Definitions The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom and it defines the

element and its place on the periodic table. The mass number is the number of protons and the nucleus of its nucleus of its atom plus the number of neutrons relative to 1/12th the mass of carbon-12. Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass number. They have same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. The relative atomic mass is the mass of a single isotope of an atom relative of carbon-12. The relative isotopic mass is the mass of a single isotope of an atom relative to carbon-12 taking into account the abundance of the isotopes of the atom. The relative molecular mass is the sum of all the relative atomic masses of the elements, which make up the compounds formula. The mass spectrometer Work at low pressures, avoid inaccuracy, removes other particles that may collide with the particles of the sample. Ionisation: Achieved by removing electrons from the gaseous atoms to form positively charged ions. Electrons are removed by bombarding them an electron gun. They knock off electrons at 90 degrees. X + e X- +2eAcceleration: Positive ions accelerate towards negatively charged plates. There is a small slit, which the ions travel through at constant velocity. The electrons that hit the plates gain electrons and become atoms. Deflection: The ions travel towards a bend in the tube with an electromagnet wrapped around the bend. The degree of deflection depends upon the m/e ratio. Detection: Only ions with a certain m/e are focused on the detector at any given time so only certain m/e ratios can reach the detector. The detector is connected to an ammeter, which records the flow of electrons. Electronic configuration PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVELS SUB-LEVELS ORBITALS Three sub-levels: s contains 1 orbital p contains 3 orbitals d contains 5 orbitals 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 4d10 1st ionisation energy

E(g) e- E+(g) 1mol of gaseous atoms 1st electron affinity E(g) + e- E-(g) 1mol gaseous atoms First ionisation energy definition: Energy change required to remove one electron from one mole of gaseous atoms to form positively charged ions. First electron affinity definition: Energy change required to remove one electron to one mole of gaseous atoms to form negatively charged ions. There is a general increase in the ionisation energy going across a period. This is because of the atoms increased nuclear charge without an increase in the inner shielding electrons. There are slight decreases after group 5 because the repulsion of the two electrons in the p orbital makes it easier to remove one of them. There is a decrease in ionisation energy going down the group. This is caused by the outer electron being further from the nucleus. This is caused by the outer electron being further from the nucleus. The extra nuclear charge is balanced by the same extra number of inner shielding electrons. Ionic Bonding Definition: An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction that occurs between an atom that has lost electrons and one that has gained. Covalent Bonding Definition: A covalent bond occurs when two atoms share a pair of electrons. It is formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals of that, electron density increases between the bonded atoms. Dative covalent bonding is when both electrons in a bond are from the same atom. Polarity is the distortion of the electron cloud of one atom by another. Cations cause polarisation- they cause the distortion. Anions are polarised- they are polarised.

Relative atomic mass - the mass of an atom relative to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Relative isotopic mass - the mass of an isotope of an element relative to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Relative molecular mass - the mass of a molecule relative to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Molar mass - the mass of 1 mole of a substance.

First ionisation energy - the energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of gaseous atoms to from 1 mole of 1+ ions:

Second (and higher) ionisation energy - the energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions to form 1 mole of 2+ ions:

First electron affinity - the energy change when 1 mole of electrons is added to 1 mole of gaseous atoms to form 1 mole of 1- ions:

Second (and higher) electron affinity - the energy change when 1 mole of electrons is added to 1 mole of gaseous 1- ions to form 1 mole of 2- ions:

Mass spectrometry
The mass spectrometer is a machine which compares relative atomic weights by measuring the mass to charge ratio. This mass spectrometer works in 5 phases:

1. Vaporisation The sample is vaporised so that individual atoms/molecules separate. 2. Ionisation The gaseous sample is bombarded with electrons. This generally causes an electron to be knocked off each atom, to form gaseous ions with a 1+ charge; however, occasionally two or more electrons may be knocked off the atom. Sometimes fragmentation occurs, i.e. a molecule breaks down into different parts. 3. Acceleration An electric field is applied and causes the ions to speed up.

4. Deflection A magnetic field deflects the ions. Heavier ions and ones with less charge are deflected less, hence the result measures the mass:charge ratio. 5. Detection A detector is used to register how many ions are being deflected through a specific angle, i.e. how many ions have a given mass:charge ratio. Some uses of the mass spectrometer include radioactive dating, space research, steroid detection, and in the pharmaceutical industry.

