Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is energy produced from controlled (i.e., non-explosive) nuclear reactions. Commercial plants currently use nuclear fission reactions to generate electricity. Electric utility reactors heat water to produce steam, which is then used to generate electricity. In 2009, 15% of the world's electricity came from nuclear power. Also, more than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built. Why use Nuclear Power? Several major reasons that people working in the field still remain optimistic about nuclear power are:

the energy produced per amount of material consumed is the highest available costs are competitive with coal, the major source used in the world uranium, the source material, is abundant plutonium, a by-product of commercial nuclear plant operation, can also be used as a fuel the amount of waste produced is the least of any major energy production process nuclear energy provides benefits other than electricity generation.

Energy Production Rates Uranium-235 is the isotope of uranium that is used in nuclear reactors. Uranium-235 can produce 3.7 million times as much energy as the same amount of coal. As an example, 7 trucks, each carrying 6 cases of 2-12 foot high fuel assemblies, can fuel a 1000 Megawatt-electrical (MWe) reactor for 1.5 years. During this period, ~ 2 metric tons of Uranium-235 (of the 100 metric tons of fuel - uranium dioxide) would be consumed. To operate a coal plant of the same output would require 1 train of 89-100 ton coal cars each EVERY day. Over 350,000 tons of ash would be produced AND over 4 million tons of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides would be released to the environment. Energy Production Costs The best example of cost comparison is shown by this graph provided by the Nuclear Energy Institute that compares average nuclear and coal production costs over recent years. Nuclear fuel costs are considerably less than coal. However, various capital, operating and maintenance costs for coal may be lower than nuclear. Thus, the 2 costs are comparable.

Courtesy NEI

The various components of energy generation account for the following:

Capital costs to build the plant and modifications after the plant is built Ongoing operation and maintenance costs Fuel costs US Department of Energy (US DOE) charges for ultimate spent fuel disposal US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (US NRC) charges for regulation

Typically, the plant capital expenses are depreciated over 30 to 40 years. Modifications are depreciated over the remaining life of the plant (usually taken as the end of the current license). The operating and maintenance costs and US DOE and US NRC charges are accounted for as an annual expense. Fuel costs are usually treated separately as a capital expense depreciated over a number of years. Related pages and figures provided on the site are:

A comparison of coal vs. nuclear costs Comparison of US electricity costs by state Major electricity regional grid systems in the US

Nuclear raw materials

Nuclear materials are the key ingredients in nuclear weapons. They include fissile, fussionable and source materials. Fissile materials are those which are composed of atoms that can be split by neutrons in a selfsustaining chain-reaction to release energy, and include plutonium-239 and uranium-235. Fussionable materials are those in which the atoms can be fused in order to release energy, and include deuterium and tritium. Source materials are those which are used to boost nuclear weapons by providing a source of additional atomic particles for fission. They include tritium, polonium, beryllium, lithium-6 and helium 1.Plutonium Plutonium is not found naturally in significant quantities. It is produced in a nuclear reactor through the absorption of neutrons by Uranium 238. The Plutonium emerges from a nuclear reactor as part of the mix in spent nuclear fuel, along with unused uranium and other highly radioactive fission products. To get plutonium into a usable form, a second key facility, a reprocessing plant, is needed to chemically separate out the plutonium from the other materials in spent fuel. A number of isotopes of plutonium are produced in a reactor, the most common being Pu-239 which is easily fissionable, and Pu-240 which is not. The relative proportion of Pu-239 determines the weapons grade of the plutonium. Reactor grade Pu, i.e. Pu with 18% or more Pu-240, can still be used to make a "crude" nuclear bomb. Plutonium is an alpha particle emitter and so does not penetrate the skin. However, when ingested into the body, plutonium is incredibly toxic as alpha particles cause a very high rate cell damage. It is possible, for example, to contract lung cancer from one millionth of a gram 2.Uranium Uranium occurs naturally in underground deposits consisting of a mixture of 0.7% uranium-235, which is easily fissionable, and about 99.3% uranium-238, which is not fissionable. Nuclear weapons require "enrichment" to increase the proportion of U235 to 90% or more. This is called Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU). Nuclear reactors require enrichment to about 3 - 5 % of U-235. This is called Low Enriched Uranium (LEU). HEU can be combined with plutonium to form the "pit", or core of a nuclear weapon, or it can be used alone as the nuclear explosive. The bomb dropped on Hiroshima used only HEU. About 15-20 kgs of HEU are sufficient to make a bomb without plutonium.

