Science

Our universe operates under certain principles. For understanding oI these principles, the experiments are done and
observations are made; on the basis oI which logical conclusions are drawn. Such a study is called "Science". In brieI
science is the knowledge based on experiments and observations.
Biology
The ScientiIic study oI living organisms is called Biology. The word biology is derived Irom two Greek words "bios"
meaning liIe and "logos" meaning thought, discourse, reasoning or study. It means that all aspects oI liIe and every
type oI living organism are discussed in biology.
Branches of Biology
Biology is divided into Iollowing branches:
Morphology
The study oI Iorm and structure oI living organisms is called morphology. It can be Iurther divided into Iollowing two
parts:
1. The study oI external parts oI living organism is called external morphology.
2. The study oI internal parts oI living organism is called internal morphology or anatomy.
istology
the study oI cells and tissues with the aid oI the microscope is called Histology.
Cell Biology
The study oI structure and Iunctions oI cells and their organelles is called Cell Biology.
Physiology
the study oI diIIerent Iunctions perIormed by diIIerent parts oI living organism is called Physiology.
Ecology
The study oI organisms in relation to each other and their environment is called Ecology or Environmental Biology.
Taxanomy
Living organisms are classiIied into groups and subgroups on the basis oI similarities and diIIerences. This is called
classiIication Taxanomy is that branch oI biology in which organisms are classiIied and given scientiIic names
Embryology
The study oI development oI an organism Irom Iertilized egg (zygote) is called embryology. The stage between zygote
and newly hatched or born baby is called embryo.
Genetics
The study oI methods and principles oI biological inheritance oI characters Irom parents to their oIIspring is called
genetics.
Paleontology
The body parts oI ancient organisms or their impressions preserved in rocks are called Iossils. The study oI Iossils is
called paleontology. It also includes the study oI origin and evolution oI organisms.
It can be divided into two parts:
1. The study oI Iossils oI plants is called Palaeobotany.
2. The study oI Iossils oI animals is called Palaeozoology.
Biochemistry
The study oI metabolic reactions taking place in living organisms is called biochemistry. These reactions may be
constructive or destructive. The assimilation oI Iood is a constructive process and respiration is a destructive process.
Biotechnology
It is the branch oI biology which deals with the practical application oI organisms and their components Ior the
welIare oI human beings e.g. disinIections and preservations oI Iood, preservations oI insulin and biogas Irom bacteria
etc.
Contributions of Muslims Scientists in the Field of Biology
Many Muslim scientists contributed a lot in the Iield oI biology but the Iollowing names are more respectable:
1abar-Bin-ayan
Period: 722-817 A.D
Books: Alnabatat and Alhaywan
Contribution: He studied the liIe oI plants and animals and wrote many books about them.
Abdul-Malik-Asmal
Period:741 A.D
Books: Al-Kheil, Al-Ibil, As-Sha, Al-Wahoosh, Khalaqul Insan.
Contributions: He described the body structure and Iunctions oI horses, camels, sheep, wild animals and human beings
in detail.
Abu-Usman-Umer Al-1ahiz
Books: Al-Haywan
Contribution: He explained the characteristics oI about 350 species oI animals. He wrote on the liIe oI aunts
especially.
Al-Farabi and Abu-ul-Qusim Al-Zahravi
Period: 870-950 A.D
Books: Al-Nabatat, Al-Haywanat
Contribution: The above mentioned books were written by Al-Farabi. On the other hand, Al-Zahravi was Iamous Ior
removal oI stone Irom urinary bladder.
Ibn-ul-aitham
Period: 965-1039 A.D
Books: Al-Manazir, Mizan-ul-Hikma
Contributions: Both oI these books were Iamous and well known at that time. These books were translated into Latin,
Hebrew, Greek and other western languages. He explained the structure and Iunctions oI eyes and suggested the
cornea as a site oI vision.
Bu-Ali Sina
Period: 980 A.D
Book: Al-Qanoon Fil Tib Al-ShiIa
Contribution: He wrote about plants, animals and non-living things in one book. He was expert in mathematics,
astronomy, physics and paleontology.
Ibn-ul-Nafees
Contribution: he described the blood circulation in the human body.
Ali Ibne Isa
Contribution: He worked on structure, Iunctions oI eye and about 130 diseases oI eyes and their treatment.
nonMusllm SclenLlsLs
1here ls long llsL of nonMusllm sclenLlsLs who conLrlbuLed a loL ln Lhe fleld of blology 8uL Lhe followlng sclenLlsLs
are very well known
Ar|stot|e
erlod 382322 Au
8ook PlsLorla Anlmalla
ConLrlbuLlon Pe classlfled Lhe anlmals and called as founder of blologlcal classlflcaLlons Pe classlfled anlmals lnLo
Lwo unlLs genus and specles whlch was called Cedos
1heophrastus
ConLrlbuLlon Pe accepLed *** ln planLs and deslred abouL 300 planLs Pe ls known as faLher of boLany
V|sa||us
erlod 13141364 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe wroLe a book on human body sLrucLure ln whlch he descrlbed bones muscles and orans ln deLall
W||||am narvey
erlod 13781637 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe descrlbed Lhe blood clrculaLlon ln human body
aro|ous L|nnaeus
erlod 13071778 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe descrlbed Lhe blood clrculaLlon ln human body
aro|ous L|nnaeus
erlod 13781637 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe gave a sysLem of blnomlal nomenclaLure Pe ls known as faLher of Laxonomy
Sch|e|den and Schwann
ConLrlbuLlon Schelden (1838) sLudled Lhe cells of planLs and Schwann (1839) sLudled Lhe cells of anlmals 1hey
proposed Lhe cell Lheory
Lou|s asteur
erlod 18221893 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe proved LhaL mlcrobes are found ln Lhe alr whlch spolls Lhe food lLems
Ldward Iennar
erlod 1796 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe lnvenLed meLhod of vacclnaLlon agalnsL Small ox
kobert koch
erlod 18431910 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe dlscovered bacLerla as causes of maln dlseases llke 1uberculosls
Ioseph L|ster
erlod 1860 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe made anLlsepLlc medlclnes llke lodlne and Carbollc acld
har|es Darw|n
erlod 1839 Au
8ook Crlgln of Specles by na
al SelecLlon
ConLrlbuLlon Pe explalned concepL of evoluLlon ln hls book
Gregor Mende|
erlod 18221884 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe conducLed experlmenLs on ea planLs Pe formulaLed Lhe laws of lnherlLance Pe ls known as faLher
of modern geneLlcs
W||||am Lawrence and W||||am nenry
erlod 1882 Au
ConLrlbuLlon 1hey dlscovered xray crysLallography Lo undersLand Lhe sLrucLure of deoxyrlbonuclelc acld (un) 1hey
were faLher and son
Iranc|s r|ck and Iames Watson
erlod 1933 Au
ConLrlbuLlon Pe dlscovered Lhe double hellx model of unA and proved LhaL unA ls found ln cells of all llvlng
organlsms

