Electronic configuration
Electrons are arranged in different energy levels (shells) within the atom, and the ionisation energy is determined by which shell it is in, whether there are other electrons nearby, and the charge of the nucleus. The first and successive ionisation energies provide evidence for the existence of shells and orbitals within atoms. Each shell is split into subshells, referred to as s, p, d and f subshells. The first (innermost) shell has only an s subshell; the second has an s subshell and a p subshell; the third has s, p and d subshells; thereafter, all shells have s, p, d and f subshells. Subshells are further split up into orbitals; each orbital can hold up to two electrons. An s subshell has one orbital, a p subshell has three orbitals, a d subshell has five orbitals, and an f subshell has seven orbitals. The electrons in an orbital must have an opposing spin; an orbital is sometimes diagrammatically represented by a box, and electrons by half-arrows, one pointing upwards and one pointing downwards to represent the different spins. When electron subshells are "filling up" (i.e. electrons are being added to them), each orbital in that subshell must have one electron before any orbital can take a second. Electrons fill shells in the following order: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p... This can be easily remembered using the following table, which should be read down the diagonals, as indicated by the arrows.

Because of the way the electrons fill up, the periodic table can be divided into blocks called the s-block, pblock etc, where the elements in each block differ from the previous element by the addition of an electron in that subshell. The first 2 groups are therefore the s-block elements, the last 6 are the p-block elements, and the block in the middle is the d-block.

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

The empirical formula of a compound tells us the simplest ratio of atoms in that compound. It is found from experimental data.

Question
A hydrocarbon was found to contain 75% carbon and 25% hydrogen by mass. Determine its empirical formula.

C Mass(g) Divide by the relative atomic mass Ratio of atoms Divide by smallest .

75/

6.

6.25/

So, the empirical formula of this hydrocarbon is CH4.

The molecular formula of a compound tells us the actual number of atoms in a compound of one mole of that compound.

Question
It was found that a hydrocarbon had an empirical formula of CH3. It was found that its relative formula mass (r.f.m.) is 30. Determine its molecular formula.

1. Determine r.f.m. of CH3 = (12x1) + (1x3) = 15 2. Determine the ratio of mass = 30:15 = 2:1 3. Multiply the number of atoms by the ratio to give molecular formula = 2 * CH3 =C2H6

Compound Formulae
Find the Compound Formula for AB where Step 1. Step 2. If Step 3. If not...: , they combine like this: cancel down this fraction into it's simplest form, like:

Step 4. Call this 'cancelled down' version of x and y as Step 5. The Compound can be written as Example: 1. 2. 3 is not equal to 2 3. 4. 5. Formula =

Full and Ionic Equations

A fully balanced equation or stoichiometric equation is one that shows the formulae of reactants and products and the relative number of particles reacting. e.g.

An ionic equation is one where the ions are represented separately. Only ionic compounds can be represented as ions. Covalent substances and elements cannot be represented as ions. Also, ionic solids cannot be represented as free ions because the ions are not free to move.

How to construct ionic equations

1) Write down the stoichiometric equation:

2) Split all the ionic compounds into their free ions where possible:

3) Cancel all spectator ions in the equation. These are ions that play no part in the reaction:

4) Write out what is left:

Reacting Masses
We can use chemical equations to determine the mass of reactants and products given certain information.

Question
In a reaction it was found that 6g of magnesium fully reacted with air. Determine the mass of magnesium oxide produced. 1) Write out the stoichiometric equation:

2) Convert any relevant data given into moles: Amount(moles) = Mass(g)/r.f.m. = 6/24 = 0.25 moles

3) Relate this information to the amount in moles of the substance you are trying to work out the mass of. Amount(moles) = 0.25 moles of MgO produced

4) Convert this amount into mass in grams: Mass of MgO = Amount(moles) * r.f.m. = 0.25 x 40 = 10g

Reacting gases and gas volumes

One mole of any gas occupies the volume of 24dm3 or 24,000cm3 at room temperature and pressure. We need to be able to relate volumes of gases in reactants and products to answer certain questions.

