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ACADEMIC PAPER

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Received September 2007 Revised January 2008 Accepted May 2008

Consumer responses to incomplete information in print apparel advertising


Jane Lu Hsu and Roxy Hsien-Chen Mo
Department of Marketing, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
Abstract
Purpose This paper aims to examine how consumers perceive incomplete information in print apparel advertisements in magazines and whether incomplete information inuences decisions. Design/methodology/approach A total of 239 examples of print apparel advertisements in fashion magazines were collected in 2006. Content analysis was utilised to code the types of information in print apparel advertisements prior to the design of the questionnaire in the consumer survey. In the questionnaire, attitudes toward incomplete information in print apparel advertisements, information search, involvement, purchasing intentions, and demographics were included. A consumer survey was administered in Taiwan using stratied sampling. The total number of completed, usable questionnaires returned was 304. Findings Consumers who thought missing information in print apparel advertising to be important tended to nd missing information from other sources like media, word-of-mouth, salespersons, and in stores. Information search behaviour positively inuenced purchasing intentions. Consumers with higher levels of involvement tended to pay more attention to missing information and were more likely to search information. Research limitations/implications Print apparel advertisements are presented not only in magazines, but on outdoor billboards, in catalogues, on the internet, in newspapers, and in buses. The restrictions of readers of fashion magazines as respondents in the study could limit the applicability of research ndings of the study to attitudes toward incomplete information in print apparel advertisements of fashion magazine readers. Practical implications Print apparel advertisements are not a major source for consumers to obtain comprehensive fashion information. Simplied but clear design of print apparel advertising is acceptable for consumers who are prone to ignore missing information. Those who tend to notice missing information in print apparel advertisements would investigate other sources to obtain information for purchase decisions. Print apparel advertisements showing fashion clothing and brand names only are easy for browsing. The attractiveness of print apparel advertising design seems to be more important than detailed information included in advertisements. Originality/value The contribution of the study is to reveal attitudes toward incomplete information in print apparel advertising. The results of the study could be benecial for apparel advertisers and could be valuable for marketers to realise the types of information consumers prefer while searching though the medium of fashion magazines. Keywords Fashion, Clothing, Advertising, Individual perception, Decision making Paper type Research paper

Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management Vol. 13 No. 1, 2009 pp. 66-78 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1361-2026 DOI 10.1108/13612020910939888

This research was supported by Grant (NSC 95-2416-H-005-018) from National Science Council in Taiwan.

Introduction Information in print advertising cannot be successfully disseminated to reach target customers if not being viewed. Potential benets of advertising information to marketers and consumers can be accrued under a condition that consumers notice, process, and comprehend advertising information (Franke et al., 2004). The attractiveness of print advertising is essential to draw attention from readers. Hence, the design of print advertising is bound to illustrate key features of the products or services. Wells et al.. (2006) reported that readers found reading print advertisements more exible than watching television or listening to the radio due to the fact that readers could stop and reread, read sections out of order, or move through print advertisements at their own speed as well as focusing on particular print advertisements. Print apparel advertisements in magazines emphasise apparel design rather than describing product details, and are often incomplete. If the purpose of print apparel advertising is to distribute information of stylish fashion clothes, how are marketers or advertisers sure the readers of print apparel advertising have obtained enough information from the advertisements? If readers of print apparel advertisements need further information, are they able to obtain from other sources? Mitra et al. (1999) stated information search behaviour was a common method implemented to reduce the perceived risk of consumers. Due to time or budget constraint, consumers cannot possibly obtain comprehensive information prior to purchases. Missing information has certain impact on decision, but how do consumers judge relative importance of missing information? Would consumers infer missing information based on personal experiences or search missing information from various sources? Is there certain information indispensable when making decisions? Information in advertising is fragmented due to limited space or time advertisements can be presented. Consumers attitudes toward incomplete information and how incomplete information affects purchasing intentions has not been discussed exclusively in the literature on the subject of print apparel advertising. Oh (2005) described various affective reactions to print apparel advertisements, but did not state whether certain items of information would be necessary for readers. Do consumers need more information than that provided in print apparel advertisements when making their decisions? Hence, the objectives of this study were to examine how consumers perceive missing information of print apparel advertisements in fashion magazines and further to reveal how missing information affects these decisions. Literature review Effect of incomplete information Estelami (2003) pointed out price communication strategies could be used in display to reduce consumer perceived cost and to increase perceived value as well as willingness to buy. However, Romani (2006) found that when price information is communicated using misleading gures, such as exaggerated external reference prices, untruthful or unclear selling prices, or incomplete fragmented prices, consumers would distrust the source of information. Riquelme and Kegeng (2004) stated the presence of information bias in the online environment inuenced how consumers interpreted information and ultimately decisions. Smith and Bush (2002) aimed at the incomplete information of service

