Nyya daran School of Logic

By Krunal Makwana

1. Introduction Nyya daran denotes one of the six orthodox 1 stika2 philosophical systems of Indian thought. The philosophy aspires the individual to understand the purpose of life, Liberation (mukti), through the medium of correct knowledge, which would in-turn lead the individual to a release, from the absolute deliverance of pain3. The initial exponent of the Nyya philosophy is Mahi Akapda Gautama, who had first propouned the philosophy, by authoring the Nyya sutras. The date given by Satischandra Vidyabhushan suggests that the compilation of the Nyya sutra was inaugrated at about 550 B.C. The Nyya sutras form the epistemological, ontological and seteriological foundation for the philosophy. Due to the criticism that the Nyya philosophy had faced from differemt stika and non- stika schools, later Nyya philosophers had also contributed by authoring various treatise as a response. The three widely known responses in support of the Nyya philosophy was the commentary by Mahi Vtsyyana (450 A.D.) on the Nyya sutras, Udayana in responses to the atheistic philosophy of Buddhism by authoring Nyya Kusumanjali and also Tarka Sagraha of Aambhaa (1600 A.D.). 2. Nyya sutras of Mahi Akapda Gautama The Nyya sutras are divided into five books, each book then divided twice into two nikas. It is believed that Mahi Akapda Gautama finished the Nyya sutras in ten lectures, corresponding to the 10 nikas.

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ad daran nyya, vaiseika, mimasa, vednta, sakhya, yoga Those which recognise an allegiance with the Vedas. nyya sutra 1.1.22: tdTynivmae]> ApvgR>

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2.1 Summary of topics discussed in Nyya sutras: Book nika 1 1. Definition Liberation. Discussion of the first 9 catergories. 2. Examination of doubt, the four pramas , objections pramas. 3. 4. Examination of soul, material body, senses, and their objects. Examination of pravtti, doa, Investigation meditation. 5. Discussion of the various kinds of futility (jti) Discussion argues with. 2.2 Controversy There has been much controversy in regard to the authenticity of the Nyya sutras. Mahmahopdhyya Dr Satishchandra Vidybhushan2 is very much reserved on the matter in regard to proclaiming that all five chapters of the Nyya sutras were authored by Mahi Gautama. He suggests that the first chapter alone seems to be authored by Mahi Gautama and the remaining chapters bear the mark of different hands and ages. He also believes that the latest additions may have been implemented by Mahi Vtsyyana (450 A.D.) while writing his commentary on the Nyya sutras! of various kinds of occasion for rebukes/unfit to be into the truth of pretyabhva, phala, duk, apavarga. thewhole and its parts , atoms, Examination of buddhi, manas,
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nika 2 of 16 catergories of Discussion of the last 7 catergories.

knowledge which would lead to

Inclusion of presumption as a

and against

refutation the

of prama. four

prama forms of valid knowledge - pratyaka (perception), anumna (inference), upamna Mahmahopdhyya Dr Satishchandra Vidybhushan A modern scholar on Nyya

(comparison) & abda (word/verbal testimony).

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3. Epistemology The theory of Nyya knowledge The Nyya philosophy accepts four forms of valid knowledge 1, through these pramas, nyyaikas believe that release, from the absolute deliverance of pain 2, will lead to Liberation. 3.1 Pramas A prama is a form of valid knowledge which cannot be flawed in any sense. Pramas form the the basis of Nyya philosophy. It is the direct means of knowing an object. 3.1.1 Pratyaka (perception) Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object, and which is determinate*, unnameable** and non-erratic***. N.S. 1.1.4.
*Determinate this distinguishes perception from indeterminate knowledge; e.g. a man looking from a distance cannot ascertain whether this is smoke of dust. **Unnameable Signifies that the knowledge of a thing derived through perception has no connection with the name which the thing bears. E.g The cognition of colour is not possible if there is no visual organ. ***Non-erratic In summer the suns rays contact with earthly heat appears to the eyes as water. The knowledge of water derived in this way is not prama perception.