Question
10g of CaCO3 reacts fully with excess HCl. Calculate the volume of CO2 gas produced. 1) Stoichiometric equation:

2) Work out the amount in moles of CaCO3: Moles of CaCO3 = Mass/r.f.m = 10/100 = 0.1moles

3) Work out the amount in moles of CO2: Moles of CO2 = Moles of CaCO3 = 0.1moles

4) Work out the volume of CO2: Volume of CO2 = Moles of CO2 x 24 = 0.1 x 24 = 2.4dm3

Gaseous Reactions
The ratio of the volume of a gas produced in a reaction to the number of moles of this gas in the reaction is constant.

Question
Calculate the volume of water vapour produced when 10cm3 of propane reacts fully with air. 1) Write out the stoichiometric equation:

2)Work out the volume of water vapour produced: Volume of C3H8 / moles of C3H8 = Volume of H2O / moles of H2O

10 / 1 = Volume of H2O / 4 Volume of H2O = 40cm3.

Solutions and Concentrations

The concentration of a solution is the measure of the amount of solute dissolved in 1dm3 of a solvent (usually water). It can be measured in one of two ways:

moles/dm3 or mol dm-3 grams/dm-3 or g dm-3

In order to convert between the two different forms there is a simple equation: Concentration( gdm-3 ) = Concentration(Moles dm-3) * r.f.m

Volumetric Calculations
We can determine the concentration of a solution of unknown concentration using titration. These calculations are called volumetric calculations or volumetric analyses.

Question
It was found by titration that 20cm3 of sulphuric acid exactly neutralised 25cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 potassium hydroxide. Calculate the concentration of sulphuric acid in mol dm-3. 1) Write out the stoichiometric equation:

2) Determine the amount of moles of the substance you can work out the moles of: Amount of KOH = concentration * volume = 0.1 x 0.025 = 0.0025 moles

3) Determine the amount in moles of H2SO4: Amount of H2SO4 = 0.5 x amount of KOH = 0.5 x 0.0025 = 0.00125 moles

4) Determine the concentration of H2SO4: Concentration = moles / volume = 0.00125 / 0.02 = 0.0625 mol dm-3

Essential Definitions

Avogadro's constant - The number of atoms, molecules, ions or other chemical entities of a substance in one mole of that substance. L = 6.02 x 1023mol-1.

Ionic bonding
Ionic bonds are a type of chemical bond based on electrostatic forces between two oppositely-charged ions. In ionic bond formation, a metal donates an electron, due to a low electronegativity to form a positive ion or cation. Often ionic bonds form between metals and non-metals. The non-metal atom has an electron configuration just short of a noble gas structure. They have high electronegativity, and so readily gain electrons to form negative ions or anions. The two or more ions are then attracted to each other by electrostatic forces. Such bonds are stronger than hydrogen bonds, but similar in strength to covalent bonds. Ionic bonding occurs only if the overall energy change for the reaction is favourable when the bonded atoms have a lower energy than the free ones. The larger the resulting energy change the stronger the bond. Pure ionic bonding is not known to exist. All ionic bonds have a degree of covalent bonding or metallic bonding. The larger the difference in electronegativity between two atoms the more ionic the bond. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution. They generally have a high melting point and tend to be soluble in water.

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is a description form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of one or more electrons between two atoms. In general bonds are defined by a mutual attraction that holds the resultant molecule together. Often bonding occurs in such a way that the the outer electron shells of the participating atoms becomes filled. Such bonds are always stronger than the intermolecular hydrogen bond and similar in strength to or stronger than the ionic bond.

In contrast to the ionic and metallic bond, the covalent bond is directional, i.e. the bond angles have a great impact on the strength of the interaction. This impact arises because covalent bonds are formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals, with greater overlap producing a greater strength of interaction. Atomic orbitals all have highly directional character, resulting in a highly directionally-dependent interactions in bonding. Covalent bonding most frequently occurs between atoms with similar electronegativities. For this reason, non-metals tend to engage in covalent bonding more readily since metals have access to metallic bonding.