3.Tritium Tritium is a relatively rare form of hydrogen isotope with an atomic mass of three (one proton and two neutrons). It is used commercially, but only in minute quantities, for medical diagnostics and sign illumination. Tritium's primary function is to boost the yield of both fission and thermonuclear weapons. It is produced in fission reactors and high-energy accelerators by bombarding lithium or lithium compounds with high energy neutrons. Tritium decays rapidly with a half-life of 12.5 years, and thus must be replenished over time. For example, the U.S. has produced 225 kilograms since 1955. This has now decayed to an inventory of 75 kilograms. 4.Deuterium Deuterium is a stable, naturally-occurring isotope of hydrogen with an atomic mass of two (one proton and one neutron). There is approximately 1 part of deuterium to 5000 parts of normal hydrogen found in nature. Deuterium is sometimes called heavy hydrogen. In thermonuclear bombs deuterium is fused with tritium to release energy.

Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei), often producing free neutrons and photons (in the form of gamma rays), as well. Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic reaction which can release large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the fragments (heating the bulk material where fission takes place). For fission to produce energy, the total binding energy of the resulting elements has to be higher than that of the starting element. Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because the resulting fragments are not the same element as the original atom. uclear fission produces energy for nuclear power and to drive the explosion of nuclear weapons. Both uses are made possible because certain substances called nuclear fuels undergo fission when struck by free neutrons and in turn generate neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or at a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon. The amount of free energy contained in nuclear fuel is millions of times the amount of free energy contained in a similar mass of chemical fuel such as gasoline, making nuclear fission a very tempting source of energy. The products of nuclear fission, however, are on average far more radioactive than the heavy elements which are normally fissioned as fuel, and remain so for significant amounts of time, giving rise to a nuclear waste problem. Concerns over nuclear waste accumulation and over the destructive potential of nuclear weapons may counterbalance the desirable qualities of fission as an energy source, and give rise to ongoing political debate over nuclear power.

Nuclear fusion
In nuclear fusion two light atomic nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus and in doing so, release a large amount of energy. In a more general sense, the term can also refer to the production of net usable power from a fusion source, similar to the usage of the term "steam power." Most design studies for fusion power plants involve using the fusion reactions to create heat, which is then used to operate a steam turbine, which drives generators to produce electricity. Except for the use of a thermonuclear heat source, this is similar to most coal, oil, and gas-fired power stations as well as fission-driven nuclear power stations.

Nuclear reactor technology

A nuclear reactor is a device to initiate, control, and sustain a nuclear chain reaction. The most common use of nuclear reactors is for the generation of electrical power (see Nuclear power) and for the power in some ships (see Nuclear marine propulsion). This is usually accomplished by methods that involve using heat from the nuclear reaction to power steam turbines.

Working principle of NR
Just as conventional power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear reactors convert the thermal energy released from nuclear fission. Fission When a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation and free neutrons; collectively known as fission products.[1] A portion of these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a nuclear chain reaction. The reaction can be controlled by using neutron poisons, which absorb excess neutrons, and neutron moderators which reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons, which are more likely to be absorbed by other nuclei. Increasing or decreasing the rate of fission has a corresponding effect on the energy output of the reactor. Commonly used moderators include regular (light) water (75% of the world's reactors) solid graphite (20% of reactors) and heavy water (5% of reactors). Beryllium has also been used in some experimental types, and hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility. Heat generation The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways:

The kinetic energy of fission products is converted to thermal energy when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms. Some of the gamma rays produced during fission are absorbed by the reactor, their energy being converted to heat. Heat produced by the radioactive decay of fission products and materials that have been activated by neutron absorption. This decay heat source will remain for some time even after the reactor is shutdown. A kilogram of uranium-235 (U-235) converted via nuclear processes contains approximately three million times the energy of a kilogram of coal burned conventionally (7.2 1013 Joules per kilogram of uranium-235 versus 2.4 107 Joules per kilogram of coal)

Components of nuclear power plants

The key components common to most types of nuclear power plants are. Nuclear fuel Nuclear reactor core Neutron moderator Neutron poison Coolant (often the Neutron Moderator and the Coolant are the same, usually both purified water) Control rods Reactor vessel Boiler feedwater pump Steam generators (not in BWRs) Steam turbine Electrical generator