ke|at|onsh|p of 8|o|ogy w|th other Sc|ences
ln anclenL Llmes Lhere was no dlsLlncLlon of blology and oLher sclences ulfferenL flelds of sclences llke blology
chemlsLry physlcs and maLhemaLlcs are meL LogeLher ln Lhe wrlLlngs of anclenL sclenLlsLs ln anclenL Llmes Lhese
sub[ecLs were sLudled under one head sclence buL wlLh Lhe passage of Llme Lhe sclence developed very much and
Lhe huge sclenLlflc knowledge was Lhen dlvlded lnLo dlfferenL branches
Powever even Loday Lhe lnLerrelaLlonshlp of Lhese branches cannoL be denled
8|ophys|cs
1he sLudy of varlous blologlcal phenomena accordlng Lo prlnclples of physlcs ls called blophyslcs lor example
movemenL of muscles and bones based on prlnclples of physlcs
8|ochem|stry
1he sLudy of dlfferenL blochemlcal llke carbohydraLes proLelns and nuclelc aclds eLc found ln cells of llvlng organlsms
and hundreds of Lhe underlylng chemlcal reacLlons ln cells of organlsms ls called blochemlsLry
8|ometry
1he daLa obLalned from observaLlons and experlmenLs on llvlng organlsm ls analyzed by varlous sLaLlsLlcal meLhods
1hls ls called 8lomeLry
8|o geography
1he sLudy of planLs and anlmals and Lhe basls of geographlcal dlsLrlbuLlon ls called 8logeography
8|oLconom|cs
1he sLudy of llvlng organlsms from economlc polnL of vlew ls called 8loLconomlcs lL lncludes Lhe sLudy of cosL
effecLlveness and vlablllLy of blologlcal pro[ecLs from commerclal polnL of vlew


8|o|og|ca| Method of Study or Method Used to So|ve the rob|em of Ma|ar|a
Cbservat|on
MosL of Lhe blologlcal lnvesLlgaLlons sLarL wlLh an observaLlon AfLer selecLlng speclflc blologlcal problem
observaLlons are made Lo collecL relevanL lnformaLlon lor example Lake Lhe case of Malarla Malarla ls Lhe greaLesL
klller dlsease of man for cenLurles Malarla was one among many oLher dlseases for whlch a cure was needed
ln 1878 A lrench physlclan Laveran sLudled Lhe blood sample of Malarla paLlenL under mlcroscope and observed
Llny creaLures ln lL 1hese creaLures were laLer called lasmodlum
nypothes|s
1o solve a sclenLlflc problem one or more posslble proposlLlons are made on Lhe basls of Lhe observaLlons Such a
proposlLlon ls called a PypoLhesls 1he hypoLhesls ls LesLed by sclenLlflc meLhod
Mer|ts
A good hypoLhesls has Lhe followlng merlLs
1 lL ls close Lo Lhe observed facL
2 Cne or more deducLlons can be made from Lhls
3 1hese deducLlons should be conflrmed dolng experlmenLs
4 8esulLs wheLher poslLlve or negaLlve should be reproduclble
1o know Lhe cause of malarla followlng hypoLhesls was made
P/osmodium is the couse of Mo/orio
noLe Cne or more Lhan one posslble deducLlons can be made from Lhe hypoLhesls
Deduct|on
Lhe loglcal concluslon drawn from a hypoLhesls ls called deducLlon 1esLlng one deducLlon and flndlng lL correcL
does noL necessarlly mean Lhe hypoLhesls ls correcL and sclenLlflc problem ls solved AcLually lf more deducLlons
are found Lo be correcL Lhe hypoLhesls wlll be close Lo soluLlon of Lhe problem
Lxper|ments
lollowlng groups are deslgned Lo perform experlmenLs
Lxper|menta| Group
lL ls Lhe group of Lhose people who are affecLed ln some way and we do noL know Lhe real cause eg a group of
malarlal paLlenLs
ontro| Group
lL ls Lhe group of unaffecLed people eg persons group of healLhy persons 8y keeplng boLh of Lhese groups
under slmllar condlLlons Lhe dlfference beLween Lhem ls deLermlned 1o know Lhe real cause of malarla Lhe
experLs examlned Lhe blood of abouL 100 malarlal paLlenLs (experlmenLal group) Cn Lhe oLher hand Lhe experLs
examlned Lhe blood of abouL 100 healLhy persons (conLrol group)
kesu|ts
uurlng Lhe experlmenLs menLloned above Lhe plasmodlum was found ln blood of mosL of malarlal paLlenLs 1he
plasmodlm was absenL ln Lhe blood of healLhy persons 1hese resulLs verlfled Lhe deducLlons and Lhus Lhe
hypoLhesls le Lhe plasmodlum ls Lhe cause of Malarla was proved Lo a conslderable exLenL
theory
lf hypoLhesls ls proved Lo be correcL from repeaLed experlmenLs and unlform resulLs Lhen Lhls hypoLhesls
becomes a Lheory
Sc|ent|f|c r|nc|p|e
When a Lheory ls agaln and agaln proved Lo be correcL Lhen lL ls called a sclenLlflc prlnclple