Dative bonding
A dative covalent bond (also known as coordinate covalent bond) is a special type of covalent bond in which the shared electrons "come from" one of the atoms only. Once the bond has been formed, its strength is no different from that of a covalent bond. The process of forming a dative bond is called coordination. The electron donor acquires a positive formal charge, while the electron acceptor acquires a negative formal charge. A compound that contains a lone pair of electrons is capable of forming a dative bond. Dative bonds can be found in many different substances, such as in simple molecules like carbon monoxide ammonium ion chloride or the

. Dative bonds are also formed by electron deficient compounds, such as beryllium . The Beryllium atom in this compound tends to bind two additional chlorine atoms, in

which every beryllium atom is bonded to four chlorine atoms, two with normal covalent bonding, and the other two with dative bonds. Dative bonding can also be found in coordination complexes involving metal ions, especially if they are transition metal ions. In such complexes, substances in a solution donate their free pairs of electrons to the metal ion, which accepts the electrons. Dative bonds form and the resulting compound is called a coordination complex, while the electron donors are called ligands. A common ligand is water which will form coordination complexes with metal ions, like aqueous solution. A dative bond is sometimes represented by an arrow pointing from the donor of the electron pair to the acceptor of the electron pair. , which will form , in

Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding is the bonding within metals. It involves the delocalised sharing of free electrons among a lattice of metal atoms. Thus, metallic bonds may be compared to molten salts. Metal atoms typically contain a high number of electrons in their valence shell compared to their period or energy level. These become delocalised and form a sea of electrons surrounding a giant lattice of positive ions. The surrounding electrons and the positive ions in the metal have a strong attractive force between

them. This means that more energy is required to negate these forces. Therefore metals often have high melting or boiling points. The principle is similar to that of ionic bonds. Metallic bonding is non-polar, because there is no difference in the electronegativity among the atoms participating in the bonding interaction, and the electrons involved in that interaction are delocalised across the crystalline structure of the metal. The metallic bond accounts for many physical characteristics of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, conduction of heat and electricity, and lustre. Due to the fact that the electrons move independently of the positive ions in a sea of negative charge, the metal gains some electrical conductivity. It allows the energy to pass quickly through the electrons generating a current. Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between the metal atoms or ions and the delocalised electrons. This is why atoms or layers are allowed to slide past each other, resulting in the characteristic properties of malleability and ductility.

Pi() and sigma () bonds

Sigma bonds ( bonds) are a type of covalent chemical bond. Sigma bonds are the strongest type of covalent bonds. Electrons in sigma bonds are sometimes referred to as sigma electrons. The symbol is the Greek letter for s. Pi bonds ( bonds) are also chemical bonds of the covalent type. The Greek letter in their name refers to p orbitals, since the orbital symmetry of the pi bond is the same as that of the p orbital when seen down the bond axis. P orbitals usually engage in this sort of bonding. However, d orbitals can engage in pi bonding also. Pi bonds are usually weaker than sigma bond. Although the pi bond by itself is weaker than a sigma bond, pi bonds are most often found in multiple bonds together with sigma bonds and the combination is stronger than either bond by itself.

Intermediate nature of bonds

Difference in electronegativities
The above examples only show the ideal types of bond between two atoms, in reality most covalent bonds are in fact not totally covalent bonds and the is no such thing as a perfect ionic bond as none exist, (although some bonds do get very close). In reality the type of bond is more of a sliding scale based on the electronegativity of the atoms involved in the bonding process. Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved. Atoms with similar electronegativities will share an electron with each other and form a covalent bond. However, if the difference is too great (usually >2), the electron will be permanently

transferred to one atom and an ionic bond will form. Furthermore, in a covalent bond if one atom pulls slightly harder than the other, a polar covalent bond will form.

Polarisation of bonds
Positive ions can have the effect of polarising (electrically distorting) nearby negative ions. The polarising ability depends on the charge density in the positive ion. Polarising ability increases as the positive ion gets smaller and the number of charges gets larger. As a negative ion gets bigger, it becomes easier to polarise. For example, in an iodide ion, I-, the outer electrons are in the 5-level - relatively distant from the nucleus. A positive ion would be more effective in attracting a pair of electrons from an iodide ion than the corresponding electrons in, say, a fluoride ion where they are much closer to the nucleus. Aluminium iodide is covalent because the electron pair is easily dragged away from the iodide ion. On the other hand, aluminium fluoride is ionic because the aluminium ion can't polarise the small fluoride ion sufficiently to form a covalent bond.

Polar bonds and polar molecules

In a complex molecule even if the bonds in the molecule are all polar bonds, the molecule overall may not be polar because of the slight charges cancelling out. This is true in molecules such as molecules such as where the charges do not cancel out. , but not in

Intermolecular forces
Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonding occurs when a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a small highly electronegative atom such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. The result is a dipolar molecule. The hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge + and can interact with another highly electronegative atom in an adjacent molecule (again N, O, or F). This results in a stabilizing interaction that binds the two molecules together.

