Additional chapter two notes: Atoms are composed of neutrons, protons and electrons.

All atoms all electrically neutral, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. Each atom is identified by an atomic number, which is equal to the number of protons in the atoms nucleus The atomic mass number is equal to the sum of PROTONS and NEUTRONS in the nucleus ISOTOPES are different atomic forms of the same element; only difference is the number of neutrons in the nucleus. when salt is dissolved in body fluids, they easily separate into their ions referred to as dissociation. Sodium and potassium is essential for nerve impulses Iron forms part of the hemoglobin molecule that transports oxygen with red blood cells. All salts are electrolytes. (ionic) When ionic (electrolytes) are disturbed, nothing functions in the body. Acid substances can release hydrogen ions (naked proton) aka proton donors Acids dissolved in water release hydrogen ions and some anions. Anion releases are unimportant The release of protons determine an acids effect on the environment Hydrochloric acid is produced my stomach cells(hcl->h+->cl-) Hydrochloric acid that ionize and liberate all their protons is called strong acids. Bases are proton acceptors. Hydroxides are inorganic bases Hydroxyl ion is an avid proton seeker Bicarbonate ion (hco3-) is an important base in blood. weak base A PH of 7 is neutral, below 7 is acidic above 7 is base or alkaline. Neutralization reaction: when acids and bases are mixed and they react together The MOLE in a ph, is concentration unit. PH scales run from 0 to 14 Each successive change in PH unit represents a tenfold change in hydrogenion concentration. An acid base balance is regulated by the kidneys, lungs, and a chemical called BUFFERS Normal blood PH ranges from 7.35 to 7.45 Glucose is c6h12o6 and ribose is c5h10o5 Monosaccharide: simple sugar Double sugar: disaccharide Starch: polysaccharide Monosaccharide contains 3 to 7 carbon atoms. Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose and deoxyribose Glucose is also referred to as BLOOD SUGAR. Fructose and galactose are converted to glucose for use by body cells.

Disaccharides also known as double sugar, are formed when 2 simple sugars are joined by a synthesis reaction aka dehydration synthesis. In this, water molecule is lost. Disaccharides: sucrose (glucose-frucose) aka cane sugar, lactose (glucosegalactose) which is found in milk, glucose-glucose which is malt sugar. Disaccharides must be broken down into monosaccharides to be absorbed in the digestive tract, which is done by hydrolysis Polysaccharides starch large insoluable molecules that is usually used as storage products. If carbs are trapped in atp cells and the cells arent used, it is stored as fat Lipids is a large and diverse group of organic compounds. Lipids are in fat marbled meat, egg yolks, milk products and oil Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids. Triglycerides aka neutral fats. Two building blocks, fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids with one covalent bond is SATURATED Phospholipids take part of the molecule and takes the place of one of the fatty acid chains. Phospholipids have 2, not the fatty acids Amino acids are building blocks of protein. All amino acids are similar except an amino acid called r-groups Differences in the r-group makes each amino acid unique. Amino acids join together to form a complex protein molecule containing 50 to thousands of amino acids. Anything less that 50 is considered polypeptide. Fibrous proteins are also called structural proteins. Colagen is the most abundant protein in the body Keratin is the protein of hair and nails and makes skin tough, Globular proteins are also known as functional protein. Hydrogen bonds are easily broken by heat and excess ph Functions depend on their structure and the presence of particular collections of atoms;active sites. Enzymes are functional catalysts; catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction without becoming the product or changing itself. Enzymes are proteins -ASE is a suffix for enzymes nucleic acids form the genes; blueprint DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid, RNA: ribonucleic acid, double helix DNA: genetic material; replicates before cell dividing, then provides instructions for building every protein in the body RNA is located outside the nucleus and is the molecular slave of DNA. RNA is a single nucleotide RNA carries out the orders from the DNA DNA is a long double chain of nucleotides. AGTC with deoxyribose, and is held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases . A (adenine) binds to T (Thymine) and G (guanine) binds with C (cytosine) RNA bases are A (adenine) G (Guanine) C (cytosine) and U (Uracil) ribose as sugar.

RNA varieties: messenger, ribosomal, and transfer RNA ATP is a modified nucleotide.

Chapter 3 notes: - cells are made of: oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and several other elements - calcium is needed for blood clotting, and iron is needed to make hemoglobin. (hemoglobin is the oxygen transporting pigments of erythrocytes*blood cells*) - Iodine is needed to make thyroid hormones that control metabolism. - Electrolytes: calcium, sodium an potassium carrying an electrical charge. - Interstitial fluid: dilute saltwater solution. All exchanges between cells are made thru this fluid - Cell lengths vary from 2micrometers to over a meter. - White cells roam the body and attack bacteria and foreign substances - DNA is needed for cell reproduction. - When a cell loses its nucleus, it dies. - Nucleoli are sites where ribosomes are assembled. - Chromatin condenses to form dense bodies called chromosomes. - Glycoprotein determines your blood type, acts as a receptor that some bacteria, viruses or toxins bind to. - Definite changes in glycoprotein occur in cells that are being transformed into cancer cells. - Microvilli (shaggy hair like) are fingerlike projections that increase the cells surface area for absorbing. - In gap junctions, neighboring cells are connected by CONNEXONS which are hollow cylinders made up of proteins - Cytoplasm: Cytosol, organelles and inclusions - Most inclusions are stored nutrients - ER is a system of fluid-filled tubules or canals - ER accounts for half of a cells membrane - The rough ER is studded with ribosomes - Smooth ER functions in lipid metabolism - GA modifies and packages proteins - Lysosomes function as the cells demolition site. - FREE RADICALS are highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble the structure of proteins - Peroxisomes replicate themselves by pinching itself in half, just lie the mitochondria. - Microtubules determine the overall shape of a cell - Cilia propels substances across a surface, flagella propels itself - Cells that connect body parts: fibroblast and erythrocytes - Cells that covers and lines body organ: epithelial cell - Cells that move organs and body parts: skeletal muscles and smooth muscle cells - A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more components.

The largest substance presented is considered a SOLVENT (dissolving medium) Smaller substances are called SOLUTES Intracellular fluid (nucleoplasm and cytosol) is a solution containing small amounts of gas, nutrients, and salts, which dissolve in water. Interstitial fluid bathes the exterior of our cells. Metabolic energy (ATP) All molecules possess kinetic energy Two most important mechanism of active membrane transport: Active transport and Vesicular transport. Phagocytosis- cell eating phagocytes attack bacteria and other harmful substances floating around. Pinocytosis- cell drinking the cell drinks droplets of extracellular fluids. Endocytosis; in the cell Exocytosis; out of the shell In INTERPHASE, the cell is very active, except for reproducing itself. INTERPHASE is aka METABOLIC PHASE MITOSIS cell division of the nucleus Cytokinesis is division of the cytoplasm Mitosis gone wild is the reason for tumors and cancer VASCULAR: supplied with blood. Avascular: No blood supply Neutrophil aka white blood cells; monocyte is aka red blood cell