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consumption, including information availability and difculty of interpretation, to develop an effective communication guideline in various purchasing situations for service providers. Implications for marketers were that information needed to be carefully considered to be or not to be included in labelling or advertising in strategic marketing. Meyer (1981) indicated that a missing value could be a source of risk, because the actual value might be unattractive. Accordingly, consumers with higher need for cognition were less vulnerable to inuences of missing information upon considering attribute importance prior to decisions (Kivetz and Simonson, 2000). Information search An information search is an essential phase in the process of decision-making. Past research had stressed two ways consumers reacted when they confronted missing attributes, either by inferring the value of a missing attribute or searching the missing information (Meyer, 1982). Meyer (1981) proposed missing information as a source of uncertainty and consumers always tended to increase certainty through information handling as a most common risk reduction strategy (Cox, 1967). Hence, risk could be reduced when information was less incomplete. Based on the ndings in the literature, this study was undertaken to examine whether consumers attitudes toward incomplete information inuence the information search behaviour. The hypothesis is stated as follows: H1. Attitudes toward incomplete information positively inuence information search behaviour. Internal or external search is utilised to seek relevant information from various sources. An internal search refers to obtaining information stored in memory, and external search indicates seeking information elsewhere, for example in-store displays, sales personnel, advertisements, peers, and family members (Bettman, 1979; Blackwell et al., 2001). Mitra et al. (1999) stated that different information needs would be generated for varying degrees of future purchase intentions. Based on the ndings in the literature, this study proposed that information search behaviour positively inuences consumers purchasing intentions in the following hypothesis. H2. Information search positively inuences purchasing intentions. Consumer involvement Involvement was dened by Zaichkowsky (1985) as a persons perceived relevance of the object based on inherent needs, values, and interests (p.342). Certain information could be relevant for one consumer but irrelevant for another, as individuals differed in how they processed information and what information they processed (Sternthal and Craig, 1982; Rowley, 2000). Beatty and Smith (1987) found involvement motivated consumers in information search activities, which was positively associated with total search efforts across product categories. Based on the relevant literature of information search and involvement, the hypothesis is stated as follows: H3. Consumers involvement positively inuences the degree of information search.