Dipole-Dipole interactions
Dipole-dipole interactions are the force that occur between two molecules with permanent dipoles (spatially oriented + within a molecule). These work in a similar manner to ionic interactions, but are weaker because only partial charges are involved.

Van der Waals forces

These involve the attraction between temporarily induced dipoles in non-polar molecules (often disappear within an instant). This polarization can be induced either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of negatively charged electron clouds in non-polar molecules.

Unit 1.4

Carbon
Diamond
Structure - Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to another 4 carbon atoms which forms up a tetrahedral shape which repeats itself throughout the macromolecule. Melting point - The Melting point of diamond is 3820 degrees Kelvin which is extremely high and this is because of the multiple strong covalent bonds throughout the molecule. Density - The density of diamond is 3.52g/cm3 Electrical conductivity - Diamond does not conduct electricity.

Graphite
Structure - Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to another 3 carbon atoms which forms up different planes which are joined by weak intramolecular forces. There is a sea of delocalised electrons between the layers. Melting point - The Melting point of graphite is 3652 degrees kelvin which is extremely high and this is because of the multiple strong covalent bonds throughout the molecule. Density - The density of graphite is 2.09g/cm3 Electrical conductivity - Graphite is a very good electrical conductor because of the sea of delocalised electrons.

Ice
Structure - Each Ice molecule forms up a regular hexagonal lattice out of water molecules which bond to each other through hydrogen bonding between a hydrogen and a lone pair of electrons on a oxygen. Ice can form up 9 other structural forms at different temperatures and pressures. At normal pressures it can also form up a structure similar to diamond. Melting point - The Melting point of Ice is 273 degrees kelvin which is low because the hydrogen bonds are weak. Density - The density of Ice is 0.93g/cm3 which is less than water's 1.00g/cm3. This means ice floats.

Electrical conductivity - Ice does not conduct electricity.

Sodium Chloride
Structure - Sodium chloride forms crystals with cubic symmetry. In these, the larger chloride ions, shown to the left as yellow spheres, are arranged in a cubic close-packing, while the smaller sodium ions, shown to the left as blue spheres, fill the octahedral gaps between them. Each ion is surrounded by six of the other kind. This same basic structure is known as the halite structure. It is held together with an ionic bond and electrostatic forces. Melting point - The Melting point of NaCl is 1074 degrees kelvin due to the strong electrostatic forces. Density - The density of graphite is 2.16g/cm3 Electrical conductivity - Sodium chloride only conducts electricity in the molten or aqueous state where the ions are free to move.

Iodine
Structure - Each Iodine atom bonds covalently to another to form a I2 molecule. These I2 molecules then bond to each other through weak inter-molecular bonds. In solid iodine the molecules are arranged in waves as shown right. Melting point - The Melting point of Iodine is 386 degrees Kelvin. Density - The density of Iodine is 4.94 g/cm3. Electrical conductivity - Iodine does not conduct electricity.

Polythene
Structure - Polythene is a giant covalent structure formed from polymerisation of ethene. This forms up very long chains which then lay down into two regions, amorphous regions (A) and crystalline regions (B) The amount of each type of region varies and causes different properties. Melting point - The Melting point of polythene is ~388-408 degrees kelvin. Density - The density of Polythene is 0.91-0.97g/cm3. Electrical conductivity - Polythene does not conduct electricity.

Unit 1.6

Physical properties
The atomic radius increases as you go down group 1 and group 2. This is because, the radius of an atom is governed by two factors:

the number of layers of electrons around the nucleus the pull the outer electrons feel from the nucleus.

As all of group 1 feel a net pull of +1 and group 2 a net pull of +2 (nuclear charge minus no. inner electrons), the only factor which is going to affect the size of the atom is therefore the number of layers of inner electrons which have to be fitted in around the atom. Obviously, the more layers of electrons you have, the more space they will take up - electrons repel each other. That means that the atoms are bound to get bigger as you go down both groups. Also the melting points decrease as you go down both groups and the densities increase as you go down.

Flame colours
Group1

Lithium red Sodium - orange/yellow Potassium - lilac Rubidium Reddish violet Caesium - Blue/violet

Group 2

Calcium Orange/red Strontium - Red Barium Apple green

Flame colours originate from when the heat energy in the flame promotes and electron in a lower energy level to a higher shell, the atom is now said to be in an excited state. When the electron moves back down, the energy is released as a particular wavelength of light, which determines the colour.