Condenser Cooling tower (not always required) Radwaste System (a section of the plant handling radioactive waste) Refueling Floor Spent fuel pool Nuclear safety systems o Reactor Protective System (RPS) o Emergency Diesel Generators o Emergency Core Cooling Systems (ECCS) o Standby Liquid Control System (emergency boron injection, in BWRs only) Containment building Control room Emergency Operations Facility Nuclear training facility (usually contains a Control Room simulator)

Reactor types
Classifications Nuclear Reactors are classified by several methods; a brief outline of these classification schemes is provided. Classification by type of nuclear reaction

Nuclear fission. Most reactors, and all commercial ones, are based on nuclear fission. They generally use uranium and its product plutonium as nuclear fuel, though a thorium fuel cycle is also possible. This article takes "nuclear reactor" to mean fission reactor unless otherwise stated. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that sustain the fission chain reaction: Thermal reactors use slowed or thermal neutrons. Almost all current reactors are of this type. These contain neutron moderator materials that slow neutrons until their neutron temperature is thermalized Fast neutron reactors use fast neutrons to cause fission in their fuel. They do not have a neutron moderator, and use less-moderating coolants. Maintaining a chain reaction requires the fuel to be more highly enriched in fissile material (about 20% or more) due to the relatively lower probability of fission versus capture by U-238. Nuclear fusion. Fusion power is an experimental technology, generally with hydrogen as fuel. While not currently suitable for power production, Farnsworth-Hirsch fusors are used to produce neutron radiation. Radioactive decay. Examples include radioisotope thermoelectric generators as well as other types of atomic batteries, which generate heat and power by exploiting passive radioactive decay.

Classification by moderator material Used by thermal reactors:

Graphite moderated reactors

Water moderated reactors o Heavy water reactors o Light water moderated reactors (LWRs). Light water reactors use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. When at operating temperature, if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That negative feedback stabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy water reactors tend to be more thoroughly thermalised than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, these types can use natural uranium/unenriched fuel. Light element moderated reactors. These reactors are moderated by lithium or beryllium. o Molten salt reactors (MSRs) are moderated by a light elements such as lithium or beryllium, which are constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts LiF and BeF 2. o Liquid metal cooled reactors, such as one whose coolant is a mixture of Lead and Bismuth, may use BeO as a moderator. Organically moderated reactors (OMR) use biphenyl and terphenyl as moderator and coolant.

Classification by coolant In thermal nuclear reactors (LWRs in specific), the coolant acts as a moderator that must slow down the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel. Water cooled reactor. There are 104 operating reactors in the United States. Of these, 69 are pressurized water reactors (PWR), and 35 are boiling water reactors (BWR).[8] o Pressurized water reactor (PWR) A primary characteristic of PWRs is a pressurizer, a specialized pressure vessel. Most commercial PWRs and naval reactors use pressurizers. During normal operation, a pressurizer is partially filled with water, and a steam bubble is maintained above it by heating the water with submerged heaters. During normal operation, the pressurizer is connected to the primary reactor pressure vessel (RPV) and the pressurizer "bubble" provides an expansion space for changes in water volume in the reactor. This arrangement also provides a means of pressure control for the reactor by increasing or decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer using the pressurizer heaters. Pressurised heavy water reactors are a subset of pressurized water reactors, sharing the use of a pressurized, isolated heat transport loop, but using heavy water as coolant and moderator for the greater neutron economies it offers. o Boiling water reactor (BWR) BWRs are characterized by boiling water around the fuel rods in the lower portion of a primary reactor pressure vessel. A boiling water reactor uses 235U, enriched as uranium dioxide, as its fuel. The fuel is assembled into rods that are submerged in water and housed in a steel vessel. The nuclear fission causes the water to boil, generating steam. This steam is pumped through pipes into turbines. The turbines are driven by the steam, and this process generates electricity.[9] During normal operation, pressure control is accomplished by controlling the amount of steam flowing from the reactor pressure vessel to the turbine. o Pool-type reactor Liquid metal cooled reactor. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. Liquid metal coolants have included sodium, NaK, lead, lead-bismuth eutectic, and in early reactors, mercury. o Sodium-cooled fast reactor o Lead-cooled fast reactor

Gas cooled reactors are cooled by a circulating inert gas, often helium in high-temperature designs, while carbon dioxide has been used in past British and French nuclear power plants. Nitrogen has also been used. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the reactor. Some reactors run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine. Older designs usually run the gas through a heat exchanger to make steam for a steam turbine. Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs) are cooled by circulating a molten salt, typically a eutectic mixture of fluoride salts, such as FLiBe. In a typical MSR, the coolant is also used a matrix in which the fissile material is dissolved.

