OVERVIEW OF THE PRESENT WATER SITUATION

1.1 Global water conditions:

Just the word 'water'-although the Drink of Life-may not attract -our attention, but we get driven towards a glass of water anytime thirst grips our throat. This colourless, odourless, tasteless, natural substance is an important constituent of our diet but we seldom realize that proper utilization of water is necessary to keep us healthy and .fit. It is interesting to know that water is one of the major structural components of the human body. All the tissues of the body including teeth and bones contain water. As much as 75% of the infant's body and 65% of an adult's body are composed of water. Water plays an important role in possessing and maintaining a beautiful and a healthy body. It acts as a medium for various metabolic reactions taking place in the body.' The waste products of the body are excreted in the form of urine and perspiration and water is the medium for both of them. It is an important constituent of all the intracellular and extracellular tissue fluids of the body. There is a constant exchange of water in and around these cells to maintain the osmotic pressure. Water helps, in maintaining the body temperature by distributing the body heat. It helps in the lubrication of various organs. Water is present in the mucus secretions of gastrointestinal, genitourinary and respiratory track. The body suffers a loss of about 2 liters of water everyday in the form of urine, faeces, sweat, nasal and-eye secretions etc. Some water is also lost with the air that is exhaled during breathing. If this lost water is not replenished in the body, it is likely to cause dehydration. Chronic low fluid intake is a common but often overlooked cause of mild dehydration and fatigue. Thirst is the most common noticeable sign of dehydration. The other symptoms of dehydration include rapid breathing, drying up of lips and mouth, dizziness and inadequate dark-coloured urine output. A loss of about 10 per cent of water from the body may cause serious symptoms like headache, fatigue palpitation and mental confusion. And if this loss of water increases to 15-20 per cent, it may prove to be fatal.

Appreciating the importance of water and keeping in mind the concern over the shortage of drinking water, the year 2003 has been declared as "International Year of Freshwater" Water, the elixir of life is a finite vulnerable resource essential to sustain life, development and the environment. The total water resources on earth are estimated to be about 1360 million cubic kilometers.

Of which only 0.2 million cubic km are fresh water sources in the form of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs and ground water aquifers. This limited quantity is what is available to meet the water demands of humans and livestock world over. This potential usable water supply is very small because of spatial and temporal variations in precipitation. It is this spoonful of water that the entire world has been tying to quench its thirst. And a spoonful just does not seem enough. It can easily spill into that jug of non-usable water and leave us with precious little to quench our thirst. Here are some facts that should shake us out from our complacency. As stated earlier the fresh water available amount is less than one half of the 1 percent of all the water on the earth. Fresh water is renewable only by rainfall, at the rate of 40000 to 50000 cubic kilometers per year. Due to intensive urbanization, deforestation, water diversion and industrial farming, this finite resource of fresh water is also disappearing fast. On the other hand global water consumption is doubling every 20 years, at a rate more than twice the rate of population growth. In the year 2000, one-sixth of the world population, approximately 1.1 billion people, lacked access to safe and reliable water services. According to Human Development Report it is estimated that by the year 2025 over 3 billion people will be living under water stress in spite of improved provision of water services, mainly due to high population growth No wonder ISMAIL SERAGELDIN the Vice President, World bank quoted that The Wars of the next Century will be on Water

1.2 Indian conditions

India the worlds largest democracy, with about a billion of people living in it comprises 16 percent of the words population. In about just 2 percent of the worlds land area and only 4 percent of the worlds water resources is already heading towards a state of water crisis. A late monsoon in 2002 resulted drought in 13 of the 29 states in the country. But keeping the drought apart, there is a huge gap between the quantity of water that is made available to us by Mother Nature and the quantity we are utilizing. Following facts are indicating the water crisis India is facing and the situation is going to get worsen, says the experts. Water availability in India (in billion cubic meters) Average annual precipitation Average annual water reservoir potential Utilizable surface water Replenishable ground water 4000 1869 690 432

SOURCE: - WATER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA P.C.BANSIL

India is one of the wettest countries in the world, who receives about 4000 billion cubic meters (BCM) of rainfall every year. Out of which 1869 BCM appears as average annual run off in the various rivers of the country. Due to topographical and geographical limitations, only 690 BCM of surface water can be utilized in additions to 432BCM of replenishible ground water. Over exploitation of ground water in some parts of the country is leading of situations of droughts while mismanagement is resulting in floods in other parts. For example: The case of Benares A research conducted with the help of satellite image of Benares which shows drying up water sources of this location. This can be better understood by the help of the images which is as follow: 4

Further, India is the second largest consumer of water in the world after China. Indias water consumption is approximately 20.1 percent of the total world consumption. The per capita water consumption in India is at 297.7 cubic meters, which is more than the worlds average per capita consumption of 287.3 cubic meters. Following table indicates a comparative picture of usage of water in a few major countries Per Capita Consumption Country (Cubic metres) Australia U.S.A Japan China Germany India World* 648.3 598.1 355.4 307.7 226.7 297.7 287.3 Total Consumption (Cubic K12ms) 12.6 166.3 45.1 391.7 18.8 306.6 1524.4

*THE WORLD FIGURE INCLUDES THE TOP 90 COUNTRIES SOURCE: THE ECONOMIC TIMES, NEW DELHI, OCTOBER 14, 2002.

In India, the per capita average annual fresh water availability has declined drastically as shown below.
THE PER CAPITA AVERAGE ANNUAL FRESH WATER CONSUMPTION INDIA
6000

MILLION CUBIC METERS

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000

5177

1869

1341

1140 2050

0 1951

2001 YEARS

2025

SOURCE: - ADAPTED FROM WATER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

1.3 Urban introduction

A long-standing belief in development studies holds that, on the whole, living conditions in developing countries are superior for residents of large cities than for persons living in smaller cities, towns and villages. The concept of big cities as islands of privilege is fundamental to otherwise discrepant theories of modernization , dependency , world systems of cities , and the global division of labour, each of which posits long-lasting disadvantages for populations outside the major urban centers. Even as late as 1990 , nearly two-thirds of the population of the developing world were living in villages, and just about one-third in towns and cities. In other words, the degree of urbanization the percentage of population living in the urban areas is quite low in the developing world compared to that in the developed world. However, it is said that nearly all population growth worldwide will take place in urban areas of developing countries. By 2015, the United Nations (UN) projects, there will be 21 megacities of atleast 10 million people each-all but 4 in developing countries. In India, however, the proportion of population in urban areas is still lower than the overall position of all developing countries. By 1991, India had just about one-fourth of its population as its urban. While the level of urbanization in the developing countries is low, the urban patterns in India are, marked by high and increasing concentration of population in big metropolitan cites in 1990, and this percentage has recorded a steep increase over the years. This process of increasing concentration of urban population in big towns is largely due to very rapid growth of all urban areas in India, a pattern that holds good for other developing countries too. From 1970 to 1990, the urban growth rate in the country was three times as high as that in developed regions of the world. Worldwide, about three-fourths of all current population growth is urban. Cities are gaining an estimated 55 million people per year. Rapid urban growth in the developing world reflects migration of people to cities(over 1 million o new residents every week) as well as natural population increase among urban residents . Rural areas have virtually stopped gaining population. There are at least two measures f urban growththe urban/rural growth differential (URGD) and the rate of urbanizationthat clearly indicate this. URGD is the 9

difference between the growth rate of urban population and rural population while rate of urbanization is the rate of growth of degree of urbanization, that is, the rate at which the proportion of population living in urban areas increases. Both these measures for India, show an increase in 1970-90 compared to 1950-70, suggesting that migration from rural o urban areas continued to play a significant role in the countrys urban process. While there are substantial differences in the reasons behind and characteristics of urban growth, overall in developing countries rapid urban population growth reflects three basic factors: (i)migration from rural areas and from other urban areas, (ii)natural population increase(births minus deaths) among urban residents; and (iii)reclassification of previously rural areas as urban as they become built up and change character. During the initial phases of urbanization in accounting, migration from rural to urban areas tends to play a greater role than natural population increase in urban areas. As a greater share of the total population lives in cities, however, natural population increase within them surpasses migration in importance. As natural population increase slows, migration can once again play dominant role in urban population growth-for example, if economic opportunities in urban areas expand rapidly while those in rural areas do not. The rapid growth of cities in the developing world including India puts them in the forefront of the struggle for improved living standards and protection of the environment. Urbanization dramatically increases per capita fresh water use, as millions of households gain access to piped water, as industry increases , and as large scale irrigated agriculture replaces subsistence farming. Caught between growing demand for freshwater on one hand and limited an increasingly polluted supplies on the other, many countries face difficult choices. Finding solutions requires responses at local, national, and international levels-a Blue Revolution that focuses on integrated management of water sheds and shed water basements. The reason for Indias growing thirst is the rate at which its population is increasing, more so in the cities and towns. While it may be one of the reasons, water crisis in the urban areas of the country is also the culmination of myopic planning, muddled policies and misguided perceptions. As cities and towns sprouted, no thought was paid to emerging mismatch between demand and supply. In the quest for food security, ground water was pushed as a solution-it was cheaper and quicker-while storage and distribution projects were neglected. The race for 10

industrialization ignored checks on wasteful technology and pollution of water resources.So the industry is not obliged to reuse water and continues to be the biggest polluter along with pestisides/fertilizer-ridden discharge from fields. Further as India developed and urbanized as a rapid pace, traditional systems of managing water resources were dismantled and thrown by the wayside. Water is the biggest crisis facing India in terms of spread and severely affecting one in three people. Even in Chennai , Bangalore and Delhi water is being rationed and Indias food security is under threat. A greater need to mitigate urban water scarcity is to rope in consumers to conservation beyond saving to augmentation.