First Ionisation Energies

The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove the most loosely held electron from each of one mole of gaseous atoms to make one mole of singly charged gaseous ions. The first ionisation energies of groups 1 and 2 both fall as you go down the group this is because ionisation energy is governed by

the charge on the nucleus, the amount of screening by the inner electrons, the distance between the outer electrons and the nucleus.

As you go down the Groups, the increase in nuclear charge is exactly offset by the increase in the number of inner electrons, just like atomic radius. They all feel the same net pull in group 1 of +1 and in group 2 of +2. However, as you go down the Group, the distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons increases and so they become easier to remove - the ionisation energy falls.

Group 1 reactions with O2, Cl2 and H2O

Oxygen

Lithium - Lithium burns with a strongly red-tinged flame if heated in air. It reacts with oxygen in the air to give white lithium oxide. With pure oxygen, the flame would simply be more intense.

Sodium - Small pieces of sodium burn in air with often little more than an orange glow. Using larger amounts of sodium or burning it in oxygen gives a strong orange flame. You get a white solid mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide.

Potassium - Small pieces of potassium heated in air tend to just melt and turn instantly into a mixture of potassium peroxide and potassium superoxide without any flame being seen. Larger pieces of potassium burn with a lilac flame.

Rubidium and caesium - Both metals catch fire in air and produce superoxides, RbO2 and CsO2. The equations are the same as the equivalent potassium one.

Chlorine
All the group 1 metals react with chlorine in the same way they do with the oxides except they only ever form the simple chloride with the formula XCl. All react vigorously to form ionic chlorides forumula MCL and dissolve in water to produce hydrated ions.

Water

Lithium -Lithium's density is only about half that of water so it floats on the surface, gently fizzing and giving off hydrogen. It gradually reacts and disappears, forming a colourless solution of lithium hydroxide. The reaction generates heat too slowly and lithium's melting point is too high for it to melt (see sodium below).

Sodium - Sodium also floats on the surface, but enough heat is given off to melt the sodium (sodium has a lower melting point than lithium and the reaction produces heat faster) and it melts almost at once to form a small silvery ball that dashes around the surface. A white trail of sodium hydroxide is seen in the water under the sodium, but this soon dissolves to give a colourless solution of sodium hydroxide. The sodium moves because it is pushed around by the hydrogen which is given off during the reaction. If the sodium becomes trapped on the side of the container, the hydrogen may catch fire to burn with an orange flame. The colour is due to contamination of the normally blue hydrogen flame with sodium compounds.

Potassium - Potassium behaves rather like sodium except that the reaction is faster and enough heat is given off to set light to the hydrogen. This time the normal hydrogen flame is contaminated by potassium compounds and so is coloured lilac (a faintly bluish pink).

Rubidium - Rubidium is denser than water and so sinks. It reacts violently and immediately, with everything spitting out of the container again. Rubidium hydroxide solution and hydrogen are formed.

Caesium - Caesium explodes on contact with water, quite possibly shattering the container. Caesium hydroxide and hydrogen are formed.

Group 2 reactions with O2, Cl2 and H2O

Oxygen
All the group 2 metals burn with oxygen to form the metal oxide with formula XO, even if some don't burn very well. Strontium and barium will also form the metal peroxides with the formula metals also form the metal nitrides when burnt in air, which have the formula . . All the group 2

Water

Beryllium - Beryllium has no reaction with water or steam even at red heat. Magnesium - Magnesium burns in steam to produce magnesium oxide and hydrogen. Very clean magnesium has a very slight reaction with cold water. The reaction soon stops because the magnesium

hydroxide formed is almost insoluble in water and forms a barrier on the magnesium preventing further reaction.

Calcium, strontium and barium - These all react with cold water with increasing vigour to give the metal hydroxide and hydrogen. Strontium and barium have reactivities similar to lithium in Group 1 of the Periodic Table. The hydroxides aren't very soluble, but they get more soluble as you go down the Group. The calcium hydroxide formed shows up mainly as a white precipitate (although some does dissolve). You get less precipitate as you go down the Group because more of the hydroxide dissolves in the water.