Classification by generation Generation I reactor Generation II reactor (most current nuclear power plants) Generation III reactor (evolutionary improvements of existing designs) Generation IV reactor (technologies still under development) The "Gen IV"-term was dubbed by the DOE for developing new plant types in 2000.[10] In 2003 the French CEA was the first to refer to Gen II types in Nucleonics Week; "Etienne Pochon, CEA director of nuclear industry support, outlined EPR's improved performance and enhanced safety features compared to the advanced Generation II designs on which it was based.".[11] First mentioning of Gen III was also in 2000 in conjunction with the launch of the GIF plans. Classification by phase of fuel

Solid fueled Fluid fueled o Aqueous homogeneous reactor o Molten salt reactor Gas fueled

Classification by use

Electricity o Nuclear power plants Propulsion, see nuclear propulsion o Nuclear marine propulsion o Various proposed forms of rocket propulsion Other uses of heat o Desalination o Heat for domestic and industrial heating o Hydrogen production for use in a hydrogen economy Production reactors for transmutation of elements o Breeder reactors. Fast breeder reactors are capable of producing more fissile materials than they consume during the fission chain reaction (by converting fertile U-238 to Pu-239) which allows an operational fast reactor to generate more fissile material than it consumes. Thus, a breeder reactor, once running, can be re-fueled with natural or even depleted uranium.[12] o Creating various radioactive isotopes, such as americium for use in smoke detectors, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment.

o Production of materials for nuclear weapons such as weapons-grade plutonium Providing a source of neutron radiation (for example with the pulsed Godiva device) and positron radiation (e.g. neutron activation analysis and potassium-argon dating) Research reactor: Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel.

REACTORS
1. Pressurised heavy water reactor pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) is a nuclear power reactor, commonly using unenriched natural uranium as its fuel, that uses heavy water (deuterium oxide D2O) as its coolant and moderator. The heavy water coolant is kept under pressure in order to raise its boiling point, allowing it to be heated to higher temperatures without boiling, much as in a PWR. While heavy water is significantly more expensive than ordinary light water, it yields greatly enhanced neutron economy, allowing the reactor to operate without fuel enrichment facilities (mitigating the additional capital cost of the heavy water) and generally enhancing the ability of the reactor to efficiently make use of alternate fuel cycles. The key to maintaining a nuclear reaction within a nuclear reactor is to use the neutrons being released during fission to stimulate fission in other nuclei. With careful control over the geometry and reaction rates, this can lead to a self-sustaining chain reaction, a state known as "criticality". Advantages and disadvantages The use of heavy water moderator is the key to the PHWR system, enabling the use of natural uranium as fuel (in the form of ceramic UO2), which means that it can be operated without expensive uranium enrichment facilities. Additionally, the mechanical arrangement of the PHWR, which places most of the moderator at lower temperatures, is particularly efficient because the resulting thermal neutrons are "more thermal" than in traditional designs, where the moderator normally runs hot. This means that a PHWR is not only able to "burn" natural uranium and other fuels, but tends to do so more efficiently as well. Pressurised heavy water reactors do have some drawbacks. Heavy water generally costs hundreds of dollars per kilogram, though this is a trade-off against reduced fuel costs. It is also notable that the reduced energy content of natural uranium as compared to enriched uranium necessitates more frequent replacement of fuel; this is normally accomplished by use of an on-power refuelling system. The increased rate of fuel movement through the reactor also results in higher volumes of spent fuel than in reactors employing enriched uranium; however, as the unenriched fuel was less reactive, the heat generated is less, allowing the spent fuel to be stored much more compactly. 2. Light water reactor The light water reactor or LWR is a type of thermal reactor that uses light water as a coolant and neutron moderator (water, H2O) as opposed to heavy water as a coolant/moderator (deuterium oxide, 2H2O). Thermal reactors are the most common type of nuclear reactor, and light water reactors are the most common type of thermal reactor.