Norms of Water Supply in Urban Areas The manual in water supply and treatment, published in may,1999 by the Central Public Health & Environmental engineering Organization (CPHEEO), Ministry of urban development and poverty alleviation, specifies norms and standards of municipal water supply for domestic and non domestic needs, such as institutional, commercial fire-fighting and industrial requirements. The recommended minimum per capita water supply levels for designing schemes are: 1. Towns with piped water supply but without sewerage system is 70 litres per capita per day (lpcd) 2. Cities with piped water supply and existing or planned sewerage system is 135 lpcd 3. Metropolitan and megacities with piped water supply and sewerage is 150 lpcd 4. Public stand posts is 40 lpcd The existing general norms are by no means very high though they have hardly been met in most cities. The norms are not a ceiling but only a minimum. They should not therefore come in he way of any municipal body or water supply authority taking up projects for further augmentation of supplies over and above the norms.

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Domestic Water Consumption The table below shows the average consumption of water in terms of a urban resident.

Purpose Drinking, Cooking & Dishwashing Bathing Toilet Flushing Washing Clothes Cleaning & Gardening Car Washing TOTAL

Maximum Average Minimum 50 50 50 50 25 5 230 40 25 40 20 10 135 30 15 30 15 90

As we can see on an average a urban resident flushes 40 litres of portable per person per day as compared to the 10 to 15 litres available to the rural dweller, which is often after considerable difficulty. Keeping this in mind many of the water supply boards in the major metros have come out with policies which said that they would only supply portable water for Domestic uses such as drinking, cooking, bathing etc. In quantity terms they specified a figure on an average of 90 lpcd. The rest 45 lpcd had to be arranged by the individual by means of rainwater harvesting, waster water recycling etc. But the main problem existed in the implementation of these polices in the rural areas.

General Problems faced in urban areas The water supply system is unequal & unjust being highly biased in favor of the rich. The urban poor spend a higher proportion of their income to cope with the water situation. About 30% of the urban population in India is estimated to be living in slums. This proportion is much higher in some cities like Mumbai. These localities are served mostly by Public Stand Posts (PSPs) which are basically common tap points from where several families collect

12

water. The amount of water available from PSPs to the urban poor is sometimes precariously low because of low water pressure, irregular timings, reduced duration of supply, etc. Water taps, hand pumps or toilets are provided by members of the legislative assembly (MLAs) out of their yearly fund as this often pays rich political dividends. Research carried out in three slums in Delhi by Tovey (2002) provides insights into the functioning of informal access to collective water taps and the importance of political patronage and local leaders in the installation of informal water taps provided by the Delhi Jal Board.

On account of concretization of the urban built up areas, including mangrove areas, surface percolation of rain water into the ground is rapidly declining. Most of the rain water flowing on the surface is polluted en-route and reaches the sea ultimately. Heavy extraction of ground water leads to an imbalance in the ground water reserve as the withdrawal of water is more than the recharge. This leads to depletion of the ground water resources. Depth of water table from the surface increases and wells become dry. The Vasai-Agashi-Arnala coastal alluvium is a good example. There the perishable garden crop belt is on the way out, and even the percolation wells are turning saline.

A misuse and overuse is yet another problem to be tackled. A good deal of water is wasted or misused. Wastage occurs chiefly through leaving taps open at night, allowing taps to run at full pressure while washing clothes or utensils, during ablutions, etc. Unless this growing habit of wastage is checked the city at large would suffer and the cooperation of all is earnestly invited to prevent waste.

Another major concern for the water supply boards is the implementation of the policies. Like in Mumbai in the year 2002 the BMC came with the policy of making rainwater harvesting mandatory for the new dwellings. But this policy was not implemented properly and the builders got away with bribing the officials.

The basic issue that arises and has to be answered squarely is the question as to what extent the metropolis and its fringes can draw upon the water resources from far places, denying the 13

rural population, mostly tribal, of their legitimate right to use their own territorial resources. The situation in the Surya valley is no better, in fact, it is worse for its tribal people. In a true democracy, to what extend is the city justified in drawing more and more from the rural hinterland depriving the rural demand? Urban vociferousness cannot carry on in this manner forever..

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MUMBAI - THE MELTING POT

2.1 Insight

Mumbai, which was previously known as Bombay is a major metropolitan city of India. It is the state capital of Maharashtra. Mumbai city is known as the business capital of India, it being the country's principal financial and communications centre. The city has the largest and the busiest port handling India's foreign trade and a major International airport. India's largest Stock Exchange which ranks as the third largest in the world is situated in Mumbai. Here, trading of stocks is carried out in billions of rupees everyday. Mumbai is the commercial and entertainment centre of India, generating 5% of Indis GDP and accounting for 25% of industrial output, 40% of marine trade and 70% of capital transactions to Indias Economy. Mumbai is one of the worlds top ten centres of commerce by global finance flow, it is also home to the Reserve Bank of India-The Nations Bank.

Area
City W.S. E.S. Mumbai

Population
3.37 Million 5.10 Million 3.50 Million 11.97 Million

SOURCE: MUNICIPAL CORPORATION OF BRIHAN MUMBAI.

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Mumbai has an area of 437.71 Sq. K.M. it is the most populous city of India & the 2nd most populous city in the world with a total population of about 11.97 millions. It is still growing. Mumbai provides umpteen opportunities to realize one's dreams. Hence, people from all over India, belonging to different cultures come here to realize their dreams. Mumbai has become the melting pot of all Indian cultures. This is the reason Mumbai has a truly cosmopolitan population bustling with activity. It's film industry "Bollywood" also draws a number of youths with tinsel dreams to Mumbai. Being a major financial center, People from all over the world come here for business opportunities. This has made Mumbai a major International city.

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2.2 History of Mumbai

Artifacts found near Kandivali in northern Mumbai indicate that these islands had been inhabited since the Stone Age. Mumbai city was originally made of seven small islands,

Colaba, Mazgaon,

Old Womens Island, Wadala, Mahim,

Parel and Matunga Sion. Documented evidence of human habitation dates back to 250 BCE, when it was known as Heptanesia (Ptolemy) (Ancient Greek: A Cluster of Seven Islands). In the 3rd century BCE, the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Aoka. During its first few centuries, control over Mumbai was disputed between the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps and the Satavahanas. The Hindu rulers of the Silhara Dynasty later governed the islands until 1343, when the kingdom of Gujarat annexed them. Some of the oldest edifices of the archipelago the Elephanta Caves and the Walkeshwar temple complex date from this era.

In 1534, the Portuguese appropriated the islands from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. They were ceded to Charles II of England in 1661, as dowry for Catherine de Braganza. These islands, were in turn leased to the British East India Company in 1668 for a sum of 10 per annum. The company found the deep harbour on the east coast of the islands to be ideal for setting up 17

their first port in the sub-continent. The population quickly rose from 10,000 in 1661, to 60,000 in 1675. In 1687, the British East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Mumbai. The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency. The Gateway of India was built to commemorate the arrival in India, on 2nd December 1911, of King George V and Queen Mary and was completed on 4th December, 1924From 1817 onwards, the city was reshaped with large civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the islands in the archipelago into a single amalgamated mass. This project, known as the Hornby Vellard, was completed by 1845, and resulted in the total area swelling to 438 km. In 1853, India's first passenger railway line was established, connecting Mumbai to the town of Thane. During the American Civil War (18611865), the city became the world's chief cotton trading market, resulting in a boom in the economy and subsequently enhancing the city's stature.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea. Over the next thirty years, the city grew into a major urban centre, spurred by an improvement in infrastructure and the construction of many of the city's institutions. The population of the city swelled to one million by 1906, making it the second largest in India after Calcutta. As capital of the Bombay Presidency, it was a major base for the Indian independence movement, with the Quit India Movement called by Mahatma Gandhi in 1942 being its most rubric event. After India's independence in 1947, it became the capital of Bombay State. In the 1950 the city expanded to its present limits by incorporating parts of Salsette island which lay to the north.

After 1955, when the State of Bombay was being re-organised along linguistic lines into the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, there was a demand that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state. However, the Samyukta Maharashtra movement opposed this, and insisted that Mumbai be declared the capital of Maharashtra. Following protests in which 105 people were killed by police firing, Maharashtra state was formed with Mumbai as its capital on May 1, 1960.

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2.3 History of the water supply system of Mumbai

The population of Mumbai was few thousands and used to fetch water from the wells and shallow tanks. These sources tended to dry up in summer and people used to face shortage of water. On 22nd June 1845,the local residents agitated against the shortage and bad quality of water. The British rulers appointed a 2-man commission to look into the grievances of the natives. The 2-man commission reported back within 24 hours that the water supply of Mumbai needed immediate attention.

Vihar: This was the first piped water supply to Mumbai. Vihar lake is located in the valley at the origin of Mithi river, near village Vihar. The work started in the year 1856 and was completed in the year 1860. The total quantity supplied was 32 million liters per day (MLD). The height of the dam was raised in the year 1872 and the water supply through the lake was increased to 68 MLD.

Tulsi: Tulsi lake is situated on the north side of the vihar lake. It is located on the upstream of vihar lake on the river Mithi. It supplies 18 MLD water to the city. In the year 1879, this scheme was commissioned.

Powai: Water famine was expected in the year 1891 so Powai Lake was constructed on a tributary of Mithi river. The 4 MLD water supplies is used in Aarey dairy and for agricultural purpose because the water quality is not up to the mark.