Group 1 and 2 oxides with water and dilute acid

The simple oxides

Reaction with water - These are simple basic oxides, reacting with water to give the metal hydroxide.

Reaction with dilute acids - These simple oxides all react with an acid to give a salt and water. For example, sodium oxide will react with dilute hydrochloric acid to give colourless sodium chloride solution and water.

The peroxides

Reaction with water - If the reaction is done ice cold (and the temperature controlled so that it doesn't rise even though these reactions are strongly exothermic), a solution of the metal hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide is formed. If the temperature increases, the hydrogen peroxide produced decomposes into water and oxygen.

Reaction with dilute acids - These reactions are even more exothermic than the ones with water. A solution containing a salt and hydrogen peroxide is formed. The hydrogen peroxide will decompose to give water and oxygen if the temperature rises - again, it is almost impossible to avoid this.

The superoxides

Reaction with water - This time, a solution of the metal hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide is formed, but oxygen gas is given off as well. Once again, these are strongly exothermic reactions and the heat produced will inevitably decompose the hydrogen peroxide to water and more oxygen.

Solubility of group 2 sulphates and hydroxides

The solubilities of group 2 sulphates decreases as you go down the group but the solubilities of the hydroxides increases as you go down the group.

Thermal stabilities of nitrates and carbonates

Group 1
Heating the nitrates
Most nitrates tend to decompose on heating to give the metal oxide, brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen. For example, a typical Group 2 nitrate like magnesium nitrate decomposes like this:

In Group 1, lithium nitrate behaves in the same way - producing lithium oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen:

The rest of the Group, however, don't decompose so completely (at least not at Bunsen temperatures) producing the metal nitrite and oxygen, but no nitrogen dioxide.

All the nitrates from sodium to caesium decomposes in this same way, the only difference being how hot they have to be to undergo the reaction. As you go down the Group, the decomposition gets more difficult, and you have to use higher temperatures.

Heating the carbonates

Most carbonates tend to decompose on heating to give the metal oxide and carbon dioxide. Group 1 carbonates don't decompose at Bunsen temperatures, although at higher temperatures they will. The decomposition temperatures again increase as you go down the Group.

The thermal stability of the hydrogencarbonates

The Group 1 hydrogencarbonates are stable enough to exist as solids, although they do decompose easily on heating.

Group 2
Heating carbonates
All the carbonates in this Group undergo thermal decomposition to give the metal oxide and carbon dioxide. Thermal decomposition is the term given to splitting up a compound by heating it. If "X" represents any one of the elements:

The carbonates become more stable to heat as you go down the Group.

Heating nitrates
All the nitrates in this Group undergo thermal decomposition to give the metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. Again, if "X" represents any one of the elements:

The nitrates also become more stable to heat as you go down the Group.

Explanation
A small 2+/1+ ion has a lot of charge packed into a small volume of space. It has a high charge density and will have a marked distorting effect on any negative ions which happen to be near it. A bigger 2+/1+ ion has the same charge spread over a larger volume of space. Its charge density will be lower, and it will cause less distortion to nearby negative ions.

The structure of the carbonate ion

If you worked out the structure of a carbonate ion using "dots-and-crosses" or some similar method, you would probably come up with: (relevant diagram needed here) This shows two single carbon-oxygen bonds and one double one, with two of the oxygens each carrying a negative charge. Unfortunately, in real carbonate ions all the bonds are identical, and the charges are spread out over the whole ion - although concentrated on the oxygen atom, the charges are delocalised.

Polarising the carbonate ion

Now imagine what happens when this ion is placed next to a positive ion. The positive ion attracts the delocalised electrons in the carbonate ion towards itself. The carbonate ion becomes polarised. If this is heated, the carbon dioxide breaks free to leave the metal oxide. How much you need to heat the carbonate before that happens depends on how polarised the ion was. if it is highly polarised, you need less heat than if it is only slightly polarised. The smaller the positive ion is, the higher the charge density, and the greater effect it will have on the carbonate ion. As the positive ions get bigger as you go down the Group, they have less effect on the carbonate ions near them. To compensate for that, you have to heat the compound more in order to persuade the carbon dioxide to break free and leave the metal oxide. In other words, as you go down the Group, the carbonates become more thermally stable.

The argument for the nitrates is exactly the same. The small positive ions at the top of the Groups polarise the nitrate ions more than the larger positive ions at the bottom.