There are three varieties of light water reactors; the pressurized water reactor (PWR), the boiling water reactor (BWR), and the supercritical water reactor (SWR). The Russian abbreviation for LWR is VVR (or sometimes WWR), meaning water water reactor. Similarly, the Russian term for a PWR is VVER, meaning water water energy reactor. The light water reactor produces heat by controlled nuclear fission. The nuclear reactor core is the portion of a nuclear reactor where the nuclear reactions take place. It mainly consists of nuclear fuel and control elements. The pencil-thin nuclear fuel rods, each about 12 feet (3.7 m) long, are grouped by the hundreds in bundles called fuel assemblies. Inside each fuel rod, pellets of uranium, or more commonly uranium oxide, are stacked end to end. The control elements, called control rods, are filled with pellets of substances like hafnium or cadmium that readily capture neutrons. When the control rods are lowered into the core, they absorb neutrons, which thus cannot take part in the chain reaction. On the converse, when the control rods are lifted out of the way, more neutrons strike the fissile uranium-235 or plutonium-239 nuclei in nearby fuel rods, and the chain reaction intensifies. All of this is enclosed in a water-filled steel pressure vessel, called the reactor vessel. In the boiling water reactor, the heat generated by fission turns the water into steam, which directly drives the power-generating turbines. But in the pressurized water reactor, the heat generated by fission is transferred to a secondary loop via a heat exchanger. Steam is produced in the secondary loop, and the secondary loop drives the power-generating turbines. In either case, after flowing through the turbines, the steam turns back into water in the condenser.
Boiling water reactor

Pressurized Water Reactor.

The water required to cool the condenser is taken from a nearby river or ocean. It is then pumped back into the river or ocean, in warmed condition. The heat could also be dissipated via a cooling tower into the atmosphere. The United States uses LWR reactors for electric power production, in comparison to the heavy water reactors used in Canada

3. Molten salt reactor

Molten salt reactor scheme.

A molten salt reactor (MSR) is a type of nuclear fission reactor where the primary coolant is a molten salt mixture, which can run high temperatures (for higher thermodynamic efficiency) while staying at low vapor pressure for reduced mechanical stress and increased safety, and is less reactive than molten sodium coolant. The nuclear fuel may be solid fuel rods, or dissolved in the coolant itself, which eliminates fuel fabrication, simplifies reactor structure, equalizes burnup, and allows online reprocessing. In many designs the nuclear fuel is dissolved in the molten fluoride salt coolant as uranium tetrafluoride (UF4). The fluid becomes critical in a graphite core which serves as the moderator. Fluid fuel reactors have significantly different safety issues compared to solid fuel designs; the potential for major reactor accidents is reduced, while the potential for processing accidents is increased.

More recent research has focused on the practical advantages of the high-temperature low-pressure primary cooling loop. Many modern designs rely on ceramic fuel dispersed in a graphite matrix, with the molten salt providing low pressure, high temperature cooling. The salts are much more efficient at removing heat from the core, reducing the need for pumping, piping, and reducing the size of the core as these components are reduced in size.

4. Liquid metal cooled reactor

A Liquid metal cooled nuclear reactor, liquid metal fast reactor or LMFR is an advanced type of nuclear reactor where the primary coolant is a liquid metal. Liquid metal cooled reactors were first adapted for nuclear submarine use but have also been extensively studied for power generation applications. They have safety advantages because the reactor doesn't need to be kept under pressure, and they allow a much higher power density than traditional coolants. Disadvantages include difficulties associated with inspection and repair of a reactor immersed in opaque molten metal, and depending on the choice of metal, corrosion and/or production of radioactive activation products may be an issue.

The reactors are used in nuclear power plants to produce electricity from nuclear fuel.
Mercury Clementine was the very first liquid metal cooled nuclear reactor and used mercury coolant, thought to be the obvious choice since it has and is liquid at room temperature. However, because of disadvantages including high toxicity, high vapor pressure even at room temperature, low boiling point, producing noxious fumes when heated, relatively low thermal conductivity[1], and a high[2] neutron cross section, it has fallen out of favor. Sodium and NaK Sodium and NaK don't corrode steel to any significant degree and are compatible with many nuclear fuels, allowing for a wide choice of structural materials. They do however ignite spontaneously on contact with air and react violently with water, producing hydrogen gas. Neutron activation of sodium also causes these liquids to become intensely radioactive during operation, though the half-life is short hence their radioactivity doesn't pose an additional disposal concern. Lead Lead has excellent neutron properties (reflection, low absorption) and is a very potent radiation shield against gamma rays. The higher boiling point of lead provides safety advantages as it can efficiently cool the reactor even if it would reach several hundred degrees Celsius above normal operating conditions. However, because lead has a high melting point and a high vapor pressure, it is tricky to refuel and service a lead cooled reactor. The melting point can be lowered by alloying the lead with bismuth, but lead-bismuth eutectic is highly corrosive to most metals[3] used for structural materials.