hem|ca| and Crgan|c Lvo|ut|on of L|fe on Larth
1he modern vlew of Lhe orlgln of llfe sLresses on Lhe ldea of chemlcal evoluLlon Accordlng Lo Cparln and Paldane
Lhe orlgln of flrsL llfe had been lnlLlaLed from Lhe Llme of Lhe exlsLence of Lhe solar sysLem (Lhe sun wlLh lLs nlne
planeLs) 1he earLh llke Lhe sun was made up of llghL and heavy elemenLs Peavy elemenLs llke lron nlckel eLc were
presenL ln Lhe nucleus of Lhe earLh whlle Lhe llghL elemenLs and compounds llke hydrogen meLhane nlLrogen
carbon ammonla nlLrogen oxlde eLc ln Lhe form of vapours exlsLed on Lhe surface of Lhe earLh 1hese llghL
elemenLs and compounds were responslble for Lhe flrsL llfe on earLh
1he earLh had hlgh LemperaLure and radlaLlon and had frequenL and abundanL dlscharges ln Lhese condlLlons Lhe
flrsL llfe orlglnaLed Cparln and Paldane suggesLed LhaL slmple lnorganlc molecules slowly and gradually comblned Lo
produce complex organlc molecules from whlch Lhe slmplesL form of llfe (bacLerla) came lnLo exlsLence 1hls process
Look a long Llme
Paldane proposed LhaL prlmlLlve earLhs aLmosphere had only carbon dloxlde ammonla and waLer vapours lf a
mlxLure of Lhese gases ls exposed Lo ulLravloleL radlaLlon lL leads Lo Lhe formaLlon of organlc compounds llke sugar
and amlno aclds As free oxygen was noL avallable Lo check Lhe radlaLlon from reachlng Lhe earLh so subsLances llke
sugar and amlno aclds wenL on accumulaLlng under such condlLlons
AbouL 13 bllllon years ago Lhere was a huge exploslon (8lg 8ag) 1he unlverse sLarLed expandlng and Lhe
LemperaLure dropped drasLlcally ln Llme abouL 46 bllllon years ago our earLh and oLher planeLs appeared as parL of
Lhe solar sysLem 1he prlmlLlve aLmosphere of Lhe earLh was rlch ln hydrogen
WlLh Lhe passage of Llme Lhe aLmospherlc LemperaLure gradually dropped 1hls allowed condensaLlon and heavy
ralns whlch caused formaLlon of oceans 1hunder and llghLnlng sparks LogeLher wlLh ulLravloleL radlaLlon caused
reacLlons of Lhe aLmospherlc gases resulLlng ln Lhe formaLlon of slmple organlc molecules 1hese molecules came
down wlLh Lhe ralns and accumulaLed ln Lhe seas oceans lakes rlvers and Lhe soll over a very long perlod of Llme
1hese molecules lnLeracLed and produced amlno aclds and proLelns whlch are Lhe body bulldlng subsLances
1he fossll evldence lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe earllesL forms of organlsms llved abouL 38 bllllon years ago lrom Lhls lL ls
speculaLed LhaL Lhe orlgln of llfe sLarLed abouL 4 bllllon years ago
1he earllesL organlsms were heLeroLrophs 1he depleLlon of Lhe preexlsLed food from Lhe envlronmenL led Lo Lhe
evoluLlon of organlsms capable of maklng Lhelr own food 1hey became auLoLrophs and added free oxygen lnLo Lhe
aLmosphere
lor aL leasL Lhe flrsL 2 bllllon years of llfe on earLh all organlsms were bacLerla AbouL 13 bllllons years ago Lhe flrsL
eukaryoLes appeared
1he ldea of organlc evoluLlon was supporLed by sclenLlsLs llke Lamarck and Charles uarwln
Sc|ent|f|c V|ews About Cr|g|n of L|fe
Pow dld llfe orlglnaLe on Lhls earLh? 1hls may never be know for cerLaln Lo sclence because nelLher lL ls posslble
Loday Lo make observaLlon of prlmlLlve evenLs when Lhe llfe acLually orlglnaLed nor Lhere ls any fossll record of flrsL
formed sofL bodled organlsms Powever ln 1930 some sclenLlsLs creaLed Lhe prlmlLlve earLh condlLlon
(approxlmaLely 4 bllllon years ago) ln Lhe laboraLory and performed experlmenLs Cn Lhe basls of resulLs obLalned
from Lhese experlmenLs sclenLlsLs formulaLed some ldeas 1hese ldeas seem Lo be close Lo reallLy
Ab|ogenes|s and 8|ogenes|s
ln anclenL Llmes Lhere were Lwo vlews abouL Lhe orlgln of llfe
1 Accordlng Lo one vlew offsprlng are produced from Lhelr parenLs by process of reproducLlon Lhls ls called
concepL of 8logenesls
2 Accordlng Lo oLher vlew llvlng Lhlngs are produced sponLaneously from nonllvlng Lhlngs 1hls ls called
concepL of Ablogenesls
8ecause aL LhaL Llme Lhere was nelLher so much advancemenL ln sclence nor sclenLlflc Lools llke mlcroscope and
oLher lnsLrumenLs were lnvenLed whlch could help ln deLalled observaLlons abouL reallLy Accordlng Lo some people
lnsecLs are produced from dewdrops raLs from debrls frogs from mud and maggoLs from puLrefled meaL Some
sclenLlsLs llke Copernleus 8acon Callleo Parvey and uescarLes also belleved Lhls concepL
lrom 16Lh Lo 18Lh cenLury many sclenLlsLs performed experlmenLs Lo LesL Lhls concepL 1hey found some anlmals Lo
be developed from non llvlng maLLer 1herefore Lhls concepL seemed Lo be correcL

ked|s Lxper|ment
8edl Look four boLLles Pe puL a dead snake ln one boLLle a few dead flsh ln second boLLle dead eel ln Lhlrd boLLle
and a plece of meaL ln Lhe fourLh boLLle All Lhese boLLles were lefL open 1he flles could enLer Lhese boLLles 1hen he
Look four more such boLLles Pe puL some dead anlmals ln all four boLLles buL covered Lhe mouLh of boLLles
(llgure from book)
AfLer few days maggoLs were produced ln four open boLLles MaggoLs were noL produced ln closed boLLles
Moreover no flles were seen 1herefore lL was proved LhaL maggoLs were noL produced sponLaneously by produced
due Lo flled whlch were vlslLlng Lhe open boLLles 1he maggoLs were Lhe larvae produced from Lhe eggs of Lhe
vlslLlng flles
Needhams Lxper|ment
ln 1948 an Lngllsh sclenLlsL needham bolled Lhe meaL ln Lhe waLer and prepared gravy Pe poured Lhls gravy lnLo
Lhe boLLles and closes Lhelr mouLh wlLh corks AfLer some days many mlcroscoplc organlsms were produced ln Lhls
way Lhe bellevers of ablogenesls were once agaln galn courage (llgure from book)
Lxper|ment of Spa||anzan|
ln 1767 an lLallan sclenLlsLs Spallanzanl crlLlclzed Lhe experlmenL of needham Pe sald LhaL alr enLered Lhe boLLles
Lhrough Lhe pores of cork and hence llvlng organlsms were produced
(llgure from 8ook)
Spallanzanl puL Lhe bolled meaL and vegeLables ln clean boLLles and Lhen sealed Lhe mouLh of boLLles by heaL Pe
placed Lhese sealed boLLles ln bolled waLer Lo klll Lhe posslble germs AfLer some days he found no organlsms Pe
lefL Lhe same bolled meaL and vegeLables ln open boLLles aL Lhe same Llme Some llvlng organlsms were produced ln
Lhese boLLles 1hls supporLd Lhe concepL of 8logenesls 8uL Lhe bellevers of Ablogenesls sald LhaL alr removed by
Spallanzanl was necessary for llvlng Lhlngs so no organlsms were produced ln sealed boLLles When oxygen was
dlscovered Lhe supporLers of Ablogenesls sald LhaL Spallanzanl had removed oxygen where by no llfe could be
produced ln hls experlmenL
Lxper|ment of Lou|s asteur
1he argumenL on 8logenesls and Ablogenesls conLlnued up Lo Lhe mlddle of 19Lh cenLury A wellknown lrench
sclenLlsL Louls asLeur proved afLer slmple buL very careful experlmenLs LhaL ablogenesls could noL occur ln
presenL envlronmenL of earLh Pe proved LhaL llvlng organlsms could only be produced from Lhelr parenLs
ln 1864 asLeur performed hls experlmenL ln fronL of Lhe commlsslon formed Lo solve Lhe lssue Pe Look flasks
whlch had long curved Sshaped necks Pe placed fermenLable lnfuslon (?easL + sugar + waLer) ln flasks and lefL Lhelr
mouLh open
(llgure from 8ook)
Pe bolled Lhe yeasL lnfuslon ln Lhe flasks AfLer Lhls he allowed Lo cool Lhem and kepL Lhem as such Pe observed
LhaL no llfe ws produced even afLer Lhe lapse of several days because mlcroscoplc organlsms enLerlng along wlLh alr
goL sLuck up ln on Lhe curved walls of Lhe glass necks 1hen he broke up Lhe curved necks so LhaL alr conLalnlng
mlcroscoplc organlsms could reach Lhe lnfuslon now he noLed LhaL mlcroscoplc organlsms were produced wlLhln 48
hours 1hls proved LhaL lf care was Laken and no mlcroscoplc organlsms and reproducLlve sLrucLures (eggs or spores)
approach Lhe lnfuslon no llfe could be produced because Lhee ls no sponLaneous generaLlon of llfe from non llfe
AfLer asLeur no furLher experlmenLs were performed on orlgln of llfe for Lhe nexL 60 years ln 1920 a 8usslan
blochemlsL Alexander Cparln and a 8rlLlsh blologlsL !8S 1laldane suggesLed LhaL llfe on earLh was orlglnaLed afLer a
long and gradual molecular evoluLlon and Lhere was no sponLaneous and mlraculous orlgln of llfe on earLh