Tans: It was decided in the year 1886 to develop this scheme, which was at a distance of 110km from the city. This scheme was developed in 4 stages. It supplies 541 MLD of water. 19

Vaitarna-cum-Tansa: Vaitarna-cum-Tansa scheme came into existence in the year 1957 to meet the increasing demand of Mumbai city. It comprises of 500 m. long and 90 m. high concrete dam across the river Vaitarna. 7.2 km long tunnel was constructed between lakes Vaitarna and Tansa. The diameter of pipeline was 2400 mm. from Tansa to the city for a distance of 76 kms. The Corporation in the memory of the invaluable services has named the impoundage on Vaitarna river after notable Municipal Engineer late Shri N.V. Modak as Modak Sagar'.

Upper Vaitarna: This project was fully commissioned in the year 1972-73 and daily supply increased by 554 MLD. It is a dual-purpose scheme, which was created in the upper reaches of Vaitarna River by constructing two dams.The water in the river was used to generate 60 MW of power and the residual quantity was used by MCGM for water supply.

Bhatsa Scheme: The rate of growth of the population during the year 1950's and 1960's led to development of water supply and sewerage facilities. The plan was implemented in three phases, each of these phases envisaged additional water supply from the Bhatsa river. The project also consisted construction of pumping, treatment and distribution facilities at Pise, Panjrapur and Bhandup. International Development Association and the World Bank funded the project.

Stage I: This stage of project was commissioned in 1981. It comprised of weir at Pise,. It had seven pumps each of 90 MLD. Stage II: The stage was commissioned in 1989. This stage comprised of expansion of the pumping station at Pise and construction of pre- chlorination plant at Pise. Stage III: During this stage additional pumps were introduced at Pise and Panjrapur. This stage was completed in 1997.

20

2.4 Present water situation

The total water supply demand is around 3400 mld but the supply is 2950 mld. According to official estimates leakages and wastage is 885 mld. When the middle Vaitarna reservoir is completed around 2010, it may add 455 mld. But by then the demand may well shoot up to 5000 mld, thanks to the metropolitan demographic growth. The average water supply per day for the urbanite receiving municipal water supply is 135 litres in Mumbai in contrast to the meagre supply of 10 to 15 litres that the rural dweller receives, often with considerable difficulties.

DEMAND - SUPPLY GAP IN MUMBAI (in MLD)

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Demand Supply Leakage & Loss Ground Water Gap 855 147 850 3400 2950

SOURCE: MUNICIPAL CORPORATION OF BRIHAN MUMBAI.

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2.5 Water sources of Mumbai

Of all the metropolitan cities of the Republic of India, Mumbai is the best served urban cluster as far as potable water supply is concerned. Since Mumbais population is around 12 million and is expected to grow substantially, its water requirements are huge and its water supply system is among the 8th largest in the world. Its sources are at a greater distance than those of many other water systems in the world.

Mumbai is supplied by a number of reservoirs in the Sahyadris or its foot hill: the Tansa, the lower Vaitarna, the upper Vaitarna and the Bhatsai schemes. Water is treated in two plants, Panjarapur and Bhandup, and then stored in two master balancing reservoirs-Yewai and Bhandup.

WATER SOURCES OF MUMBAI (in MLD)

554 1365 490

68

456

18 U- Vaitarna Vaitarna Tansa Tulsi Vehar Chatsai

SOURCE: MUNICIPAL CORPORATION OF BRIHAN MUMBAI

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2.6 Distribution System

Before Independence, Tansa was the major source and these water pipelines run along Bombay-Agra road. After independence, Vaitarna-cum-Tansa project envisaged a tunnel between Vaitarna and Tansa and the water supply to Malabar Hill Reservoir and Bhandarwada Reservoir increased, besides serving the remaining areas directly from the main trunk. The Upper Vaitarna Scheme, in 1973, provided 554mld through tunnels under the Thane Creek. Then came the Bhatsai Scheme which also envisaged construction of pumping, treatment and conveyance at Pise, Panjrapur and Bhandup. Bhatsai water is pumped into Vaitarna mains and brought through tunnels to Bhandup's water treatment-cum-pumping-cum-reservoir complex. From Bhandup's Master Balancing Reservoir I (MBR I) and MBR II at Yewai Hills, water is supplied to the city and suburbs through 17 service reservoirs and 650km transmission mains, 3,000km of distribution mains and 3,200km of service pipes. This, in a nutshell, is how water is conveyed to the city from the sources located at a distance of about 100km, distribution is a very complex structure. The cost of production is Rs 6 per kilolitre. This cost is low due to old assets but the cost of water from new Schemes will be much higher.

23

2.7 Problems

Pipe network, maintenance and leakage: The daily average water supply to the city is 2 hours and to the suburbs 3.5 hours. Trunk, feeder and distributory water mains form the water supply network. The trunk and feeder mains carry water continuously. They are of large diameters and are made of mild steel which requires protective coating. Caste iron distributory mains are of a smaller diameter and carry water only at specific times. Because of intermittent water supply they are subject to alternate wet and dry conditions which induce corrosion. This is a major cause of contamination and wastage of water. Corrosion is also aggravated from aggressive soil conditions, vicinity of the sea and currents induced by the railways direct current traction system. Periodic cleaning and scraping is required after internal inspection through video equipment. Also use of non-corrosive materials and leak proof joints is required. More recently polyethylene pipelines are laid in particularly hostile conditions.

Contamination arises from intermittent supply, low water pressure, leaking pipes, and inadequate wastewater collection system. In slums because of inadequate sewage disposal the soil around the water pipes is polluted. Moreover, since some pipes run close to the sewage lines there is great danger of contamination. The danger is compounded by slum dwellers who break the pipes, and then cover the hole with cloth or other rough plugs, which are removed to draw water whenever needed. During periods when water supply is stopped the contaminated soil then gets sucked into water pipes.

Preventive maintenance is required. But there is a poor stock of maintenance materials in the municipal store, and low availability of funds. The sanctioning procedure is cumbersome. Repairs are undertaken during crises only. BMC has drawn up a RS.100 crore plan to replace old corroded pipes in a phased manner. A leak detection cell has been set up since 1973, and there are 615 leak detection zones.

24

For un-metered water connections water tax is based on the ratable value of the property (65 per cent for residential and 130 per cent for non-residential). Metered connections are charged tariffs on a per kilolitre basis: stand-posts in slums Rs. 2.25 per kilolitre, building and chawls Rs. 3.5 per kilolitre (it is planned to raise this to Rs. 5.8), commercial and industrial establishments Rs. 10.5-35 per kilolitre. Mumbai is doing well compared to Delhi where the lowest slab for domestic connection is only 35 paise per kilolitre and the Delhi Jal Board loses Rs. 260 crore annually on the revenue account alone. Since April 2001 a decentralized computerized billing system has been introduced, with appropriate software. There are 2, 46,000 metered connections, and 75,000 un-metered connections, of which municipal meters are 48,550 and private meters 1, 97,450. But only 20 per cent of domestic meters and 60 per cent of commercial meters work. Water meters are defective and get clogged. Problems arise with metering since water supply is intermittent, booster pumps are used and good quality non-magnetic water meters are not available. Illegal tapping creates more problems in metering for less-developed areas. Moreover, there is an acute staff problem for reading meters reliably. In spite of a fairly assured supply the people of Mumbai are constantly demanding a more assured supply. Where should Mumbai look for this additional supply? Mumbais growing demand for portable water is a classic example of unprecedented growth manifesting itself in a gluttonous monster always wanting more. Should we tap ground water or should we look further into the hinterland Konkan for more water? In order to enhance water supply to the metropolis the Government and the City Corporation are looking to draw upon additional water supplies from the North Konkan hinterland since Mumbai has no further additional surface supplies to tap. Further exploitation of Vaitarna through middle valley reservoir and the Bathsai with a higher level dam are already on the anvil. The Surya valley reservoir is meeting the needs of the fast growing Vasai-Virar urban complex.

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NEW DELHI- THE NATIONAL CAPITAL OF INDIA

3.1 Insight

New Delhi is the capital city of India. With a total area of 42.7 km2, New Delhi is situated within the metropolis of Delhi and serves as the seat of the Government of India and the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT).

Planned by Edwin Lutyens, a leading 20th century British architect, New Delhi is known for its wide, tree-lined boulevards and houses numerous national institutions and landmarks as well. Officially, the term New Delhi refers to one of the nine districts of Delhi and has its own municipality corporation, known as the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC). The Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi does not release any economic figures specifically for New Delhi but publishes an official economic report on the whole of Delhi annually. According to the Economic Survey of Delhi, the metropolis has has a net State Domestic Product (SDP) of Rs. 83,085 crores (for the year 200405) and a per capita income of Rs. 53,976.The tertiary sector contributes 78.4% of Delhi's gross SDP followed by secondary and primary sectors with 20.2% and 1.4% contribution respectively.

Delhi has major commercial and financial centers such as, Rajiv Chowk, formerly known as Connaught Place, one of northern India's largest commercial and financial centres, is located in the heart of New Delhi. Adjoining areas such as Barakhamba Road and Chankyapuri are also major commercial centers. Government and quasi government sector was the primary employer in New Delhi. The city's service sector has expanded due in part to the large skilled English-speaking workforce that has attracted many multinational companies. Key service industries include information technology, telecommunications, hotels, banking, media and tourism.