Celsi and Olson (1988) found that when involvement was increased, consumers paid attention to advertisements related to the products as well as relevant information. Involvement could be considered as an interest in products, and involvement affected consumer behaviour on an enduring basis and varied across individuals (Bloch, 1981), inuencing both attitudes and behaviours (Slama and Tashchian, 1985). Based on the ndings in the literature, this study proposed that involvement positive inuences attitudes toward incomplete information in the following hypothesis. H4. Consumers involvement positively inuences attitude toward incomplete information. This study was undertaken to reveal how consumers attitudes toward incomplete information affecting information search and further inuencing purchasing intentions. Involvement was considered in the study to examine the inuences on consumers attitudes toward incomplete information and on information search. The conceptual framework of the study includes dimensions of attitudes toward incomplete information, information search, involvement, and purchasing intentions (Figure 1). Methodology The researchers collected more than 200 real print apparel advertisements from mens and womens magazines, including ve different fashion magazines for men and another ve for women, from January to December 2006. A total of 115 advertisements were selected from mens fashion magazines, including GQ, Bang, Esquire, Mens Uno, and Man Style. Another 130 advertisements were chosen from womens fashion magazines, including ef, Ray, Sugar, Bazaar, and Cosmopolitan. Repeated advertisements were eliminated from the data set of collected advertisements. Content analysis was applied to code collected advertisements, measuring relative frequencies of appearance for certain categorised information. Content analysis is a procedure for classifying qualitative information into numerical data amenable to quantitative manipulation. In this study, coding was used for the purpose of quantifying information types. The procedure is a multi-step process that requires developing categories for coding thematic content, training coders, coding the categorical data, and statistically analysing the coded data (Kassarjian 1977; Pollay, 1983; Schneider et al. 1992). Two trained bilingual coders coded at the same time. For each attribute, a zero/one coding procedure was used. Zero indicated the advertisements had not shown such attributes, and one meant the attributes were included in advertisements. In cases disagreement occurred between coders in coding a print apparel advertisement, further

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Figure 1. Conceptual framework

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discussions with professionals were taken to help categorise the information contained in advertisements into appropriate category. Ten major types of information were classied using collected print apparel advertisements, including brand, price, retail locations, presentation of products, materials, country-of-origin, endorsers, promotion, product style, and brand history. In the questionnaire, these ten major types of information were listed for respondents to identify the types of information they preferred to see in print apparel advertising and to evaluate the importance of each type of information when making decisions. Data collection The researchers used personal interviews to conduct survey in Taipei, Taiwan, in January 2007. Stratied sampling was applied following the age distributions of the population between the ages of 16 to 35, as published in the latest census. Qualied respondents were those who had read fashion magazines at least once in the last six months and purchased clothing by themselves prior to the survey. The total number of valid responses was 304. Findings Attitudes toward incomplete information and information search Scores generated from ten statements in the questionnaire related to attitudes toward incomplete information were factorised into two dimensions, missing information and designed information (Table I). Two factors were considered to be appropriate to

Items I think the information in print apparel advertising is incomplete I think some information is hidden in print apparel advertising I think the information in print apparel advertising is insufcient to represent the product line I think the information in print apparel advertising is over-simplied I think the information in print apparel advertising cannot full my need for apparel-related information I think the information in print apparel advertising could be ignored easily I think the information in print apparel advertising offers visual stimulation I think the information in print apparel advertising presents selected few clothes of a brand I think the information in print apparel advertising is designed deliberately I think the information in print apparel advertising conveys ideologies Variance explained Cronbachs a Note: Cumulative variance explained is 73%