Reprocessing of Spent
Plutonium Byproduct of Reactor Operation 95 to 97% of the fuel in the reactor is uranium-238. Some of this uranium transforms into Plutonium-239 and Plutonium-241 - usually about 1000 kg form after a year of operation. At the end of the cycle (a year to 2 years, typically), very little uranium-235 is left and about 30% of the power produced by the reactor comes from the plutonium.

To some, the plutonium is viewed negatively as the stuff bombs can be made from. To others, plutonium is a resource we need to make use of. Based on DOE projections of fuel assemblies that will be discharged as spent fuel through the year 2030, there would be enough plutonium present in the U.S. spent fuel assemblies to operate 20 reactors for 40 years each. Plutonium-239 decays very slowly (half life is 24,110 years). Thus, this is a resource if the reprocessing option is selected in the future. It should also be pointed out that some of the plutonium byproducts formed during the reactor operation, e.g. Pu-240, do reduce the effectiveness of plutonium as a bomb material by forcing more specialized separation of the Pu-239 isotope. Nuclear reprocessing separates components of spent nuclear fuel. Reprocessing serves multiple purposes, whose relative importance has changed over time:

Producing plutonium for nuclear weapons Recycling all actinides for fast breeder reactors, closing the nuclear fuel cycle, multiplying the energy extracted from natural uranium by more than 60.[1] Recycling plutonium once as MOX fuel for thermal reactors, extending energy extracted by about 12%[2] and slightly reducing plutonium stocks Allowing separate management (destruction or storage) of nuclear waste components: Materials separated from spent fuel Actinides: Plutonium Minor actinides Lighter elements: Activation products Cladding Reprocessed uranium Fission products

GENERAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION

DISADVANTAGES: 1. Nuclear power is a controversial method of producing electricity. Many people and environmental organisations are very concerned about the radioactive fuel it needs. 2. There have been serious accidents with a small number of nuclear power stations. The accident at Chernobyl (Ukraine) in 1986, led to 30 people being killed and over 100,000 people being evacuated. In the preceding years another 200,00 people were resettled away from the radioactive area. Radiation was even detected over a thousand miles away in the UK as a result of the Chernobyl accident. It has been suggested that over time 2500 people died as a result of the accident. 3. There are serious questions to be answered regarding the storage of radioactive waste produced through the use of nuclear power. Some of the waste remains radioactive (dangerous) for thousands of years and is currently stored in places such as deep caves and mines. 4. Storing and monitoring the radioactive waste material for thousands of years has a high cost. 5. Nuclear powered ships and submarines pose a danger to marine life and the environment. Old vessels can leak radiation if they are not maintained properly or if they are dismantled carelessly at the end of their working lives. 6. Many people living near to nuclear power stations or waste storage depots are concerned about nuclear accidents and radioactive leaks. Some fear that living in these areas can damage their health, especially the health of young children. 7. Many Governments fear that unstable countries that develop nuclear power may also develop nuclear weapons and even use them.

ADVANTAGES: 1. The amount of electricity produced in a nuclear power station is equivalent to that produced by a fossil fuelled power station. 2. Nuclear power stations do not burn fossil fuels to produce electricity and consequently they do not produce damaging, polluting gases. 3. Many supporters of nuclear power production say that this type of power is environmentally friendly and clean. In a world that faces global warming they suggest that increasing the use of nuclear power is the only way of protecting the environment and preventing catastrophic climate change. 4. Many developed countries such as the USA and the UK no longer want to rely on oil and gas imported from the Middle East, a politically unstable part of the world. 5. Countries such as France produce approximately 90 percent of their electricity from nuclear power and lead the world in nuclear power generating technology - proving that nuclear power is an economic alternative to fossil fuel power stations. 6. Nuclear reactors can be manufactured small enough to power ships and submarines. If this was extended beyond military vessels, the number of oil burning vessels would be reduced and consequently pollution.