Delhi was a small town in 1901 with a population 0.4 million. Delhi's population started increasing after it became the capital of British India in 1911. During the Partition of the 26

country, a large number of people migrated from Pakistan and settled in Delhi. Migration into the city continued even after Partition. The 2001 Census recorded 138.51 lakh population of Delhi with 3.85% annual growthrate and 47.02% decennial growth rate during 1991-2001. Delhi is the second largest metropolitan area in India after Mumbai. There are 925 women per 1000 men in NCT, and the literacy rate is 81.67%.

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3.2 History of Delhi

Human habitation was probably present in and around Delhi during the second millennium BC and before, as evidenced by archeological relics. The city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. Settlements grew from the time of the Mauryan Empire .Remains of seven major cities have been discovered in Delhi. The Tomara dynasty founded the city of Lal Kot in 736 AD. The Chauhan Rajputs of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot in 1180 AD and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora. The Chauhan king Prithviraj III was defeated in 1192 by the Afghan Muhammad Ghori. In 1206, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, the first ruler of the Slave Dynasty established the Delhi Sultanate. Qutb-ud-din started the construction the Qutub Minar and Quwwat-al-Islam, the earliest extant mosque in India. After the fall of the Slave dynasty, a succession of Turkic and Central Asian dynasties, the Khilji dynasty, the Tughluq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty and the Lodhi dynasty held power in the late medieval period, and built a sequence of forts and townships that are part of the seven cities of Delhi. In 1398, Timur Lenk invaded India on the pretext that the Muslim sultans of Delhi were too much tolerant to their Hindu subjects. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins.Delhi was a major center of Sufism during the Sultanate period.In 1526, Zahiruddin Babur defeated the last Lodhi sultan in the First Battle of Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire that ruled from Delhi, Agra and Lahore. The Mughal Empire ruled northern India for more than three centuries, with a five-year hiatus during Sher Shah Suri's reign in the mid-16th century.Mughal emperor Akbar shifted the capital from Agra to Delhi. Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi that bears his name (Shahjahanabad), and is more commonly known as the Old City or Old Delhi. The old city served as the capital of the Mughal Empire since 1638. Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal in February, 1739. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne. In 1761, Delhi was raided by Ahmed Shah Abdali after the Third battle of Panipat. At the Battle of Delhi on 11 September 1803, General Lake's British forces defeated the Marathas.

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Built in 1639 by Shah Jahan, is the site from which the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation on Indian Independence Day - The Red Fort Delhi came under direct British control after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Shortly after the Rebellion, Calcutta was declared the capital of British India and Delhi was made a district province of the Punjab. In 1911, Delhi was declared the capital of British India and a new political and administrative capital was designed by a team of British architects led by Edwin Lutyens to house the government buildings. New Delhi, also known as Lutyens Delhi, was officially declared as the seat of the Government of India and the capital of the republic after independence on 15 August 1947. During the partition of India thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from West Punjab and Sindh fled to Delhi while many Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan. In 1984, three thousand Sikhs were killed in the 1984 anti-Sikh riots. Migration to Delhi from the rest of India continues, contributing more to the rise of Delhi's population than the birth rate, which is declining.

The Constitution Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as National Capital Territory of Delhi.

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3.3 History of water supply in Delhi

Civic administration in Delhi was established by the British rulers in 1,862 with the setting up of Delhi City Commission. At that time Delhi occupied an area of only 3 sq. km. with a population of only 1.21 lakh presently the city has an area of nearly 1,500 sq. km. and a population of about 14 million. The city of Delhi is almost perpetually in the grip of water crisis, more so during the dry season when serious water shortages afflict the city. Apart from 1,600 unauthorized colonies and 1100 slums, there is a large chunk of the city's rural belt which falls in the water deficit zone. At the e nineteenth century water supply to Delhi was from the percolating wells constructed in two lots in 1892 and 1894. The Yield at that time was only 610000 gallons per day. Around 1900 A.D., settling tanks and filters were provided to increase the availability of potable water-about 17, 00000 gallons per day for a population of two lakh population. As the capital of India was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1912, a scheme was implemented for an intake well near Wizirahad, which was completed in 1926. With passage of time local bodies were created for various functions for providing basic amenities of water and treatment of sewage, Delhi Joint & Sewerage Board was constituted in 1926

The Delhi Jal Board was constituted on 6th April, 1998 through an Act of the Delhi Legislative Assembly incorporating the previous Delhi Water Supply and Sewage Disposal Undertaking. The Delhi Jal Board is responsible for the Production and Distribution of potable water after treating raw water from various sources like river Yamuna, Bhakhra Storage, Upper Ganga Canal & Groundwater and also provides treatment and disposal of waste water. The Delhi Jal Board provides water in bulk to the NDMC and Cantonment areas. Sewage from these areas is also collected for treatment and disposal by the Delhi Jal Board. Delhi Jal Board has also been meeting the needs of potable water in the National Capital Territory of Delhi for more than five decades.

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3.4 Present water situation

Presently the water requirement in Delhi is about 990 million gallons per day (MGD), whereas the supply from available sources is about 710 million gallons per day. This really is the gross supply a big chunk of this is being lost of the 9,000 km of the existing pipelines, some 1,700 km. have no doubt been replaced but loss of water on leaking pipes, overhead tanks and taps is still substantial.

Status Of water Supply in Delhi

1200 1000 800 600 400 213 200 0 Demand SOURCE: DELHI JAL BOARD Supply Leakage & Loss Net received Gap 990 710 497

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For instance about 31.5 MGD is estimated to be lost in illegal tapping at 10 places of the raised mains coming from Bhagirathi water treatment plant to okhal. There is large-scale tapping of water at Sarai Kale Khan and Preet Vihar. It is for these reasons that nearly 30% (that is 213 MGD) of the water drains out in losses and leakages. This means that of the 710 MGD of water treated by the Delhi Jal Board, just 497 MGL of water reaches the people of Delhi. The gap between demand and supply is partly met by extraction of ground water through wells, tube wells, deep bore hand pumps etc.

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3.5 Delhis Water Sources

While 90% of drimking water in the country comes from groundwater, neariy 87 per cent of the Delhi's water supply is from surface water and most of which is from Bhakra-Beas Management Board and regenerated Yamuna. Nearly 229 MGD of water comes from

Yamuna and 240 MGD from Bhakra Storage. The denizens of Delhi are a major groundwaterdependent supplied by the DJB, Approximately 81 MGD comes from groundwater reserves. However, it is difficult to establish the total groundwater extracted, because a large number of private tubewells dug by households and the ihdustrial sector for their own supply are unaccounted for in the official estimates. Many water tankers and bottled water companies are drawing and selling groundwa,ttr. Presently DJB is supplying 710 million gallons of water per day of which 629 MGD comes from Surface water. Ealier there use to be a lot of groung water and prople would just drill and get as much water as they wanted to, in addition to the piped water supply. Now the ground water has fallen to almost inaccessible depths. The worst affected is south delhi where the water table has falling by almost 2 meters every year.

Water Resources of Delhi Jal Board (in MGD)

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Yamuna Ganga Bhakra Storage Total Surface water Groung Water Total Surface water 229 160 240 81 629 710

SOURCE: DELHI JAL BOARD

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3.6 Problems

Unevenness in distribution: The average water consumption in Delhi is estimated at 240 liters per capita per day (LCPD), the highest in India, while in Kolkata and Mumbai, the figure is 202 and 78 LPCD, respectively. In France, Germany and England, the figure is 50, 135 and 175 LPCD, respectively. This figure is not indicative of an adequate supply to every resident since the water supply in Delhi is far from being uniformly distributed. The NDMC and Delhi Cantonment area (about 5 per cent of population) get an average supply of above 450 LPCD, while areas in Narela and Mehrauli zones get less than 35 LPCD. This is how this uneven distribution system is adding fuel to the already existing fire of water scaircity in Delhi.

Over Exploitation of Ground water: The gap between the supply and demand of water has resulted in over-extraction of groundwater which has led to serious problems with both quantity and quality of groundwater. The exploitation of groundwater over the years has led to a sharp drop' in both quantity and quality of the sub-soil reserve in the city. In a vicious circle, as the water table drops, the dangerous pollutants like nitrates, fluorides, pesticides, heavy metals and salinity keep getting concentrated in the remaining water. The water at lower levels in the city is saline. Very little freshwater is left. The drought-like conditions in 2002 left a thin layer of sweet water in southwest Delhi that housed densely populated colonies like Janakpuri and Vikaspuri. In Dwarka, the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) says, the sweet groundwater is not sufficient to meet even a year's demand of the sub-city. In sc Delhi, the quality is still good but the levels of water have plummeted to as low as 44 metres. North and west Delhi's groundwater is a cod of various contaminants at lower levels. In east Delhi, only the w; close to the surface was potable.

According to the CGWB, water quality is fast declining Bacteriological contamination levels are rising. There is also a h content of cadmium, lead and chromium in the water. Though different agencies may differ on the figures, the fact remains that the ground water in Delhi is depleting fast.

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Leakages & Pilferage: Delhi Jal Board supplies 710 MGD from which 213MGD is lost in route. Due to the old pipes having leakage problem, nearly 30% of the water supplied by the Delhi Jal Board is flowed as leakages and wastages. This leaves Delhi with only 497MGD for consumption which is further unevenly distributed in the city. Of the 9000 km of pipeline only 1700 km is replaced leaving 6300 km of pipeline with leakages. This mismanagement is the supply system is aggravating the water crisis in Delhi

Misuse of water: The water supplied by the Delhi Jal Board is majorly used for Domestic purposes other than drinking. These Domestic purposes include flushing of toilets, gardening, washing utensils etc. on an average a normal person uses 25 -40 liters of water for flushing. This is the treated and cleaned water which should be used for drinking and other such purposes.

