic processing happens automatically and pertains to information such as time and frequency. Effortful processing of imagery and organization requires conscious attention. Spacing effect helps us remember things more easily by use of repetition and spaced study. Serial position effect is our tendency to better recall the first and last item in a list. 3. Visual encoding and acoustic encoding engage in more shallow, or simple, processing. We process verbal information better if we apply it to ourselves. Encoding imagery through mnemonic devices also helps memory. Chunking helps organize information for easy retrieval. 4. We briefly register and store images with iconic memory, which lasts about a few tenths of a second. We register and store sounds with echoic memory, which lasts 3-4 seconds. 5. We cannot focus and process more than 7 items of information. Without rehearsal, information disappears after short-term memory. Our long-term memory, however, is unlimited. 6. Long-term potential is the neural basis of learning and memory. Based on stress triggers, the brain becomes aroused and can produce memories. With flashbulb memory, we better remember vivid events. Explicit and implicit are the two types of memory systems. Explicit deals with facts in the hippocampus, while implicit deals with conditioned responses and skills in the cerebellum. 7. We RECALL information that is not consciously aware. We RECOGNIZE terms previously learned. We RELEARN and master previously stored information more quickly. We activate all of these associations by use of priming (unconsciously.) 8. The context of how we originally experienced an event or thought can flood our memory with retrieval cues. This leads us to the target memory. Yet, this can also trick us into retrieving a memory, like in dj vu. Mood-congruent memory primes us to interpret others behavior in ways consistent with our current emotion. 9. Memories fade after storage, quickly the leveling off. This is known as forgetting curve. When we add new to old material, we can experience retrieval failure. Sometimes, we can repress our

memories. Proactive interference means that something we learned in the past is hindering us from recalling something recently learned. Retroactive interference is when something recently learned interfered with something learned in the past. 10. If we are exposed to misinformation after an event, we can incorporate misleading details of what really happened. We may retrieve information we heard or imagined, rather than the attributed source. 11. The controversy pertains to whether or not repressed childhood memories can be recovered by means of questions or hypnosis. Psychologists now agree that 1. Abuse can leave mental scars, 2. There are false accusations and convictions of abuse, 3. Forgetting past events in a normal part of life, 4. Recovering both good and bad memories is commonplace, 5. Infantile amnesia makes early childhood memories unlikely to remember, 6. Hypnosis is an unreliable way of retrieving truthful memories and 7. Stress can be caused by both true and false memories. 12. Research suggests that concrete strategies can help for improving memory. This includes studying repeatedly, mnemonic devices, adequate sleep and self-testing. 1. Cognition refers to all mental activity pertaining to thinking, knowing and remembering. Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects. They are used to simplify the world around us. We can divide these groups into smaller, more manageable subgroups. Prototypes are the best examples of a category. 2. An algorithm is a time-consuming but thorough set of procedures that guarantees a solution to a problem. A heuristic is a simpler thinking strategy that allows for quick problem solving, yet they can be flawed. Insight is a sudden flash of problem-solving inspiration. 3. Creativity is the ability to produce novel ideas. It correlates somewhat with intelligence, but beyond the score of 120, the correlation shrinks. It also correlates with expertise, imagination and venturous personalities. 4. Obstacles include confirmation bias and fixation. Confirmation bias means we set out to verify our beliefs, rather than change them. Fixations include mental sets and functional fixedness, which prevents us from taking new perspectives of a problem. 5. Representativeness heuristic leads us to judge the likelihood of events in terms of how well they identify with our prototype for that group of items. Availability heuristic leads us to judge the likelihood of events in terms of how quickly they come to us. Belief perseverance means that our original belief lingers in our mind, even if it is discredited.

6. Human intuition is the effortless and immediate feelings or thoughts can give us instant help when need be. Yet, if you are a smart thinker, you know to check intuition against evidence. 7. Framing is the way a question or statement is worded. Subtle differences can, in fact, alter our responses. 8. Phonemes are languages basic unit of sound. Morphemes are the elementary unit of meaning. Grammar is the system of rules that allows us to communicate. Grammar includes semantics and syntax. 9. At 4 months, an infant babbles or makes sounds found in languages. At 10 months, the language takes on traits of the home language. 1 year is when children speak single words. This one-word stage evolves into two-word stage, which results in speaking in full sentences. 10. Skinner proposed that we learn language by association, imitation and reinforcement Chomsky argued that we are born with a language acquisition device that allows us learn language and prepares us with universal grammar. 11. Whorfs linguistic determinism suggests that language determines thought., yet it is more accurate to say that it influences thought. Different languages embody different ways of thinking. Bilingual education can enhance thinking.