Missing information 0.7265 0.6466 0.5795 0.5536 0.5170 0.3802

Designed information

0.8014 0.5825 0.5196 0.38 0.77 0.3811 0.35 0.70

Table I. Factors of attitudes toward incomplete information

explain respondents attitudes toward incomplete information based on the results of scree plots and eigenvalues. Maximum likelihood method with varimax rotation was applied in the factor analysis. None of the original statements developed in the questionnaire was deleted in factorising attitudes toward incomplete information. The reliability coefcient, Cronbachs alpha, was utilised to measure the internal consistency of the dimensions. The value of Cronbachs alpha coefcient of each dimension was above 0.7, indicating acceptable reliability on dimensions of attitudes toward incomplete information in this study. A total of 25 statements of information search for apparel products were listed in the questionnaire. Factor analysis was used to extract underlying dimensions of information search behaviour using maximum likelihood method with varimax rotation. Items with loadings less than 0.3 were excluded from the analysis, and the remaining statements were re-analysed to generate factors. Apparel-related information search behaviour could be expressed in dimensions of media, word-of-mouth, salespersons, and in stores (Table II). Cronbachs alpha coefcients were above 0.7, except for the dimension of in-store information. Results of the factor analysis for information search behaviour reected the reality that consumers seek product information prior to decisions from various channels. In information search factors, sources like media accounted the most variance explained, followed by word-of-mouth and salespersons. Although differences of variance explained in rst three factors were not large, the rst factor, media, could be considered as one of major sources for clothing purchases. Furthermore, in the factor of media, the rst item is related to clothing information in newspapers/magazines, indicating print apparel advertisements are presented in a medium commonly used by consumers to obtain apparel-related information. Different attitudes toward incomplete information Cluster analysis was utilised in this study to segment respondents into nd missing information cluster and ignore missing information cluster in order to examine how dimensions of attitudes toward incomplete information, information search behaviour, and consumers involvement inuenced purchasing intentions. Factors of attitudes toward incomplete information (missing information, and designed information) and information search (media, WOM, salespersons, and in stores) were used in clustering procedure. The Cubic Clustering Criteria (CCC) of the two-cluster solution was 11.79. Since CCC was higher than recommended level of 3 and the percentage of correct clustering using cross-validation of discriminant analysis was 96.61 per cent, the two-cluster solution was considered suitable for grouping respondents. The mean values of attitudes toward incomplete information and of information search are supplied in Table III. Hypothesis H1 was tested using MANOVA F. The Wilks lambda of 0.8 was statistically signicant at 1 percent signicance level, indicating positive linkages between attitudes toward incomplete information and information search. Results of ANOVA F indicated that those who valued missing information highly tended to search from various sources in order to full the need for information, and those who tended to ignore missing information were

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Items I read newspapers or magazines for apparel information I surf online to get apparel-related information Searching apparel information online is a habit of mine I watch TV programs introducing fashion apparel information I seek apparel information on billboards or do window shopping I seek for apparel-related information in stores I ask friends or family members opinions prior to decisions My clothing purchases are inuenced by friends or family members suggestions When I purchase clothes, I like to have companions I discuss apparel-related information with friends or family members I ask trendy friends about apparel-related information I ask salespersons to help me choose clothes I ask salespersons to provide assistance prior to purchases I ask salespersons to answer my questions related to clothes I browse displayed clothing products in stores prior to purchases I purchase clothes based on prior experiences I choose clothes based on my understanding of clothes I check prices of clothes prior to purchases I compare different clothing products prior to purchases Variance explained Cronbachs a Note: Cumulative variance explained is 80%

Media 0.7034 0.6971 0.6214 0.5920 0.5764 0.3373

WOM

Salespersons

In stores

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0.7782 0.7209 0.5724 0.4781 0.4148 0.7923 0.6900 0.6318 0.6391 0.5664 0.4749 0.4317 0.24 0.78 0.23 0.76 0.20 0.76 0.3368 0.13 0.64

Table II. Factors of information search behaviour

not likely to get engaged in advanced information search behaviour (Wilks lambda 0:45, p-value 0:0001). The hypothesis H1 of this study was supported. Inuences of various types of information on decisions for respondents of different clusters are listed in Table IV. Ten information types were categorised using content analysis of collected print apparel advertisements. Respondents in general would be more inuenced by clothing prices in decisions, especially for those in the cluster of ignoring incomplete information. Endorsers and brand histories in print apparel advertisements had less inuences on decisions, irrespective of whether respondents tended to nd missing information or to ignore missing information. Slightly higher percentages of respondents in the cluster of nding incomplete information were

Ignore missing Find missing information cluster information cluster (n 178) (n 116) Cluster means Factors of attitudes toward incomplete information Missing information 0.3737 Designed information 0.5270 Wilks Lambda 0:8005, F 036:27, p-value ,0.0001 Factors of information search behavior Media WOM Salespersons In stores Wilks Lambda 0:4464, F 089:59, p-value ,0.0001 0.5605 0.6767 0.3143 0.7539 2 0.2435 2 0.3434

