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1. Residence Time Distribution 2. RTD for Ideal Reactors 3. RTD to Diagnose Faulty Operation 4. Models to Calculate Exit Concentrations and Conversions A. Segregation Model 1. Segregation Model Applied to an Ideal PFR 2. Segregation Model Applied to an LFR 3. Segregation Model Applied to a CSTR 4. Mean Concentration for Multiple Reactions B. Maximum Mixedness Model 5. Comparing XMM and Xseg 6. RTD and Multiple Reactions
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We shall use the RTD to characterize existing (i.e. real) reactors and then use it to predict exit conversions and concentrations when reactions occur in these reactors. Inject a tracer and measure exit concentration, CT(t).
From the exit tracer concentration we can determine the following information: A. RTD (Residence Time Distribution) Function (E(t))
= Fraction of molecules exiting the reactor that have spent a time between (t) and (t + dt) in the reactor.
= Fraction of molecules exiting the reactor that have spent a time t or less in the reactor. = Fraction of molecules that have spent a time t or greater in the reactor.
13.113.1 Mean Residence Time 13.113.1 Residence Time Distribution Analysis using COMSOL Multiphysics 2. Variance
3. Space Time - For no dispersion/diffusion and v = v0, the space time equals the mean residence time.
5. Life Expectancy
that are
From our experimental data of the exit tracer concentration from pulse trace test
->
->
->
->
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CSTR
Lamina r (LFR)
13.313.3 Drawing the F(theta) curves for the above ideal reactors 13.413.4 Matching Reactors with Tracer Step Inputs 13.513.5 Matching Reactor Models with E(t)
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Experimentally injecting and measureing the tracer in a laminar flow reactor can be a difficult task, if not a nightmare. For example, if one uses tracer chemicals that are photo-activated as they enter the reactor, the analysis and interpretation of E(t) from the data becomes much more involved. Diagnostics and Troubleshooting
RTD Function
Cumulative Function
Space Time
a. Perfect Operation
b. Passing (BP)
c. Dead Volume
Tubular Reactor A similar analysis to that for a CSTR can be carried out on a tubular reactor. a. Perfect Operation of PFR (P)
In addition to its use in diagnosis, the RTD can be used to predict conversion in existing reactors when a new reaction is tried in an old reactor. However, the RTD is not unique for a given system, and we need to develop models for the RTD to predict conversion.
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If using mathematical software to apply the models described below, you may need to fit C(t) and E(t) to a polynomial. The procedure for fitting C(t) and E(t) to a polynomial is identical to the techniques use to fitting concentration as a function of time described in Chapter 5. Polymath regression analysis tutorial Use combinations of ideal reactors to model real reactors that could also include: Zero parameter models
4A. Segregation Model Models the real reactor as a number of small batch reactors, each spending a different time in the reactor. All molecules that spend the same length of time in the reactor (i.e., that are of the same age) remain together in the same globule (i.e., batch reactor). Mixing of the different age groups occurs at the last possible moment at the reactor exit.
Mixing occurs at the latest possible moment.Each little batch reactor (globule) exiting the real reactor at different times will have a different conversion. (X1,X2,X3...)
4A.1 Segregation Model Applied To An Ideal PFR Lets apply the segregation model to an ideal PFR and see if we get the same result for conversion as we did in Chapter 4.
which is the same conversion one finds from a mole balance (Chapter 4) Further Explanation of Mean Conversion in Segregation Model 4A.2 Segregation Model Applied to an LFR For a Laminar flow reactor the RTD function is
The last integral is the exponential integral and can be evaluated from tabulated values. Fortunately, Hilder developed an approximate formula ( =Da).
For large values of the Damkohler number then there is complete conversion along the streamlines off the center streamline so that the conversion is determined along the pipe axis.
Solutions Using Software Packages For multiple reactions use an ODE solver to couple the mole balance equations, dCi/dt=ri, with the segregation model equations: d batch reactor at time t and /dt=Ci(t)*E(t), where C i is the concentration of i in the
Note E(l)=E(t) E(l)dl =Fraction of molecules that have a life expectancy between l+dl and l.
(the entrance) to
we integrate backward from = 200. However, because most ODE packages will not integrate backwards, we have to use the transfer z = T - to integrate forward Thus
In terms of conversion,
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If n > 1, then
If n < 0, then
For multiple reactions use an ODE solver to couple the mole balance equations, dCi/dt=ri (where ri is the net rate of reaction), with the segregation model equations: dCi/dt=Ci(t)*E(t) as previously shown. For maximum mixedness:
To obtain solutions with an ODE solver, first fit E(t) to a polynomial or several polynomials. Then let z = T - where T is the largest time in which E(t) is recorded. Proceed to solve the resulting equations.