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CHENNAI CONCRETE COFFIN

4.1 Insight Chennai formerly known as Madras is the fourth largest metropolitan area of India and the capital city of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, Chennai had a population of 4.2 million in the 2001 census within its municipal corporation. The urban agglomeration of Chennai has an estimated population of 7.5 million, making it the fourth largest agglomeration in India. Chennai's economy has a broad industrial base in the automobile, technology, hardware manufacturing, and healthcare industries. The city is home too much of India's automobile industry and is the country's second-largest exporter of Software, information technology and information-technology-enabled services, behind Bangalore. Chennai Zone contributes 39 per cent of the States GDP. Chennai accounts for 60 per cent of the countrys automotive exports and is sometimes referred to as Detroit of India. A resident of Chennai is called a Chennaiite. As of 2001, Chennai city had a population of 4.34 million, while the total metropolitan population was 7.04 million. The estimated metropolitan population in 2006 is 4.5 million. In 2001, the population density in the city was 24,682 per km, while the population density of the metropolitan area was 5,922 per km, making it one of the most densely populated cities in the world. The sex ratio is 951 females for every 1,000 males, slightly higher than the national average of 934. The average literacy rate is 80.14%,much higher than the national average of 64.5%. The city has the fourth highest population of slum dwellers among major cities in India, with about 820,000 people which is18.6% of its population living in slum conditions. This number represents about 5% of the total slum population of India. The majority of the population in Chennai is Tamils and Tamil is the primary language spoken in Chennai. English is widely spoken especially in business, education and white collar professions. Sizeable Telugu and Malayalee communities live in the city. Chennai also has a large migrant population, who come from other parts of Tamil Nadu and the rest of the country. As of 2001, out of the 937,000 migrants (21.57% of its population) in the city, 74.5% 35

were from other parts of the state, 23.8% were from rest of India and 1.7% was from outside the country The city is served by an international airport and two major ports; it is connected to the rest of the country by five national highways and two railway terminals. Thirty-five countries have consulates in Chennai. Chennai hosts a large cultural event, the annual Madras Music Season, which includes performances by hundreds of artists. The city has a vibrant theatre scene and is an important centre for the Bharatanatyam, a classical dance form. The Tamil film industry, known as Kollywood, is based in the city; the soundtracks of the movies dominate its music scene. Chennai is known for its sport venues and hosts an Association of Tennis Professionals event, the Chennai Open. The city faces problems of water shortages, traffic congestion and air pollution. The state and local governments have undertaken initiatives such as the Veeranam project, Rainwater harvesting and the construction of mini-flyovers to address some of these problems.

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4.2 History of Chennai The region around Chennai has served as an important administrative, military, and economic centre since the 1st century. It has been ruled by various South Indian dynasties, notably the Pallava, the Chola, the Pandya, and Vijaynagar. The town of Mylapore, now part of Chennai, was once a major Pallavan port. The Portuguese arrived in 1522 and built a port called So Tom after the Christian apostle, St Thomas, who is believed to have preached in the area between 52 and 70 CE. In 1612, the Dutch established themselves near Pulicat, just north of the city.

On August 22, 1639, Francis Day of the British East India Company bought a small strip of land on the Coromandel Coast from the Vijayanagara King, Peda Venkata Raya in Chandragiri. The region was ruled by Damerla Venkatapathy, the Nayak of Vandavasi. He granted the British permission to build a factory and warehouse for their trading enterprises. A year later, the British built Fort St George, which became the nucleus of the growing colonial city. In 1746, Fort St. George and Madras were captured by the French under General La Bourdonnais, the Governor of Mauritius, who plundered the town and its outlying villages. The British regained control in 1749 through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and fortified the town's fortress wall to withstand further attacks from the French and another looming threat, Hyder Ali, the Sultan of Mysore. By the late 18th century, the British had conquered most of the region around Tamil Nadu and the northern modern-day states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, establishing the Madras Presidency with Madras as the capital. Under British rule, the city grew into a major urban centre and naval base. With the advent of railways in India in the late 19th century, the thriving urban centre was connected to other important cities such as Bombay and Calcutta, promoting increased communication and trade with the hinterland. Madras was briefly under Portuguese and French rule during 16th & 18th century.

After India gained its independence in 1947, the city became the capital of Madras State, renamed the state of Tamil Nadu in 1969. The violent agitations of 1965 against the imposition of Hindi as the national language marked a major shift in the political dynamics of the city and the whole state. 37

4.3 History of Chennais Water Supply Till about the middle of 19th century Chennai received water from local shallow wells and tanks. Mr.Fraser, a civil engineer forwarded a proposal to the government to tap the Kortalayar river which is situated about 160 km north west of Chennai and it was accepted.

The project comprised of a masonry weir across Kortalayar at Tamarapakkam and diverting the water into Cholavaram lake and thence into the Red Hills lake through a channel. The works were completed in 1870 at a cost of about Rs. 18.50 lakhs. In 1872 a Valve House at Red Hills and an earthen Supply channel to supply water to Chennai by gravitation was constructed. At Chennai end, the channel delivered water by gravity into a masonry shaft at Kilpauk from which the cast iron mains of the City branched off and a scientifically designed water supply Distribution System was established.

Constuction of covered underground masonry conduit from intake tower called Jones Tower to Kilpauk. Constuction of 14 slow sand filters at Kilpauk Water Works Constuction of 3 pure water masonry tanks at Kilpauk Water Works Installation of three high duty steam engine Laying of 48" steel pumping main from Kilpauk to the shaft where the trunk mains start. Remodeling, altering and extending the distribution system to ensure adequate supply under sufficient pressure.

According to Madley these were considered sufficient for an anticipated population of 6.6 lakhs in 1961 at 25 gallons per head per day

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4.4 Present water supply situation

The Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (CMWSSB) was established on 01.08.1978, by an Act of the Tamil Nadu Legislature to address to the issues pertaining to water supply and sanitation in a holistic manner.

The MISSION of CMWSSB

"To extend a positive contribution for enhancing the health and quality of life of the Citizens of Chennai City by providing them with an adequate supply of safe and good quality water at a reasonable price and by providing customer service in a prompt and courteous manner".

The Functions of CMWSSB

Promoting and securing the planned development of water supply and sewerage services Efficient operation maintenance and regulation of the water supply and sewerage systems in Chennai Metropolitan Area. Preparing the immediate and long term measures to meet the future demands of water supply and sewerage services in the Chennai Metropolitan area.

At present it serves a population of about 60 Lakhs mostly in the Chennai City Area. The Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board has taken significant initiatives to supply adequate quantity of water with good quality and also to redress the grievances of the citizens within the minimum time possible.

Action taken to meet the present water crisis The status of city water supply and the Contingency plan for managing the acute water crisis was reviewed by the Honorable Finance Minister in detail on 11.6.2001. In order to tackle the grave water situation and acute drought, it was decided to adopt a multipronged strategy with

39

immediate measures to attend to the day-to-day needs and long term measures for a permanent solution to the water problem facing Chennai city.

Accordingly, various steps have been taken by CMWSSB to meet the drinking water requirements in Chennai City and the proposed contingency plan envisaged the transportation of water from distant sources by road/rail and augmenting ground water supply by hiring agricultural wells. Apart from this, steps have been taken to install additional stationary tanks for defective streets and erection of additional filling points has also been taken up to streamline and quicken mobile water supply. In about 100 locations where the urban poor live, bore wells with pumping arrangements and storage tanks are being provided for supplying water for non-drinking purposes.

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4.5 Chennais Waters Sources

The main sources of public water supply in the city are the three reservoirs - Poondi, Redhills and Cholavaram - with an aggregate storage capacity of 175 MCM. Even when the reservoirs are not full, they get inflows from intermittent rains,which is then drawn. On the other hand, losses due to evaporation from the reservoirs result in the effective availability being lower than the storage.

The other major resource is groundwater from the well fields in the Araniar-Kortaliyar basin and the southern coastal aquifer, and a large number of wells and tubewells spread all across the city.

Over-extraction of groundwater in the north western coastal belt resulted in a rapid ingress of seawater, which extended from 3 km inshore in 1969 to 7 km in 1983 and 9 km in 1987. Groundwater levels within the city also fell and brackish water began to appear even in localities which earlier had good quality groundwater sources.

DEMAND AND WATER SUPPLY STATUS OF CHENNAI (in MLD)

1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Demand SOURCE: CENTRE OF SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENT Supply

971

675

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RAINWATER UTILIZATION IN TOKYO

The average yearly precipitation in Tokyo is about 1,400 millimeters. This is about twice the German average. However, residents in Tokyo have not appreciated rainwater as a resource for a long time. They have overlooked rainwater flowing into drains and consider that more dams are needed to be built upstream when they run short of city water supply. They have felt that rain falling in reservoir areas is a must whereas rain falling in their communities is a nuisance.

Cities can and must obtain the water they consume on their own as far as possible, and thus rainwater falling in cities should not be wasted. Numerous mini dams collecting and storing rainwater should be built in cities themselves. The stored water contributes to decreasing the city water demand, provides drinking and non-drinking water in emergencies like earthquakes, and helps prevent disasters like fires.

Tokyo has been inflicted with water shortages and floods alternately every few years. It is , therefore necessary to appreciate the fact that more than two billion cubic metres of rain falls in Tokyo every year and about the same amount of water is consumed every year. Almost 60 percent of Tokyos ground is covered a city robed in asphalt and concrete. So when the rain falls, the city becomes prone to floods.