It is interesting to note that Mahi Vtsyyana also includes the mind into the senses category but mentions that the mind is distinct in character. The grounds of his statement is the senses are constituted by the elements, are restricted each to its own province and possess attributes. The mind, on the other hand, is not constituted by the elements, and is all extensive and without attributes.

prama forms of valid knowledge - pratyaka (perception), anumna (inference), upamna Nyya sutra 1.1.22: tdTynivmae]> ApvgR>

(comparison) & abda (word/verbal testimony). Nyya sutra 1.1.3

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3.1.2 anumna (inference) Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception, and is of three kinds; priori*, posteriori** and commonly seen***. - N.S 1.1.5
* priori prior knowledge of the effect from the perception of cause. E.g. One seeing dark cloud infers there will be rain ** posteriori subsequent knowledge of the cause from the perception of effect. E.g. one sees river overflor infers- there was rain. *** commonly seen E.g. Smoke on hill infers- fire on hill.

In Nyya philosophy, Nyyaikas pay much attention to inference and the methodology of how inference takes place. 3.1.2.1 Theory of Inference Scenario: There is fire on the hill. Pratij (The thing to be proved) Hetu (The reason) udharaa (example) upanaya (reaffirmation) nigamana (conclusion) paka (minor term) sdhya (major term) hetu (reason) vypti (middle term/relationship between sdhya and hetu) 3.1.3 upamna(comparison) Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known. - N.S. 1.1.6
Teacher: Have you seen a fox? Student: No, Sir, how does it look? Teacher: Have you seen a dog? Student: Yes, Sir! Teacher: Well it looks similar to a dog but the fox has a golden colour exterior, slightly smaller in build etc. http://jigyaasaa.wordpress.com/

: There is fire on the hill. : Because there is smoke there : Wherever there is smoke there is fire : There is smoke on the hill : Therefore there is fire on the hill : hill : fire : smoke : fire - smoke

3.1.4 abda (word/verbal testimony) Word (verbal testimony) is the instructive assertion of a reliable person N.S. 1.1.7 It is of two kinds; that which refers to matter which is seen* and that which refers to matter which is not seen** N.S. 1.1.8
*Seen a physicians assertion that physical strength is gained by taking butter. **Not Seen a Gurus assertion that one conquers heaven by performing horse-sacrifices.

Here the verbal testimony can be divided twice:

1. pta purua A reliable and authoritive personality. 2. astra the written word e.g. Vedas. N.S 2.1.68
3.2 Theory of God According to Nyya, God is considered to be the operative cause of creation, maintenance, and destruction of the universe. God does not create the world out of nothing or out of himself but rather out of the eternal atoms of space, time, mind, and soul. The creation of the universe refers to the ordering of these eternal entities, which are in coexistence with God, into a mortal world. Thus God, as the first operative cause of the universal forces, is the creator of the world. And God is also the preserver, as he causes the atoms to hold together and continue their existence in a particular order that maintains the physical universe. God is also called the destroyer of the universe, because he lets loose the forces of destruction when the energies of the mortal world require it. God is one, infinite, and eternal, and the universe of space and time, of mind and soul, does not limit him.

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4. Ontology the study of existence Nyya is very much a realist philosophy compared to other schools of thought. For the Nyyaikas the world is a real existence, they believe this universe is made up of minute atoms which they name as au, which are eternal1 and uncapable of dividing further2. Our perception allows direct awareness of the physical reality, although we may not be aware of the whole existence, we cannot deny the existence! E.g. due to someone being ignorant of the fact that gravity exists, it does not mean gravity is unreality. We see physical objects compromising of wholes, parts and properties. An example is a computer, we can see and touch its (parts), we can appreciate the design of the computer e.g. colour (properties) but we do not smell it. In the same way the whole is really a individual reality which is beyond the sum of parts/properties etc. This world as we see it, according to the Nyyaikas is a real phenomena, created by infinitesimal atoms. The philosophy groups the material creation into: Soul, body, senses, objects of the senses, cognition (buddhi), mind (manas), activity, mental modifications, rebirth, feelings, suffering, and absolute freedom from all sufferings. Nyya Sutra 1.1.9 By the above, inference would suggest that the philosophy takes into account the five elements3 by default. The above sutra mentions both seen and unseen attributes relating to this existence. In addition to the twelve attributes mentioned, it is interesting to note that the vaieika philosophy adds, substance, quality, action, generality, particularity etc to their list. 4.
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Nyya Sutra 2.2.34 Nyya Sutra 4.2.18 Earth, Fire, Wind, Water, Ether During the development of the Nyya philosophy and the commonalities it had shared with