Consumer responses
ANOVA F 29.34 64.80 p-value , 0.0001 * , 0.0001 *

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2 0.3653 2 0.4410 2 0.2048 2 0.4913

75.50 124.79 20.17 172.71

, 0.0001 * , 0.0001 * , 0.0001 * , 0.0001 *

Note: *Indicates signicance at 0.01 level

Table III. Different attitudes toward incomplete information and information search

Inuences of different types of information in apparel ad on decisions Inuenced by brand Inuenced by price Inuenced by retail locations Inuenced by presentation Inuenced by materials Inuenced by country of origin Inuenced by endorsers Inuenced by promotion Inuenced by product style Inuenced by brand history

Find missing information cluster (n 116) (%) 60.73 71.65 32.84 48.98 54.93 21.02 8.30 39.84 59.27 16.09

Ignore missing information cluster (n 178) (%) 54.16 78.77 18.50 37.97 39.00 19.34 12.10 38.33 48.57 7.13

Chi-square test 4170.5120 6586.3427 26682.9150 11795.2829 24332.1039 416.8898 3615.5252 225.8952 10899.0440 20036.9083

p-value , .0001 * , .0001 * , .0001 * , .0001 * , .0001 * , .0001 * , .0001 * , .0001 * , .0001 * , .0001 *

Note: *Indicates signicance at 0.01 level

Table IV. Purchasing intentions of respondents in different clusters

inclined to be inuenced by information in print apparel advertisements when making decisions. The hypothesis H2 of this study was supported. Pearson correlation coefcients supplied in Table V reveal that respondents with high involvement in print apparel advertising would be more likely to search for missing information from media and WOM. Respondents who liked to discuss and compare information in print apparel advertisements used all four channels, media, WOM, salespersons, and in stores in their information search. Consequently, H3 was partially supported in this study. In general, involvement was found to be positively related to information search behaviours, especially in the case of media and WOM information.

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Involvement variables I am interested in print apparel advertising I pay attention to print apparel advertising

Media 0.2755 ,0.0001 * * * 0.3044 ,0.0001 * * * 0.3364 ,0.0001 * * * 0.2726 ,0.0001 * * * 0.3933 ,0.0001 * * * 0.2915 ,0.0001 * * *

Information search factors WOM Salespersons 0.1531 0.0086 * * * 0.1463 0.0120 * * 0.2463 ,0.0001 * * * 0.2205 0.0001 * * * 0.2077 0.0003 * * * 0.1379 0.0180 * * 0.0944 0.1061 0.0856 0.1432 0.2304 ,0.0001 * * * 0.1483 0.0109 * * 0.1613 0.0056 * * * 0.1342 0.0214 *

In stores 0.0383 0.5128 0.0556 0.3424 0.1095 0.0612 * 0.0816 0.1630 0.1654 0.0045 * * * 0.1844 0.0015 * * *

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I discuss print apparel advertising with others I am attracted by print apparel advertising I read print apparel advertising in newspapers and magazines

Table V. Pearson correlation coefcients of information search factors and involvement variables

I compare different print apparel advertising

Notes: *Indicates signicance at 0.1 level; * *indicates signicance at 0.05 level; * * *indicates signicance at 0.01 level

The mean values of involvement for respondents in different clusters are supplied in Table VI. Those who were more likely to nd incomplete information in print apparel advertisements tended to have higher levels of involvement. Test results (ANOVA F) indicated that those believed missing information would be important tended to be highly involved in print apparel advertising, and those who ignored missing information tended to have lower levels of involvement. The hypothesis H4 of this study was therefore supported.