ifferentiate between Biogenesis and Abiogenesis

Biogenesis
O A theory which describes the origin oI liIe on the earth Irom pre-existing living organisms is called
Biogenesis.
O It was based on practical experiments and material evidence.
O It was supported by the experiments perIormed by Redi and Pasteur.
O It was based on practical basis.
O It describes the process oI reproduction as an essential ability oI living organisms.
Abiogenesis
O A theory which describes the origin oI liIe on the earth Irom non living things is called Abiogenesis.
O It was based on observations and national thoughts.
O It was supported by the Iungus oI bread: and production oI Irogs in the mud.
O It was based on theoretical basis.
O It gives no scientiIic reasoning about the production oI liIe.
ifferentiate between ypothesis and Theory

ypothesis
O The process oI making some possible answers Ior the related biological problem is called Hypothesis.
O It is the step oI biological methods which gives the way to carry on the research.
O Hypothesis is an uncertain intelligent statement.
O Hypothesis is Iormed Irom observations and collected Iacts.
Theory
O The Iinal explanation which is given on the basis oI hypothesis and deduction iI they are Iound correct is
called theory.
O It is the step oI biological method which gives actual reason to biological method.
O Theory is certain intelligent statement.
O Theory is Iormed by experimentation, physical evidence to explain the laws oI nature.

D|scovery of e||
ln 1663 an Lngllsh blologlsL 8oberL Pooke lnvenLed flrsL compound mlcroscope and observed Lhe secLlons of corks
and leaves under Lhls mlcroscope Pe noLlced ln Lhem small box llke chambers of same slze whlch he called cells
AfLer Lhls blologlsLs observed dlfferenL organlsms under Lhe mlcroscope 1hey found LhaL sLrucLure of cells was
complex
e|| 1heory
ln 19Lh cenLury Lhe compound mlcroscope was hlghly advanced and blologlsLs observed Lhlngs [usL a mlcromeLer
aparL AfLer Lhls a serles of dlscoverles sLarLed whlch provlded baslc lnformaLlon for cell Lheory
1 ln 1831 33 8oberL 8rown dlscovered nucleus ln cells of planLs
2 ln 1838 a Cerman boLanlsL MaLhlas Schelden observed LhaL all planLs were made up of cells
3 ln 1839 1heoclor Schwann obsrved LhaL Lhe bodles of of anlmals were made up of cells whlch were
slmllar Lo planL cells
4 1hus Schlelden and Schwann formulaLed Lhe Cell 1heory Accordlng Lo Lhls all organlsms are made up
of cells
3 ln 1840 ! urkln[l gave Lhe name roLoplasm Lo Lhe Lhlngs found lnslde Lhe cells AL LhaL Llme cell was
consldered as a bag of Lhlck dense subsLance conLalnlng a nucleusLaLer on resolvlng power and quallLy of
mlcroscopes were hlghly lmproved SecLlon cuLLlng of Llssues and cells and Lhelr sLalnlng became easler
and beLLer lL revealed LhaL cell was noL a slmple mass of granular subsLance lnsLead lL conLalned many
sub cellular bodles called Crganelles Lach organelle has a deflnlLe [ob ln Lhe cell
6 Puman ls made up of abouL 60 Lrllllon cells lrom Amoeba and unlcellular algae Lo whales and LallesL red
wood Lrees all are made up of slmllar baslc unlLs called cells All anlmals and planLs are Lhus made up of
cells and cell producLs
Sa||ent Ieatures of e|| 1heory
1 All anlmals and planLs are made up of cells and cell producLs Among Lhese some organlsms are unlcellular
and some are mulLlcellular
2 Cell ls sLrucLural and funcLlonal unlL of llvlng organlsms
3 new cells come from Lhe dlvlslons of preexlsLlng cell

L|ectron M|croscope
1hls ls Lhe mosL advanced form of mlcroscope lLs resolvlng power ls 230 Llmes or more LhaL of a compound
mlcroscope ln Lhls mlcroscope a beam of elecLrons under hlgh volLage ls passed Lhrough Lhe ob[ecL and lLs
lmage ls reflecLed on Lo a screen Lhrough an elecLro magneLlc lens Lo make a phoLograph
(ulagram)
WlLh Lhe help of mlcroscope any ob[ecL an be magnlfled up Lo 230000 lLs orlglnal slze


Comparison of Light Microscope and Electron Microscope

Light Microscope
O The radiation source is light so it is called light microscope.
O Wavelength oI light is 400 - 700 nm.
O Maximum resolution is 200 nm.
O Maximum useIul magniIication is X 1500 with eye.
O Lenses are used.
Electron Microscope
O The radiation source is beam oI electrons, so it is called Electron Microscope.
O Wavelength oI beam oI electrons is 0.005 nm.
O Maximum resolution is 0.5 nm.
O Maximum useIul magniIication is X. 250,000 on screen as image or photograph.
O Electromagnets are used

CeII Theory
Cell theory is the basis for the way that biologists study living things.
CeII Theory is the most basic condition for determining if something is living.
Modern CeII theory
t states:
1. All living things made up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
3. Living cells come only from other living cells.
Modern CeII Theory
4. The cell contains hereditary information, which passed on from cell to cell during cell
division.
5. All cells are the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities.
History of CeII Theory:
Robert Hooke (1665)
Hooke was an English scientist who looked at cork through a compound
microscope and observed tiny room-like structures that reminded him of the
"cells" that monks lived in. Therefore, these structures are known as cells.
The cork cells where not alive so he only saw the cell wall.

nton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674)
'an Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch fabric merchant but considered
himself an amateur scientist. He looked at many different things
through his microscope (teeth scapings, rainwater, blood) and
observed living cells which he called "animalcules". He wrote many
papers that were widely accepted by the scientific community, which
was unusual for a non-scholar.
Matthias SchIeiden (1838)
Schleiden was German Botanist the viewed plant parts under a
microscope and discovered that plant parts are made of cells. He is
considered to be the co-founder of cell theory together with
Schwann, with whom he consulted.