vaieika philosophy, it was quite common to see both philosophies supporting one another, or partnering ideas.

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Mahi Gautama in the sutras states that although the world is real, he admits the reality of the individual soul, he distinctively mentions that the soul is different from the body and that liberation is enjoyed by he who obtains the valid knowledge of the external world, its relationship with the mind and self. 4.1 Anyathkhyti The theory that false cognition is knowing [something] as otherwise The Nyya school holds that, when one sees a shell as silver then one has contact with a sat, real, piece of silver percieved at an earlier time and in an earlier place, for example in a shop, and then confuses them. The error is seeing a non-difference of the real silver and the real shell, when in reality is is false. This conclusion according to the Nyya school comes from a super natural sense relation, which is fostered by a recollection of the previously percieved silver that existed elsewhere.

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5. Seteriology Nyya Liberation Nyya recognised mukti to be complete release, from the absolute deliverance of pain 1. Here the soul is completely released from all bondage and ends recognises his true nature with the material body. Nyyaikas maintain that liberation of the soul would not be possible without totally giving up identity of the body. The very first Nyya sutra recognises 16 categories which need to be addressed, which would then lead to liberation. 1. Supreme Liberation is attained by the knowledge about the true nature of the sixteen categories, viz., means of right knowledge (evidence; the means to obtain factual
knowledge), object of right knowledge (that which is to be ascertained by real knowledge) ,

doubt (doubt about the point to be discussed), purpose (a motive for discussing the point in
question), familiar instance (citing instances or examples) , established tenet (demonstrated conclusion of an argument), members [of a syllogism] (component parts of a logical argument or syllogism), confutation (persuasive reasoning), ascertainment (deduction, conclusion, or application of a conclusive argument), discussion (thesis, proposition, or argument), wrangling (striking disputation or reply to defeat the argument of the opposition) ,

cavil (destructive criticism; idle carping at the assertions of another without attempting to
prove the opposite side of the question), fallacy (fallacy; the mere appearance of a reason) ,

quibble (deceitful disputation; perverting the sense of the opposing partys words) , futility
(logic based merely on false similarity or dissimilarity) , and occasion for rebuke (a weak point in an argument or fault in a syllogism). - N.S. 1.1.1

Pain, birth, activity, faults [defects] and misapprehension [wrong notion] on the successive annihilation of these in the reverse order, there follows release. - N.S. 1.1.2 Now although Supreme Liberation is attained by the knowledge of the sixteen categories, the second sutra suggests the initial cause of bondage, misapprehension. It would be safe to assume that the anyathkhyti theory of the Nyyaikas would fall well into their system of thought as the initial link to bondage.
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nyya sutra 1.1.22: tdTynivmae]> ApvgR>

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References:
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M.M Satisa Chandra Vidyabhushan et al., 1990. The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. V.V. S. Sarma, 2005. Indian Systems of Logic (Nyaya): A Survey. Bangalore. Dept. of Computing Science & Automtion. Deepak Sarma, 2003. An Introduction of Madhva Vedanta. Hampshire. Ashgate. Bhagavat.net., Six Systems of Vedic Philosophy Available from: http://bhagavata.net/avadhuta/files/Philosophy/Six%20systems%20of%20vedic %20philosophy/six%20systems%20of%20vedic%20philo.compl%20.htm

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