Some 16 years ago, a serious flood inflicted heavy financial and health losses in Sumida Ward, also called Sumida City, one if the most densely populated wards in Tokyo. Floodwaters inundated many of the wards buildings with sewage-contaminated water. Foe weeks people had no drinking water, as the citys drinking water tanks are installed underground.

Rain is an incredibly important resource. It is essential to city planning and to' mitigate water shortages, control floods and disasters. Yet modem urban society simply throws it away. Sumida City has since been actively promoting rainwater utilization policies with three aims: 42

Developing water resources in communities; Restoring the regional natural water cycle; Securing water supply for emergencies.

Sumida City asked the Japan Sumo Association to introduce rainwater utilization concepts into its new Sumo wrestling arena, Kokugikan, in 1982. Currently, 70 per cent of its facilities, including the air-conditioning system and toilets, use rainwater collected from the roof. Rainfall is collected from a 8,400 square metre (sq m) roof and collected in a 1,000 cubic metres storage tank. Since then the city has initiated rainwater utilization in its different facilities and constructed Rojison, a simple rainwater utilization system, in many communities of the city, hand in hand with its residents. The Sumida City ward's own office boasts of a rainwater utilisation system that covers half of the building's water needs and saves 1.8 million (US $13,500 at present rates).

Following the example of Kokugikan, nearly 500 buildings in Tokyo have introduced rainwater utilization systems. The number of houses adopting full-scale rainwater utilization systems is gradually increasing too.

News of the efforts made by Sumida City and its residents has travelled far. The Tokyo International Rainwater Utilization Conference was held in August 1994 in Sumida City. The conference was unique from three points. First, it was large in scale and was supported by a variety groups. Over 800 people participated in the sessions, including 26 participants from Botswana, Kenya, Tanzania, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Sri-Lanka, Thailand, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United States. Secondly, the conference was the first one to focus on the role of rainwater utilisation from the urban perspective, particularly from that of a mega-city. The primary advantage of collecting and storing rainwater in urban areas is not only producing additional water but also controlling storm runoff and preventing urban floods as a result. Thirdly, the conference was organised and supported by citizens and was funded through the efforts and enthusiasm of people in Sumida city and its neighboring areas. 43

The following points were confirmed at the conference:

Populations in Asia, Africa and Latin America will continue to move into large cities and, as a result, cities there will confront the prob1em of urban drought and urban flood which Tokyo faces now;

Tokyo's newly acquired wisdom on rainwater use techniques will undoubtedly contribute to resolving the 'urban drought and urban flood' problem; Rainwater utilisation is an internationally shared responsibility considering the concept of sustainable development' of cities; Rainwater utilisation is directly related to acid rain and air pollution and A new rainwater culture has to be created in which cities can live more harmoniously with their rainfall endowment.

This conference changed peoples way of thinking about rain. The most important result was networking to disseminate rainwater utilization information on a global scale.

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THE SINGAPORE SYSTEM

6.1 Insight

Singapore is sparing no efforts in capturing its abundant rainfall of 2,400 millimeters. All possible measures are being taken to maximize the use of rainfall given the limited land availability and competing water demands. Some innovative schemes have been introduced. This capitalization of rainfall has been possible after considerable research and adoption or strict pollution and quality control. The Republic of Singapore has a land area of 61,000 hectares (ha). Water availability is poor. In spite of 50 per cent of the land area being used as a water catchment, almost 40-50 per cent of its water requirements are imported. A fair amount of research and development work has been done in Singapore for maximising. the abstraction of rainwater. Schemes have included the utilisation of the roofs of high-rise buildings, the use of runoff from airports for non-potable uses, and integrated systems using the combined runoff from industrial complexes, aquaculture farms and educational institutions.

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6.2 Capturing rain

Rooftop water collection systems in high-rise buildings High-rise buildings in urban areas currently house 86 per cent of the population in Singapore.1 The potential for using these rooftops as catchments is high. In all cases involving roof water collection, a simple input/output model has been used to determine the available quantity of rainwater.2 The systems developed have been the result of intensive research

Use of rainwater in aquaculture and industrial lots: Aquaculture farms have large tracts of land and can utilise rainwater as the quality is acceptable. In a case study involving an aquaculture farm, there extensive cultivation of ornamental: and edible fish and aquatic plants. The rainwater collected help largely to dilute the water within the other water bodies that were subjected to high nutrient loads.

Harnessing of runoff in an airport: Catchment areas in airports are much larger than roof areas and involve harnessing of both surface runoff and roof water. A typical case outlining such a system is the Singapore Changi Airport, established in 1986. The runoff is largely collected from runways, the associated area of which is turfed, and the roof of buildings. In a catchment area of 530 ha as in the case of this airport, two impoundments were necessary, one of which retains most of the runoff.4 Raw water from this main reservoir is pumped to a pre-treatment plant and the treated water is used for firefighting and toilet flushing. As the airport is close to the sea, the second reservoir is used for storm relief when the time of incoming tide and the storm discharges coincide. Annual savings in water usage amounted to about 390,000 Singapore dollars (S$) (US $243,750). The main finding in this case study was that the existing storage volume of 3,888 cubic metres (cum) was grossly under-designed as a result of which only 13 per cent of potable water could be used. By increasing the storage volume to 80,000 cum, all current demands could be met. As more data was obtained, this system was further studied in depth and another model developed, which took into consideration tidal effects. The required storage should be not more than 100,000 cum and the buffer reservoir needs to have a volume of only 68,000 cum 46

against the current 100,000 cum. In addition, if rainwater pumped at a rate of 164 cubic metres per hour against the current 128 cum/hr, there will be no need to use any potable water for non-potable uses.

Utilization of teaching institutions for collection of runoff: Most institutions like polytechnics or universities are bond to have some land and rooftop areas which can be ued to harvest the rain for potable uses. In one of the teaching institutions in Singapore where the total land is 30 ha and the roof area 1.5 ha, a rainwater collection system has been successfully implemented. The surface and rooftop waters are directed to a collection chamber where the water is subjected to some chemical treatment followed by sedimentation and chlorination. The treated water is being used for watering of sports fields while the untreated water is being used for irrigation. The annual saving in water at current costs amounts to S$74,000 (US $46,250) per annum.

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6.3 Lessons learnt

In terms of the innovative measures taken to harness roof water in high-rise buildings, industrial lots, institutions, etc., the projects have been shown to be workable and economically viable. Thus, the concept of utilising small catchments has to be accepted.

In the case of the Singapore Changi Airport, harnessing of runoff has been in operation for more than a decade. Since it has been successful even when the airport is very close to the sea such projects should, as far as possible, be adopted in all airports.

For the utilization of urban catchments, there is a need for excellent control and coordination between many departments. The success of the utilization of urban runoff largely hinges on the ability of the water authority to closely monitor the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the raw water~ .

By monitoring runoff into impoundments and recalculating the potential of abstraction schemes, there is potential for an increase in the reliable yield. Analyses must become a regular feature for any water authority. Improving operational strategy and optimizing output could be far less expensive than embarking on new schemes.

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RAIN WATER HARVESTING

7.1 Understanding Rain water harvesting

In scientific terms, water harvesting refers to collection and storage of rainwater and also other activities aimed at harvesting surface and groundwater, prevention of losses through evaporation and seepage and all other hydrological studies and engineering interventions, aimed at conservation and efficient utilization of the limited water endowment of physiographic unit such as a watershed.

In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The rainwater collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Rain is the first form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is a primary source of water for us as can be seen in the

Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary sources of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting means to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of rainwater at the place where it falls.

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7.2 Elements of a typical water harvesting system

1. Catchments The catchment of a water harvesting system is the surface which receives rainfall directly and contributes the water to the system. It can be a paved area like a terrace or courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. Temporary structures like sloping sheds can also act as catchments.

2. Conduits Conduits are the pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop to the harvesting system. Conduits may be of any material like polyvinylchloride (PVC), asbestos or galvanized iron (GI), materials that are commonly available.

3a. Storage facility Rainwater can be stored in any commonly used storage containers like RCC, masonry or plastic water tanks. Some maintenance measures like cleaning and disinfection are required to ensure the quality of water stored in the container.

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3b. Recharge facility Alternative to storing, rainwater may be charged into the groundwater aquifers. This can be done through any suitable structures like dugwells, borewells, recharge trenches and recharge pits.

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7.3 How do we harvest this water

As illustrate below, there are two broad approaches or purposes to harvesting water:

1. Storing rainwater for direct use

2. Recharging groundwater aquifers

Purposes of Rainwater Harvesting

Ready for use in Containers

Recharge Groundwater

1. Storing rainwater for direct use Rooftop harvesting has been practiced since ages, and even today it is practiced in many places throughout the world. In some cases, the rooftop harvesting system is little more a split pipe or bamboo directing runoff from the roof into an old oil drum placed near the roof as seen in the figure below. 52

Generally, runoff from only paved surfaces is used for storing, since it is relatively free of bacteriological contamination. Drainpipes that collect water from the catchment (rooftop) are diverted to the storage container.

To prevent leaves and debris from entering the system, mesh filters should be provided at the mouth of the drain pipe. Further, a first-flush device should be provided in the conduit before it connects to the storage container. If the stored water is to be used for drinking purposes, a sand filter should also be provided.

An underground RCC/masonry tank can be used for storage of the rainwater. The tank can be installed inside the basement of a building or outside the building. Pre-fabricated tanks such as PVC can be installed above the ground.

Each tank must have an overflow system for situations when excess water enters the tank. The overflow can be connected to the drainage system.