Theodor Schwann (1839)
Schwann was a German Biologist who viewed animal parts under a
microscope and discovered that animals were made up of cells. He
extended Schleiden's cell theory in plants to animals, stating that all living
things are composed of cells.
RudoIph Virchow (1855)
'irchow was a German physician that stated that all living cells come only
from other living cells. His major contribution was the idea that pathologic
reactions were reactions of cells.


















Structure of cell
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells possess the basic Ieatures oI a plasma membrane and cytoplasm. The
plasma membrane is the outermost surIace oI the cell, which separates the cell Irom the environment. The
cytoplasm is the aqueous content within the plasma membrane.
Plasma membrane : It is like any other membrane in the cell but it plays a very important Iunction. It Iorms
the border oI a cell, so it is also called the cell membrane. It is primarily composed oI proteins and
phosphalipid. The phospholipids occur in two layers reIerred to as a bilayer. Protein is embedded within the
lipid layer, or attached to the surIace oI it. The plasma membrane is elastic and very Iluid because oI protein
and lipid. Normally the Iunction oI the plasma membrane is that oI a gate-keeper. It allows certain important
substances to enter and exit the cell. Protein is embedded within the lipid layer, or attached to the surIace oI
it. The plasma membrane is elastic and very Iluid because oI protein and lipid. Normally the Iunction oI the
plasma membrane is that oI a gate-keeper. It allows certain important substances to enter and exit the cell.
Cytoplasm and organelles :
The cytoplasm is a semi-solid substance which is
present in the cell and which gives structure, size,
shape and Ioundation to the cell. It is enclosed by the
plasma membrane. Within the cytoplasm are a
number oI microscopic bodies called organelles that
perIorm various Iunctions essential Ior the survival oI
the cell.

Figure Endoplasmic reticulum with the nucleus and the Golgi complex
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) : is one oI the important organelles present in the cytoplasm. Endoplasmic
reticulum is a series oI membranes which extend throughout the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. In certain
cases in ER there are submicroscopic bodies called ribosomes which are involved in production oI protiens.
#ough E# : In this kind oI ER the ribosomes are presenton the surIace.The endoplasmic reticulum is
responsible Ior protein synthesis in a cell. Ribosomes are suborganelles in which the amino acids are
actually bound together to Iorm proteins. There are spaces within the Iolds oI ER membrane are known as
cisternae.
Smooth E# : This type oI ER does not have ribosomes.
Golgi body or Golgi apparatus (G.A.). The Golgi body is a series oI Ilattened sacs usually curled at the
edges. Proteins which have Iormed in ER are processed in G.A. AIter processing, the Iinal product is
discharged Iorm the G.A. At this time the G.A. bulges and breaks away to Iorm a dropline vesicle known as
secretory vesicles. The vesicles move butward to the cell membrane and either insert their protien contents
in the membrane, or release their contents outside the cell.
Lysosome. The lysosome is derived Irom the Golgi body. It is a sac oI enzymes in the cytoplasm, used Ior
digestion within the cell. These enzymes break down particles oI Iood taken into the cell and make the Iood
product available Ior use. There are also cytoplasmic organelles called peroxisomes in the cell which
produces the enzymes to degrade Iatmolecules.
Mitochondria : is another organelle oI the cell. It is called the "power house oI the cell" because it stores
and releases the energy oI the cell. The energy released is used to Iorm ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Figure A cross-section of a Mitochondrion
Nucleus: Prokaryotic cells don`t have a nucleus but eukaryotic
cells have a nucleus situated in the cytoplasm. The nucleus
mainly contains DNA ( i.e., Deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is
organized into linear units called chromatin. Genes are the
Iunctional segments within the chromosome. Each chromosome
consists oI approximately 1,000,000 genes. The chromatin is
coiled around nuclear protiens called histones. When chromatin
is coiled, it Iorms chromasomes. Genes contain the coding Ior
all the protiens in a cell oI an animal or plant. The nucleus oI the
cell is surrounded by an outer membrane called the nuclear
envelope. The nuclear membrane resembles the plasma
membrane in its Iunction. It is also a double layer membrane
consisting oI two lipid layers similar to those in the plasma
membrane. Pores in the membrane allow the internal nuclear part to communicate with the cytoplasm oI the
cell.
Prokaryotic cells don`t have a nucleus but they do possess DNA which exists Ireely in the cytoplasm. In
bacteria a single looped chromosome consists oI 4,000 genes.In plant cells, organelles called chloroplasts
exist. Due to chloroplasts plants look green in color. The chloroplasts Iunction in the process oI
photosynthesis.
During this process, chloroplasts convert the energy in the sunlight into energy oI carbohydrate molecules.
Energy Irom the sun comes in the Iorm oI photons i.e. a package oI energy which gets converted into
carbohydrate energy. Chloroplasts consist oI a green pigment called chlorophyll. Because chlorophyll
molecules absorb most wavelenghths oI light except green, they reIlect green light and appear green to our
eyes. chlorophyll is normally present in that area oI a plant where sunlight can reach easily. For example, the
leaves and stem oI a plant are green. On the contrary, the roots don`t have chloroplast so they are not green.
Cytoskeleton : is an interconnecting system oI Iibers and threads and interwoven molecules that give
structure to the cell. The main component oI the cytoskeleton are microtubules, microIilaments and
intermediate Iilaments. They are all made up oI proteins.
Centriole : is another organelle present in the cell. It is cylindrical in shape and always occurs in pairs.
Centrioles are involved in cell division. Vacuole :Another organelle seen in the plant cell is the vacuole. The
vacuole Iorms about 75 oI the plant cell. In the vacuole, the plant stores nutrients as well as toxic wastes.
II pressure increases within the vacuole it can increase the size oI the cell. In this case the cell will become
swollen. II the pressure increases Iurther the cell will get destroyed.
Many cells have structures attached to them called Flagella or Cilia. Flagella are seen in the single-celled
plant and protozoans, and cilia are commonly seen in animal cells. Flagella are long hairlike extensions that
extend Irom the cell and help in locomotion. Animal sperm has Ilagella which permit locomotion. Cilia are
shorter and more numerous than Ilagella. Rows oI cilia move in waves to move the cell (prokaryotes like
paramecia), or to move Iluids around the cell (e.g., respiratory epithelial cells).These cells help in the
removal oI particles Irom the tract.
Cell Wall : Plant cells possess a cell wall. It is a structure which is present outside the cell membrane. It is
not very thick. In bacteria the cell wall is very thick and rigid: this gives shape to the bacteria. In a eukaryote
cell, the cell wall is not identical in diIIerent animals. In Iungi, the cell wall is made up oI chitin which is a
polysaccharide. In plant cell there is no chitin. Cell walls are composed oI another polysaccharide called
cellulose.
The cell wall provides support to the structure to the cell. It also saves the cell Irom mechanical pressure.; it
is 3ot a selective (semipermeable) membrane like the plasma membrane. When bacteria enter the human
body the cell wall this is recognized as a Ioreign substance in the body; this is how our immune system
recognizes and destroys bacteria.
ifference between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Friendsmania.net Prokaryotic Cell
O The organisms made oI prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes e.g. bacteria and cyanobacteria.
O These cells lack a membrane bound nucleus. The hereditary material (DNA) is Iound in cytoplasm.
O These cells lack membrane bound organelles.
O Ribosomes are oI small size in and Ireely scattered cytoplasm.
O Cellulose is absent in cell wall, rather it is made up oI peptido-glycan or murein.
O These cells are simple and oI smaller size (average diameter 0.5 - 10 nm)