Find missing information cluster (n 116) I am interested in print apparel advertising I pay attention to print apparel advertising I discuss print apparel advertising with others I am attracted by print apparel advertising I read print apparel advertising in newspapers and magazines I compare different print apparel advertising 2.8707 2.8621 3.0086 2.8879 3.2241 3.0345

Ignore missing information cluster (n 178) 2.6910 2.6742 2.7119 2.6854 2.9326 2.7191

ANOVA F 6.55 7.32 14.56 8.77 23.13 14.80

p-value 0.0110 * 0.0072 * * 0.0002 * * 0.0033 * * , 0.0001 * * 0.0001 * *

Table VI. Involvement in print apparel advertising by clusters

Notes: *Indicates signicance at 0.05 level; * *indicates signicance at 0.01 level

Demographical differences The demographics of respondents in clusters of nding and ignoring incomplete information are listed in Table VII. Test results indicated that respondents in these two clusters were not statistically different in demographical variables including gender, marital status, educational level, and occupation. Respondents who tended to ignore missing information in print apparel advertisements were slightly older with higher monthly personal income. The implications are that consumers who tend to nd or to ignore incomplete information in print apparel advertising are not statistically different in demographics, but in attitudes toward incomplete information, involvement in print apparel advertising and purchasing intentions. Conclusions Advertising is applied in media with information carefully selected and designed to attract audiences. Owing to limited space for print advertising to present the products or services, information is far from complete in magazine advertisements. The objectives of this study were to examine how consumers perceived missing information of print apparel advertisements in fashion magazines and further to reveal how missing information affected decisions. Based on the results of this study, respondents who believed missing information in print apparel advertising to be important tended to nd missing information from

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Find missing information cluster (n 116) Average age (years) Monthly personal income (NTD) Monthly household income (NTD) Monthly personal clothing expenditures (NTD) Gender (% of male) Marriage (% of single) Educational level (%) Junior high school Senior high school College Graduate school Occupation (%) Public/military/education Industry Business Services Housewife Students Others 23.74 22,758.62 98,363.64 3,405.22 47.41 89.66 0.00 25.86 61.21 12.93 5.36 4.46 3.57 21.43 2.68 52.68 9.82

Ignore missing information cluster (n 178) 25.20 29,774.01 100,650.89 3,508.14 50.00 88.76 0.56 15.73 66.86 16.85

Test 22.43 23.08 20.33 20.25 0.19 0.06 5.36


a a a a b b b

p-value 0.0163 * 0.0025 * * 0.7425 0.8022 0.6646 0.8105 0.1473

7.38 6.94 5.20 5.20 24.86 1.15 39.31 17.34

0.2873

Notes: *Indicates signicance at 0.05 level; * *indicates signicance at 0.01 level; a t-test statistics; b Chi-square statistics

Table VII. Demographics by clusters

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other sources including media, word-of-mouth, salespersons, and in stores. Information search behaviour positively inuenced purchasing intentions. In general, consumers who had higher levels of involvement tended to pay more attention to missing information and were more likely to search information. Consumers who had lower levels of involvement tended to ignore missing information. Missing information could be inferred by prior experiences for decisions. Marketing implications The ndings in this study provide new insights into information marketing and can be very valuable to marketers of apparel advertising. Marketing strategies based on the results of this study are suggested in the following: . For a certain segment of consumers, incomplete information in print apparel advertisements does not seem to be of major concern. The involvement levels of these consumers in print apparel advertisements are low. However, personal clothing expenditures of these consumers are not statistically lower then those of consumers who believe missing information in print apparel advertisements is important and would go further to nd missing information from other sources. Marketing implications are that print apparel advertising seems to be ne at the current way in presenting apparel products. Consumers who ignore missing information do not necessarily spend less on clothing. Consumers who tend to nd missing information always have sources to obtain information to support decisions. . Consumers who have higher levels of involvement in print apparel advertisements are the ones who enjoy reading fashion magazines and would be willing to discuss the fashion apparel information with others. Information sources for these types of consumers are various. Fashion marketing managers may need to disseminate apparel information utilising different channels so consumers who notice missing information in print apparel advertisements would obtain information easily. . Findings in this study indicate consumers can be segmented into clusters of those who care more about missing information and those who care less. Since consumers who are inclined to nd missing information from other sources are the ones who like to discuss topics in print apparel advertising, marketing managers could create ideas in print apparel advertising which could be recalled easily and might become topics is conversations. Consumers may not need much information in print apparel advertising, but the design of advertisements needs to be attractive to increase awareness of the products. The limitation of this study was that the respondents were those who read fashion magazines in the previous six months prior to the survey. Hence, ndings of this study are applicable only to readers of fashion magazines, not to all consumers making decisions about clothing purchases. Consequently, how to make other consumers who do not read fashion magazines to become readers of fashion magazine could be the challenge for marketers. Additionally, print apparel advertisements are not only presented in magazines, but offered on billboards, in catalogues, on internet, in