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2. Recharging groundwater aquifers Various kinds of recharge structures are possible which can ensure that rainwater percolates in the ground instead of draining away from the surface. While some structures promote the percolation of water through soil strata at shallower depth (e.g., recharge trenches, permeable pavements), others conduct water to greater depths from where it joins the groundwater (e.g., recharge wells). At many locations, existing features like wells, pits and tanks can be modified to be used as recharge structures, eliminating the need to construct any structures afresh. A few commonly-used recharging methods are explained here. Innumerable innovations and combinations of these methods are possible. Borewells / dugwells:. Rainwater that is collected on the rooftop of the building is diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or filtration tank, from which it flows into the recharge well (borewell or dugwell). If a borewell is used for recharging, then the casing (outer pipe) of the borewell should preferably be a slotted or perforated pipe so that more surface area is available for the water to percolate. Developing a borewell would increase its recharging capacity (developing is the process where water or air is forced into the well under pressure to loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make it more permeable).

If a dugwell is used for recharge, the well lining should have openings (weepholes) at regular intervals to allow seepage of water through the sides. Dugwells should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and entry of leaves and debris. The bottom of recharge dugwells should be desilted annually to maintain the intake capacity.

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Precautions should be taken to ensure that physical matter in the runoff like silt and floating debris do not enter the well since it may cause clogging of the recharge structure. It is preferred that the dugwell or borewell used for recharging be shallower than the water table. This ensures that the water recharged through the well has a sufficient thickness of soil medium through which it has to pass before it joins the groundwater. Any old well which has become defunct can be used for recharging, since the depth of such wells is above the water level. Recharge pits (Recharge well) A recharge pit is a pit 1.5 m to 3 m wide and 2 m to 3 m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a brick/stone wall with openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals. The top area of the pit can be covered with a perforated cover.The method for designing a recharge pit is similar to that for a settlement tank. Soakaways (Percolation pit) A soakaway is a bored hole of up to 30 cm diameter drilled in the ground to a depth of 3 to 10m. The soakaway can be drilled with a manual auger unless hard 55

rock is found at a shallow depth. The borehole can be left unlined if a stable soil formation like clay is present. In such a case, the soakaway may be filled up with a filter media like brickbats.ln unstable formations like sand, the soakaway should be lined with a PVC or MS pipe to prevent collapse of the vertical sides. The pipe may be slotted/perforated to promote percolation through the sides.

A small sump is built at the top end of the soakaway where some amount of runoff can be retained before it infiltrates through the soakaway. Since the sump also acts like a buffer in the system, it has to be designed on the basis of expected runoff as described for settlement tanks. Recharge trenches Recharging through recharge trenches, recharge pits and soakaways is simpler compared to recharge through wells. Fewer precautions have to be taken to maintain the quality of the rainfall runoff. For these type of structures, there is no restriction on the type of catchment from which water is to be harvested, i.e., both paved and unpaved catchments can be tapped.

A recharge trench is simply a continuous trench excavated in the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulders or brickbats (see figure 3.22). A recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1 m wide and 1 m to 1.5 m deep. The length of the recharge trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected. The recharge trench should be periodically cleaned of accumulated debris to maintain the intake capacity.

In terms of recharge rates, recharge trenches are relatively less effective since the soil strata at depth of about 1.5 metres is less permeable. To enhance the recharge rate percolation pits can be provided at the bottom of the trench.

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 Permeable Surfaces

Unpaved surfaces have a greater capacity of retaining rainwater the surface. A patch of grass would retain a large proportion of rainwater falling on it, yielding only 10-15 per cent as runoff. A considerable amount of water retained on such a surface will naturally percolate in the ground. Such surface contributes to the natural recharge of groundwater. If paving of ground surfaces is unavoidable, one may l pavements which retain rainwater and allow it to percolate into ground.

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7.4 Potential of Rain water harvesting

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater endowment of that area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively harvested is called the water harvesting potential.

Water Harvesting Potential= Rainfall (mm) x Collection

Efficiency
The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over an area cannot be effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage etc. Factors like runoff coefficient and the first-flush wastage are taken into account when estimating the collection efficiency. The following is an illustrative theoretical calculation that highlights the enormous potential for rainwater harvesting. The same procedure can be applied to get the potential for any plot of land or rooftop area, using rainfall data for that area.

Consider a building with a flat terrace area of 100 sq. m. The average annual rainfall in Delhi is approximately 600 mm (24 inches). In simple terms, this means that if the terrace floor is assumed to be impermeable, and all the rain that falls on it is retained without evaporation, then, in one year, there will be rainwater on the terrace floor to a height of 600 mm.

Area of plot Height of rainfall

= 100 sq. m. (120 sq. yd.) = 0.6 m (600 mm or 24 inches)

Volume of rainfall over the plot = Area of plot x Height of rainfall = 100 sq. m. x 0.6 m = 60 cu. m. (60,000 litres) Assuming that only 60% of the total rainfall is effectively harvested, Volume of water harvested = 36,000 litres (60,000 litres x 0.6)

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7.5 The potential of Mumbai

Mumbai has an annual average rainfall of 2000 mm. However, recharge to groundwater is limited because of decreasing availability of permeable soil surfaces due to the existence of roads and buildings.

As a result of poor recharge and heavy extraction of groundwater, groundwater levels in Delhi have declined by as much as 8 metres in the past decade. Groundwater can be a sustainable source of water only if it is ensured that the amount of water withdrawn from the groundwater aquifers is compensated by recharging an equal amount of rainwater into the ground. Water harvesting provides the means to recharge the groundwater, thereby maintain the balanced situation of the resource.

Rainwater harvesting has a huge potential in Mumbai. The illustrative calculation for water harvesting potential for a single building can also be applied to the city as a whole. With an area of 437 sq. km., the rainwater harvesting potential of Mumbai comes to be about 2900 MLD annually. 437 sq kms 2394.52 MLD

Area

Annual avg .rainfall 2000 mm Potential

Present water supply = 2900 MLD Options: Storage; recycling; and recharge

The entire annual rainfall is received over a period of 27 days, 80 per cent of which falls in the period between July to September. The rainwater therefore has to be harvested during this short period.Even if we assume 70 % of the area to be developed, 50 % of it to be roofed and we collect 70 % of the water falling over it, the quantity of rainwater that can be harvested works out to 589.34 MLD. This is a sizeable quantity compared to water supply to Mumbai. It may also be reminded that the Middle Vaitarna project is for 455 MLD. 59

7.6 Cost of water harvesting

Typically, installing a water harvesting system in an building would cost between Rs 2,000 to 30,000 for buildings of about 300 sq. m. It is difficult to make an exact estimate of cost because it varies widely depending on the availability of existing structures like wells and tanks which can be modified to be used for water harvesting. The cost estimate mentioned above is for an existing building. The costs would be comparatively less if the system were incorporated during the construction of the building itself. Some basic rates of construction activities and materials have been given here, which may be helpful in calculating the total cost of a structure. The list is not comprehensive and contains only important activities meant to provide a rough estimate of the cost (see table 3.2 on p18).

Approximate Costs of common items or work in water harvesting Item Excavation in soils Excavation in rock Brickwork with cement mortar Plain cement concrete (1:3:6) Reinforced cement concrete (1:2:4) PVC piping for rainwater pipes 110mm diameter 200mm diameter 165.00 275.00 Metre Metre Rate 90.00 150.00 1400.00 1500.00 4700.00 Unit Cu.m. Cu.m. Cu.m. Cu.m. Cu.m.

Making borehole in soft soil

180.00

Metre

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WASTE WATER RECYCLING

Augmentation of water utility in Urban Areas Water is a scarce resource and due to its limited supply, the population of urban areas remains always in the grip of water shortage. At present, the quality of water used for watering the garden, washing the clothes and flushing the toilets is the same quality as the water we take for drinking purpose. At least, we can flush toilets by recycling the waste water in a house. With the application of new technology i.e. recycling of waste water, about 33% of urban water can be saved / reutilized. The Government can solve this problem to great extent by making the recycling of waste water as compulsory by way of amending the Building Bye laws enforceable by Town and Country Planning Department, Civic Bodies and Urban Development Authorities. Types of Waste Water Produced in the Houses Every house in urban areas produces two types of waste water i.e. Grey Water Black Water The waste water which is produced from baths, showers, clothes washers, and wash-hand basins is termed as grey water whereas the waste water generated from toilets is called black water. Waste water produced from the kitchen sinks and dish-washers is also called black water due to their higher organic contents. The grey water is considered of lesser quality than potable water, but at the same time it is considered of higher quality than black water. The Nature of Water Recommended for Recycling The present society, through traditional practice, flushes toilets through potable high quality water i.e. the water which is being used for drinking purpose. Whereas, toilets can be flushed with waste water i.e. grey water generated from baths, showers, cloth washers and wash hand basins by recycling the same through a system. In this way, Government can save 33 % of total water supply or it can be termed as augmentation of water supply by 33 % without 61

spending any money on additional infrastructure as this proposition is by making provision of this system in the Building Bye Laws which are enforceable through Town and Country Planning Department, Civic Bodies and Urban Development Authorities. Mechanism of Waste Water Recycling For the recycling of waste water / grey water, the house owner has to construct a separate waste water (grey Water) Tank below the ground level. All waste water of the house would get collected in this tank through waste water pipes. From this tank, waste water is again uplifted to a separate waste water tank placed on the terrace of a house which would supply water regularly for flushing the toilets constructed underneath of the said tank placed on the terrace. This mechanism evolved very minor changes of plumbing works. As per traditional technology, the waste water pipes are connected with the sewerage pipes at various levels. In the present case, instead of connecting waste water with the sewerage line of the house, such lines are connected with the tank constructed below ground level. This system will not create any problem and financial burden on those persons who want to construct new houses. In old houses, some changes are required in plumbing works only. Since, there is no problem for enforcing this technology in new houses to be constructed on vacant plots; therefore, Govt. should enforce this technology by making amendments in the Building Bye Laws so that coming generation could be benefited from this system. This system will also lower down the required capacity of water supply and sewerage net works of the Government.