Eukaryotic Cell
O The organisms mae oI Eukaryotic cells are called Eukaryotes, e.g. animals, plants Iungi and protists.
O These cells have a membrane bound nucleus; and hereditary material is Iound inside the nucleus.
O These cells have membrane bound organelles.
O Ribosomes are oI large size and are present in endoplasmic reticulum Iree in cytoplasm.
O Cellulose is present in cell wall oI plant cells. The cell wall oI most oI Iungi is composed oI chitin.
O These cells are complex and oI larger size (Average diameter 10-100nm)
Multicellular Organism (Brassica Plant)
Multicellular Organism
The organisms consisting oI many cells are called multicellular organism. e.g. Brassica Plant, Irog, man etc. diagram?
Brassica Plant (Mustard Plant)
1. This plant is sown in winter and at the end oI season, it produces seeds and then dies.
2. This is an annual plant.
3. An oil is extracted Irom seeds oI this plant which is known as mustard oil.
5. The scientiIic name oI this plant is Brassica Campestris.
(Diagram)
Non-#eproductive Parts or Vegetative Parts
These parts do not directly take part in sexual reproduction e.g. root, stem, branches and leaves.
#eproductive Parts
These parts directly take part in sexual reproduction e.g. Ilower, Iruit and seed.
#oot of Brassica
The root is that part plant which is present inside the soil. It is produced Irom radical oI seed. The Iirst Iormed root is
called Primary root. During its growth, it gives oII secondary and tertiary root. Each root has a root cap at its tip or
apex. Behind the root cap, root hairs are present which absorbs water and salts Irom the soil. Roots also anchor the
plant Iirmly in the soil.
(Diagram)
Internal Structure of #oot of Brassica

When transverse section oI root oI Brassica is observed under the microscope, the Iollowing parts are very prominent.
Epidermis

It is outermost and protective layer. It is single celled. Some cells grow outward to Iorm root hair.
Cortex

It is present inner to epidermis. It is made up oI several layers oI thin walled living cells (parenchyma cells). There are
present intercellular spaces. These cells store Iood.
Endodermis

it is the innermost layer oI cortex. There are no intercellular spaces. There are thickenings oI special materials around
the cell which check diIIusion oI water Irom xylem to cortex.
Pericycle

The layer present inner to endodermis is called pericycle. There are also no intercellular spaces. All the branches oI
roots arise Irom pericycle.
Vascular Bundles

Xylem is present in middle oI root which extends to pericycle in the Iorm oI Iour rays and controls one way transport
oI water and salts. In between the xylem rays, phloem bundles are present which transport Iood in two directions.


Stem of Brassica

The stem is that part oI the plant which grows above ground. It arises Irom plumule oI seed. It is herbaceous and
branched. It bears leaves and Ilowers. The part oI stem or its branch Irom where a leaI arises is called node. The part
between two nodes is called internode. the important Iunction oI stem is the conduction oI prepared Iood Irom leaves
to other parts and that oI water absorbed Irom roots to leaves. It supports leaves, Ilowers and Iruits like a pillar. It
keeps the leaves in such a position that they can get light to prepare Iood.
(Diagram)
Internal Structure of Stem of Brassica

When transverse section oI stem oI Brassica is observed under the microscope, Iollowing parts are visible.
Epidermis

It is the outermost protective layer oI stem. Outer to epidermis, there is layer oI cutin which reduces loss oI water Irom
stem. The cells are compactly arranged and there are no intercellular spaces.
Cortex

It is inner to epidermis. It is made up oI many layers oI parenchyma and collenchyma tissues. The main Iunction oI
cortex is storage oI water and Iood.
Endodermis

It is innermost layer oI cortex. It is not prominent in stem. It allows suitable quantity oI waer to enter cortex Irom
xylem.
Pericycle

It is in the Iorm oI bundles in between the endodermis and vascular bundles. It is composed oI sclerenchyma cells. It
Iorms bundle cap.
Vascular Bundles

In stem, vascular bundles are arranged in the Iorm oI ring. Vascular bundle consists oI phloem and xylem. Phloem is
towards outside and xylem is towards inside. Few layers oI cambium are present between the xylem and phloem.
Cambium causes increase in diameter oI the stem with passage oI time.
Medullary #ays

There are present Iew layers oI thin walled living cells between every two layers. These are called medullary rays. The
medullary rays connect the cortex with pith Ior the transport oI Iood.
Pith

The central part oI stem consists oI living, rounded, thin walled parenchyma cells. This part is called pith. Here Iood is
stored.


Leaf of Brassica

1. LeaI is produced on node oI stem or its branch.
2. Each leaI consists oI two parts. The stalk oI leaI is called petiole and upper broad part is called lamina.
3. Young leaves are without petiole and their margins are entire or smooth.
4. Lower leaves are large in size. These are also without petiole but there margins are wavy.
5. In the middle oI leaI there is a thick midrib.
6. From midrib, arise veins oI diIIerent thickness and Iorm a network in leaI. This arrangement oI veins is called
reticulate venation.
7. Veins are composed oI xylem and phloem.
8. The angle Iormed between stem and leaI is called axil. In this axil, buds are present which gwo and become
branches.
9. The dorsal and ventral surIaces oI leaves are diIIerent Irom each other. Such leaves are called biIacial leaves.
10. The main Iunction oI leaI is the preparation oI Iood by process oI photosynthesis.
Internal Structure of Leaf

When transverse section oI leaI is observed under the microscope, Iollowing structure are visible.
(Diagram)
Epidermis

This layer oI cells covers both upper and lower surIaces oI leaI. Upper layer is called upper epidermis and lower layer
is called lower epidermis. There are more number oI stomata in lower epidermis than upper epidermis. This results in
less transpiration and CO2 enters according to need. Each stomata consists oI two guard cells, which are bean shaped,
or kidney shaped. There is a pore between guard cells through which exchange oI gases takes place and water vapours
come out oI leaves.
Mesophyll

The tissue present between upper and lower epidermis is called mesophyll. It consists oI two parts.
Palisade Mesophyll

Uper part consists oI elongated cells which hare lying vertical. These are double layered closely packed cells and are
called Palisade Mesophyll.
Spongy Mesophyll

The lower part is sponge like and has more intercellular spaces. This is called spongy mesophyll.
Both types oI cells have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. So, photosynthesis takes place here. The Iunction oI
mesophyll is to manuIacture Iood Ior the plant.
Vascular Tissue

It consists oI midrib and veins. The midrib is bundle. Upper part oI midrib is xylem and lower part is phloem.
Pericycle and endodermis surround this bundle. Besides this Lamina has other bundle which are called veins.