Step input for completely mixed or continuously stirred tank reactor CSTR concentration
initial concentration
time
Pulse Input for completely mixed or continuously stirred tank reactor CSTR concentration initial concentration
time
Plug Flor Reactor PFR step input: when t < tR, C = 0 when t >= tR, C = C0 pulse input: when t = tR, C = C0 when t < tR, C = 0 when t > tR, C = 0 Where tR = theoretical mean residence time V = reactor volume Q = reactor flow rate C = concentration at time C0 = initial concentration Cn = concentration at tank n t = time n = number of tanks
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A real reactor will be modeled as a number of equally sized tanks-in-series. Each tank behaves as an ideal CSTR. The number of tanks necessary, n (our one parameter), is determined from the E(t) curve.
In dimensionless form
For reactions other than first order and for multiple reactions the sequential equations must be solved
B. Dispersion Model
The one parameter to be determined in the dispersion model is the dispersion coefficient, Da. The dispersion model is used most often for non-ideal tubular reactors. The dispersion coefficient can be found by a pulse tracer experiment.
After a very, very narrow pulse of tracer is injected, molecular diffusion (and eddy diffusion in turbulent flow) cause to pulse to widen as the tracer molecules diffuse randomly in all directions. The convective transport equation is:
Finding the Dispersion Coefficient 1) For laminar flow Taylor-Aris Dispersion, the molecules diffuse across radial streamlines as well as axially to disperse the fluid.
2) 3)
To find Da for pipes in turbulent flow see Figure 14-6 To find Da for packed bed reactors see Figure 14-7
Using the RTD to find the Dispersion Coefficient. Results of the tracer test can be used to determine Per from E(t). We need to consider two sets of boundary conditions. 1. Closed-Closed Vessels
2. Open-Open Vessels
Due to the discontinuity at boundary due to forward diffusion, Ct(O-)=Ct0>Ct(O+) However, at the end of the reactor, Ct(L-)=Ct(L+)
(1)
Let = z/L,
and
For the closed-closed boundary condition the solution to the tracer balance at the exit ( = 1) , at any time , i.e., (1,) gives
where
(2)
From page 530 of Froment and Bischoff Chemical Reactor Analysis, 2 nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1966. Eigen Values i are found from the equation
01
(3)
We see from the equation for E(theta) that the exponential term dies out as the values of alpha i become large. then tm and Per is found from the relationship:
For an Open-Open Vessel Dispersion occurs upstream, downstream and within the reactor.
Because of the dispersion the mean residence time is greater than the space time. The molecules can flow out of the reactor and then diffuse back in.
Use RTD data to calculate tm, 2, and then Per (i.e. Da) and then use Da in calculating conversion. It can be shown that at steady state, the open-open boundary conditions reduce to the Dankwerts Boundary Conditions.
Let = CA/CA0, = z/L , Pe = UL/Da , and Da = k. The dimensionless balance on the concentration of A in the reaction zone is
At = 0 then
At = 1, then the solution is [See John B. Butt, Reaction Kinetics and Reactor Design, 2 nd Edition, page 378, Marcel Dekker, 2000.]
where The Polymath program used to plot versus is given below Polymath Program
Sketches of the dimensionless concentration profiles for different values of Peclet and Damkhler numbers are shown below
The following figures given the Polymath solutions for y versus l for different values of Pe and Da
Open Open System Upstream of the reaction zone the balance on A in dimensionless form is
the solution is
Rearranging
A typical profile is
The following profiles were obtained from the Polymath Program given above. Here 1 is the dimensionless concentration of A upstream of the reaction section where Da is greater than zero and is the dimensionless concentration of A in the reaction section.
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The goal is to model the real reactor with combinations of ideal reactors. CSTR with Bypass and Dead Volume
Two parameters and , the fraction of volume that is well-mixed (alpha), and the fraction of the stream that is bypassed (beta).
Reactor Balance
We now find the parameters a and b from a tracer experiment. We will choose a step tracer input
Model of Reactor
1. Use the tracer data to find and . 2. Then use the mole balances and the rate law to solve for CA1 and CA2.
Reactor 1: (Eqn. A) Rate Law: for a first order reaction or for a second order reaction
, k,
, and CA0.
Overall Conversion