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WATER LITERACY CAMPAINGS

The Government of various states need to undertake water literacy campaigns. In these campaigns the government needs to educate the masses about the importance of water and the need to conserve it. There is also need a need to promote the agencies conducting water literacy campaigns, such as Eureka Forbes have built a garden named Euro Enviro Park. The map of which is as follows:

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This garden is based on the concept of various water conservation techniques, and demonstrates how water can be harvested, recycled, recharged etc.

Eureka Forbes has also undertaken awareness campaigns in schools by way of presentations and pamphlets etc. Such campaigns should be motivated to inculcate the habit of water conservation from childhood.

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RECOMMENDED ACTION PLAN

There is no quick fix solution to the water problems of India. A phased plan of action is called for. We propose some short term, medium term and long term actions.

Short term: 1) Awareness campaigns to improve Water Literacy in order to economize on water use. Government organizations at various levels especially at grass root levels, NGOs, educational institutions, mass media as well as the corporate sector must make all out efforts to make people water literate. 2) The use of modern technology to reach out to the entire community through the establishment of appropriate information systems. 3) Popularisation of available location specific and cost effective solutions supported by adequate training programmes. NGOs are already performing invaluable work in this regard. They need to be accepted, acknowledged and motivated to continue with the good work. 4) Encouragement to innovators and creating suitable mechanisms to make their ideas operational on wider basis. Corporate giants NDTV in collaboration with India Innovation Foundation, Ahmedabad have already begun this process.

Medium Term: 1. Make it mandatory and time bound for state governments to outline state level water policies. 2. Adaptation of applicable water management techniques from other countries Waster water recycling-Israel Rain water harvesting- Singapore, Tokyo

3. Rain water harvesting in various forms is the answer to making all regions self sufficient in regard to at least drinking water 65

4. Decentralization of water management institutions which will help in greater involvement of stakeholders and increase their accountability. 5. Initiative for establishment for an unbiased judicial setup to resolve water related conflicts

Long term: 1. Give an even greater thrust to the ongoing population moderating programs. 2. Focus on Sustainable development that takes into account all the social ,political ,cultural financial implications of any project before implementation 3. In the long term, Application of the 6 R Principle i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle, recharge and restore Reduce: through application of suitable water conservation techniques Reuse: Reuse household and industrial water for all non-potable purposes. Recycle: Optimize the use of treated wastewater. Recharge: Stabilize groundwater levels through all possible means. Revive: Initiate efforts to adapt traditional systems to meet current needs Rain harvest: This is the technique used world over i.e. catch every drop where it falls

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SOME TIPS FOR WATER CONSERVATION

You need not be an environmental activist to contribute your bit to guard the blue gold. Here are a few small tips that can help : Close the tap well after use. While brushing your teeth do not leave the tap running, open it only when you require it. See that there are no leaking taps. Leaking of one tap by another will fill one bucket during the night . Fix all the leaking taps at once and close any tap you find open, even though it might be a roadside one. Do not leave the taps running while washing dishes and clothes. Water in which the vegetables and fruits have been washed can be used to water the flowers and ornamental potted plants. At the end of the day if you have water left in your water bottle do not throw it away , pour it over some plants. When washing dishes by hand do not let the water run while rinsing. Fill one sink with wash water and the other with rinse water. Never put water down the drain when there be another use for it such as watering a plant or garden or cleaning. Run your washing machine and dishwasher only when they are full and you could save 4500 litres a month. Wash your produce in the sink or a pan that is partially full with ware instead of running water from a tap. When you clean your fish tank, use the water you have drained on your plants. The water is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, providing you with a free and effective fertilizer .

Collect and use rainwater for watering your garden. Dont let water run while shaving or washing your face . 67

Brush your teeth first while waiting for water to get hot , then wash or shave after filling the basin . You waste up to 7 litres of water when you leave the tap open to brush your teeth. Use a mug or a tumbler to shave , brush or wash your face . You use up to 50-100 litres of water every time you wash your car. Avoid doing so everyday .Give your car a sponge bath and if possible use a bucket instead of a hose pipe to wash the vehicle.

Teach your children to turn the faucets off tightly after each use. Do not water your lawns on windy days. Use a watering can to water the plants. Reuse the water you use to wash the vegetable in. Bathe your young children together. Direct downspouts or gutters towards shrubs or trees. Create an awareness of the need for water conservation among your children. Toilets require seven- ten litres of water for flushing every time. Use flushing systems that allow you to control the amount of water you flush. Take a bucket bath instead of a shower bath. As much as 25 litres of water, the amount equivalent to letting a shower run for only 2.5 minutes, assuming a flow rate of 10 litres a minute, might be all the water that a whole family may need in a day.

Avoid the purchase of recreational water toys, which require a constant stream of water. There are a number of ways to save water, and they all start and end with you. WaterUse it wisely. Plant a tree. Trees help conserve water. Use recycled stationary. Consume less paper. Paper is made from felled trees. Be aware and care for the environment. The problem is ours and not somebody elses.

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CONCLUSION
As we know Water is the quintessential natural resource, a basic human need and management of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives. Ecological concern is not merely an environmental concern but also calls for prudent use of water resources.

Planning and implementation of water resources projects involve a number of socio- economic aspects and issues such as environmental sustainability, appropriate resettlement and rehabilitation of project affected people (PAP) and livestock, public health concerns of water impoundment, dam safety etc.

Economic development has posed certain challenges for the planners and administrators, associated with the allocation and distribution of water resources.

This project helps in understanding the gravity of the problems, the realities and consequences on the present and future generations is a well recognized fact which calls for rational utilization of water resources.

We must also never forget that

WE HAVE NOT INHERITED THIS EARTH FROM OUR FOREFATHERS, BUT MERELY BORROWED IT FROM OUR CHILDREN. SO WE MUST PROTECT IT AND PRESERVE IT
Self help is best help. People can manage their own water in the best possible way. So, we must realize this, and make water which is an integral part of our life, Each and Everyones Business

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GLOSSARY

BCM: Billion Cubic Meters URGD: Urban/Rural Growth Difference MLD: Million Liters per Day MBR: Master Balancing Resservoir DJB: Delhi Jal Board MGD: Million Gallons per Day CMWSSB: Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply Board PVC: Polyinylchloride GI: Galvanized Iron

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References Books: 3inetwork (2006): India Infrastructure Report 2006, Oxford University Press Bmc (2006): Mumbais Water, Published On The Occasion Of World Water Day 22nd March 2006 Dr. C. Ramachandraiah: Urban Water Supply And Inequality In India, Abstract Ramakrishna Nallathiga (2003): Mumbais Water Resources: The Need For Reforms In Their Management, Paper Being Presented In The National Conference On Advances In Environmental Science And Engineering. Centre For Science And Environment (2003): A Water Harvesting Manual, Published By Centre For Science And Environment Centre For Science And Environment (2005): A Wastewater Recycling Manual, Published By Centre For Science And Environment B. Arunachalam (2006): Urban Water Supply Of Birhan Mumbai Problems And Prospects Centre For Science And Environment (2001), Making Water Our Business, Published By Centre For Science And Environment P. C. Bansil (2004), Water Management In India, Published By Ashok Kumar Mittal Concept Publishing Company K. Nageswara Rao (2006), Water Resources Management Realities And Challenges, Published By New Century Publication)

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Periodicals: Shalini Dagar: Business Today, July 30, 2006, Running Out Of Water. TERRA-GREEN (JULY-SEP2006)

All Relevant Data From Centre For Science And Environment: Down To Earth 2001, 2002, 2006 A Sameeksha Trust Publication: Economic And Political Weekly 2003, 2006

WEBSITES 1. WWW.DOWNTOEARTH.ORG 2. WWW.EPW.ORG.IN 3. WWW.RAINWATERHARVESTING.ORG 4. WWW.GOOGLE.CO.IN 5. WWW.CSEINDIA.ORG 6. WWW.CGWB.GOV.IN

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Ready Reckonar

Answers to some of the general question of Mumbaikars

Where to apply for a new water connection? A standard application has to be made addressed to the Assistant Engineer (Water Works) of the concerned ward. The application form is available at all ward offices.

Which documents are required to be submitted with the application? Depending upon the type of connection the following documents have to be submitted along with the application a) Water connection to Land Under Construction b) Water connection for labor drinking purposes on construction site c) Water connection on humanitarian grounds d) Water connection for premises having Occupation Certificate e) Water connection to the structure prior to pre-merger structures f) Stand Post water connection for slums g) Water connection for commercial purpose.

Where does one complain about water contamination, insufficient supply, leakages etc? The Assistant Engineer (Water Works) of the concerned ward will register water contamination complaints. Such complaints can also be registered on the Central Complaint Registration System that can be accesses toll free on the short code 1916, round the clock. In case of contaminated water supply over a large area, Water Supply Control Rooms can also be contacted on the following numbers. i) City Control 23678109 / 23695835 ii) Western Suburb Control 26146852 / 26184173 iii) Eastern Suburb Control 25153272 / 25153258

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