Flower of Brassica

The Ilower is reproductive part. With the maturation oI age, the plant bears yellowish Ilowers. Many Ilowers are
arranged on a branch in a special way. This branch is called peduncle. This arrangement oI Ilowers on the peduncle is
called InIlorescence.
Parts of Flowers

Flower consists oI a stalk and Iloral leaves. The stalk is called Pedicel. The upper part oI pedicel is comparatively
swollen and Ilattened. This is called thalamus. On the thalamus, Iloral leaves are arranged in Iour whorls.
(Diagram)
The details oI Iloral leaves is as Iollows:
Calyx

It is the outermost whorl oI Iloral leaves. It consists oI Iour sepals. On maturation, its colour changes to yellow. In
young Ilowers sepals cover the inner parts oI the Ilower. The main Iunction oI calyx is to protect inner parts oI the
Ilower.
Corolla

It is the second whorl oI Iloral leaves. It consists oI Iour Iree petals. Its yellow colour is conspicuous and can attract
insects, honey bees and butterIlies which help in pollination.
Androecium

It is the third whorl present inner to petals. It is the male reproductive part. It consists oI six Iree stamens. These are
arranged in two whorls, the outer whorl has two small stamens and inner whorl has Iour long stamens. Each stamen
consists oI two parts. Lower stalk is called Iilament. Upper swollen part is called anther, Inside anther, a large number
oI pollen grains are produced. When anther matures, a longitudinal slit appears in its walls Irom which pollen grains
escape. AT the base oI Iilament, Iour nectaries are present. These nectaries secrete nectar. To get nectar, insects visit
the Ilowers. In this way, pollen grains get attached to the bodies oI insects and are transIerred Irom one Ilower to the
other. This process is called pollination.
Gynoecium

It is the inner most part oI Ilower. It is Iemale reproductive part. It consists oI two carpels, which are Iused. Each
carpel has three parts. The basal swollen part is called ovary. The stalk like part above the ovary is called Style. The
top oI style is somewhat swollen and it is called Stigma. Overy contains many ovules. Ovules are ripened to Iorm
seeds while ovary is ripened to Iorm Iruit. The Iruit oI Brassica is called Siliqua

Mitosis

Friendsmania.net

It is that cell division in which the number oI chromosomes in both daughter nuclei remains same as in
parent nucleus.
(Diagram)
Events of Mitosis

Mitosis has the Iollowing phases:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telephase
5. Cytokinesis


Prophase

1. In this phase, coiling oI chromosomes starts and their length decreases but diameter increases. It means
that chromosomes become shorter and thicker, this process is called condensation.
2. Microtubules arrange to Iorm a structure called spindle.
3. In animal cell, there are also present centrioles on both poles oI spindle. From each centriole, small
microtubules or Iiber arise Iorming a star shaped aster.
4. Spindle Iibers, centrioles and aster collectively Iorm mitotic apparatus. In plants, this apparatus is made
up oI only spindle Iibers as asters are absent in these cells.
5. Nuclear membrane is broken down. Nucleolus disappears and chromosomes scatter over the spindle Iiber.
6. Each chromosome consists oI two similar threads like structure called chromatids, these chromatids are
united to each other by means oI centromere.


Metaphase

1. The chromosomes arrange themselves on equator oI the spindle to Iorm an equatorial plate. In this
condition, chromosomes become more visible.
2. The chromosomes are attached at their centromere to one spindle Iiber Irom each pole.


Anaphase

1. First oI all spindle Iibers shrink and become short.
2. The centromere oI each chromosome then divides and the two chromatids oI each chromosome start
separating. At this stage these are not called chromatids because these are no in united condition these are
called chromosomes.
3. These chromosomes start moving slowly towards the opposite poles. In this way, one set oI chromosomes
moves towrds one pole while other towards the other pole.


Telophase

1. The chromosomes reach their poles.
2. The chromosomes uncoil and become less visible.
3. Nuclear membrane reIorms and nucleolus appears too. ThereIore two nuclei are Iormed. Each daughter
nucleus has the same number oI chromosomes as the parent cell.


Cytokinesis

The division oI cytoplasm is called cytokinesis. It begins at the last stages oI nuclear division. In plant cell,
cytoplasm divides by Iormation oI cell plate which is also called phragmoplast. It gradually extends outward
and Iinally two daughter cells are separated.
In animals, cytoplasm divides by Iurrowing. During this, there occurs inward pinching oI cell membrane
resulting into two daughter cells. In mitosis, two daughter cells are Iormed Irom one parent cell which are
identical to their parent cell.


Significance of Mitosis

1. Mitosis occurs in all types oI somatic cells.
2. Daughter cells Iormed as a result oI mitosis have same number oI chromosomes as that oI parent cell. In
this way, all cells oI body oI an organism have same number oI chromosomes.
3. Zygote divides by mitosis to Iorm embryo and aIter hatching or birth, mitosis continues up to maturity oI
an individual.
4. Mitosis also results in growth and repairing oI damaged or worn out tissues.
5. Healing oI wounds is also due to mitosis.


Unicellular Organism (Amoeba)

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IX Biology - Chapter 2 - Unicellular Organism (Amoeba) From AwamiMarkaz.com Wiki Notes Jump to:
navigation, search |edit| Unicellular Organism
The organisms consisting oI only one cell are called unicellular organisms e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium etc.

|edit| Amoeba
1. It is mostly Iound in Iresh water pond or pool.
2. In the ponds, it is Iound moving about around the weeds and stones. Some species are Iound in the moist
soil.
3. Amoeba is a large protist.
4. It does not have the permanent shape.
5. Its size is about the end oI pin or it measures about 0.25mm. ThereIore it is observed under the
microscope.
6. Its structure is very simple.
7. It consists oI nucleus and cytoplasm, which are surrounded by a cell membrane.
8. Cell membrane protects it.
9. Cytoplasm is divided into two parts. Outer clear and transparent part is called ectoplasm while the inner,
viscous, translucent and granular part is called endplasm.
10. Endoplasm contains Iood vacuoles oI diIIerent sizes. These Iood vacuoles help in the digestion oI Iood.
11. The Iood oI Amoeba consists oI microbes present in the water oI pond.
12. Contractile vacuole maintains the concentration oI water in the body. It removes surplus water out oI the
cell.
13. In Amoeba, the exchange oI gases and removal oI waste.
14. In Amoeba, there are also present mitochondria, golgi bodies and ribosomes.
15. Nucleus changes its place with the movement oI the organism.
(Diagram)


Tissues

A group oI cells which perIorm same Iunction is known as tissue. The tissues are divided into diIIerent types
on the basis oI their Iorm and structure or Iunction.