newspapers and in buses. The limitation of readers of fashion magazines could be restrictive in studying attitudes toward incomplete information in print apparel advertisements.
References Beatty, H. and Smith, S. (1987), External search effort: an investigation across several product categories, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 83-95. Bettman, J.R. (1979), An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice: Advances in Marketing Series, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, MA. Blackwell, R.D., Miniard, P.W. and Engel, J.F. (2001), Consumer Behavior, 9th ed., Harcourt College Publishers, Fort Worth, TX. Bloch, P. (1981), An exploration into the scaling of consumers involvement with a product class, Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 61-5. Celsi, R. and Olson, J. (1988), The role of involvement in attention and comprehension processes, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 210-24. Cox, D. (1967), Risk Taking and Information Handling in Consumer Behavior, Harvard University, Boston, MA. Estelami, H. (2003), Strategic implications of a multidimensional pricing environment, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 12 No. 5, pp. 322-34. Franke, G.R., Huhmann, B.A. and Mothersbaugh, D.L. (2004), Information content and consumer readership of print ads: a comparison of search and experience products, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 20-31. Kassarjian, H.H. (1977), Content analysis in consumer research, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 8-18. Kivetz, R. and Simonson, I. (2000), The effects of incomplete information on consumer choice, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 427-48. Meyer, R.J. (1981), A model of multiattribute judgments under attribute uncertainty and informational constraints, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 428-41. Meyer, R.J. (1982), A descriptive model of consumer information search behavior, Marketing Science, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 93-121. Mitra, K., Reiss, M.C. and Capella, L.M. (1999), An examination of perceived risk, information search and behavioral intentions in search, experience and credence services, Journal of Services Marketing., Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 208-28. Oh, H. (2005), Measuring affective reactions to print apparel advertisements: a scale development, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 283-305. Pollay, R.W. (1983), Measuring the cultural values manifest in advertising, Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 72-92. Riquelme, H. and Kegeng, W. (2004), The unintended effects of hidden assumptions: biases on the internet, Online Information Review, Vol. 28 No. 6, pp. 444-53. Romani, S. (2006), Price misleading advertising: effects on trustworthiness toward the source of information and willingness to buy, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 130-8. Rowley, J. (2000), Product search in e-shopping: a review and search propositions, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 20-35. Schneider, B., Wheeler, J.K. and Cox, J.F. (1992), A passion for service: using content analysis to explicate service climate themes, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 77 No. 5, pp. 705-16.

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Slama, M. and Tashchian, A. (1985), Selected socioeconomic and demographic characteristics associated with purchasing involvement, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49 No. 1, pp. 72-82. Smith, R. and Bush, A.J. (2002), Using the incomplete information framework to develop service provider communication guidelines, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 16 No. 6, pp. 535-52. Sternthal, B. and Craig, S. (1982), Consumer Behavior, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Wells, W., Moriarty, S. and Burnett, J. (2006), Advertising Principles and Practice, 7th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Zaichkowsky, J.L. (1985), Measuring the involvement construct, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 341-52. Corresponding author Jane Lu Hsu can be contacted at: jlu@dragon.nchu.edu.tw

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