Plant Tissues

Following are the types oI tissues in plants:
1. Simple Tissues
2. Compound Tissues


Simple Tissues

Simple tissues consists oI only one type oI cells. In plants, they are oI Iollowing types:
1. Meristematic or embryonic tissues
2. Permanent Tissues


Meristematic Tissues

1. Cells oI this tissue have ability to divide.
2. Cytoplasm is dense nd nucleus is big in these cells.
3. Vacuoles are smaller iI present other wise absent.
4. All cells are identical.
5. There are no intercellular spaces.
6. Their walls are thin and nucleus is present in centre oI cell.
7. These tissues Iound on apex oI root or shoot are called apical meristems. The cells oI these tissues divide;
and redivide to add primary tissue Ior elongation oI setm or root.
This type oI growth is called primary growth.
8. Meristematic cells are also Iound on the lateral sides oI roots and stems as lateral(cambium) or intercalary
meristem, and these add, secondary tissues. In this way, thickness oI stem or root is increased. This type oI
growth is called secondary growth.


Permanent Tissues

The cells oI this tissue lack the ability to divide and they originate Irom meristems. These are given below:
a. Epidermal Tissues
b. Ground Tissues
(a) Epidermal Tissues

1. They are Iound as the outermost covering oI leaI, stem or root.
2. There are non intercellular spaces.
3. Cells are rectangular in shape.
4. In the epidermal tissues oI stem and leaves, there are small openings called stomata Ior gaseous exchange.
(b) Ground Tissues

1. Most oI the portion oI body oI herbaceous plants consists oI ground tissues i.e. parenchyma.
2. They are thin walled.
3. Cells are large in size.
4. Cells sometimes may develop the ability to divide.
5. Their main Iunctions are to prepare and store Iood and water.


Supporting or Mechanical Tissues

These provide strength Ilexibility to the plant. They are oI Iollowing two types:
a. Collenchyma Tissues
b. Sclerenchyma Tissues
(a) Collenchyma Tissues

1. These consist oI living cells.
2. Their walls are not uniIormly thickened.
3. Usually walls are thickened at angles.
4. These are more Ilexible or elastic than sclerenchyma.
5. These tissues are Iound in stem, in midrib oI leaves and in cortex oI petiole.
(b) Sclerenchyma Tissues

1. These consist oI dead cells.
2. Their walls are highly thickened due to deposition oI lignin.
3. Lignin provides hardness and strength to the cell.
4. These cells are without protoplasm.
5. Sclerenchyma cells are oI two types,

O Stone cells having uniIormly thick cell walls; Iound in testa oI seeds.
O Fibrous cells which are elongated cells Iound in xylem and phloem Ior strength and transport oI
water

Compound Tissues

These are the tissues which consists oI two or more than two types oI cells. But all cells perIorm a common
Iunction.
These Tissues are oI Iollowing types:
Xylem Tissue

1. This vascular tissue transports water in the plants and provides strength to the plant.
2. In this tissue, there are present xylem parenchyma and two types oI thick walled dead cells.
O Long cells which are called vessel elements or cells. They are joined together to Iorm long pipe-
lines. These transport water Irom roots to leaves.
O Spindle shaped cells, which are called tracheicts. These provide strength to root and shoot etc.
3. Xylem conducts water in one direction that is Irom roots towards the stem and leaves.


Phloem Tissues

1. This vascular tissue transports Iood in the plants.
2. It helps in two directional conduction oI Iood material i.e. Irom leaves to roots and vice-versa.
3. This tissue mostly consists oI living cells. There are three types oI cells
(a) Phloem Parenchyma
(b) Sieve Tube Cells
(c) Companion Cells
(a) Phloem Parenchyma

These cells store surplus water and Iood. They can start to divide when needed.
(b) Sieve Tube Cells

Their end walls have small pores called sieve plates. These cells join to Iorm long pipelines, which are
called sieve tubes. There is no nucleus in these cells. Their main Iunction is to transport Iood.
(c) Companion Cells

In some plants, each sieve tube cell is accompanied by a companion cell. The companion cell has a nucleus.
The corn cell controls the movement oI Iood through sieve tubes.


Animal Tissues

Following are Iour types oI tissues that are Iound in animals:
1. Epithelial Tissues
2. Connective Tissues
3. Muscle Tissues
4. Nerve Tissues


Epithelial Tissues

1. these are Iound as outer most layers oI an organ or as lining oI body invaginations.
2. Their cells are long and Ilat.
3. These may Iorm one or more layers oI epithelial tissues oI skin which is called squamous epithelial cells.
4. Squamous Epithelium provides protection to skin.
5. Some cells are cubical in shape and known as cuboidal epithelial cells.
6. Cuboidal epithelial cells Irom the lining oI glandular ducts and help in the production oI cell secretions.
7. Some cells are small and elongated which are Iound at certain places in the inner lining oI diIIerent organs
and secret juice. These are called columnar epithelial cells e.g. cells oI gastric glands in stomach which
secrete the gastric juice.
8. Some columnar cells have cilia at their Iree surIace. These are called ciliated columnar epithelial cells e.g.
cells present in trachea. Due to movement oI these cilia, mucous and other materials are expelled.


Connective Tissues

1. This tissue is made up oI semi Iluid matrix.
2. These matrixes contain a variety oI cells and Iibers.
3. These tissues provide support to diIIerent body parts and bind them together. These also protect the
organs Irom germs and help in the production oI blood cells.
4. These are oI two types:
O SoIt connective tissues e.g. Iatty tissues and tendons.
O Hard connective tissues e.g. cartilage and bone.
5. Blood is also a special connective tissue with cells suspended in the Iluid medium. It transports materials
in the body.


Muscular Tissues

1. This tissue is made up oI special contractile cells or Iibers.
2. The cells are elongated and are called muscle Iibers.
3. These cells have the ability to contract and relax which results in movements oI body and the organs.
4. Following are the three types oI muscles in our body.
Skeletal Muscles

These are attached to cartilage and bones. These seem to be striped Iibers under the microscope. ThereIore
these are striped or striated muscles. Their movements are under our control so these are voluntary muscles
e.g. muscles oI arm and legs which move these parts.
Smooth Muscles

These are Iound around hollow organs such as blood vessels, gut. These produce slow, sustained
contractions but do not Iatigue. These re composed oI spindle shaped unstriated muscles. These are
involuntary and are under the control oI the autonomic nervous system.
Cardiac Muscles

These are Iound in the heart. These are composed oI branched Iibers and are capable oI sustained
contraction but do not not Iatigue. These are also involuntary in action.


Nervous Tissues

1. These are composed oI nerve cells which are called neurons.
2. Each neuron consists oI a cell body, axon and dendrites.
3. These productive nerve impulse to conduct messages.
4. By this tissue, diIIerent body parts have coordination with each other.
5. This tissue also Iorms brain and spinal cord.