Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA) Semester 6 BC0058 Artifical Intelligence

Assignment Set 1 1-Explain the relationship between data and intelligence? Ans AI is the branch of computer science concerned with the study and creation of computer systems that exhibit some form of intelligence: systems that learn new concepts and tasks, systems that can reason and draw useful conclusions about the world around us, systems that can understand a natural language or perceive and comprehend a visual scene, and systems that perform other types of feats that require human types of intelligence.An understanding of AI requires an understanding of related terms such as intelligence, knowledge, reasoning, thought, cognition, learning, and a number of computer-related terms. Dictionaries define intelligence as the ability to acquire, understand and apply knowledge, or the ability to exercise thought and reason. Of course, intelligence is more than this.Intelligence is the integrated sum of those feats which gives us the ability to remember a face not seen for thirty or more years, or to build and send rockets to the moon. The food for this intelligence is knowledge. Knowledge comes from processed information which at the root level comes from the data.

Relationship between Data and Intelligence

Another Definition of AI can be stated as: AI is the study of how to make computers do things which, at the moment, people do better. This definition is, of course, somewhat ephemeral because of its reference to the current state of computer science. And it fails to include some areas of potentially very large impact, namely problems that cannot now be solved well either by computers or people. But it provides a good outline of what constitutes AI, and it avoids the philosophical issues that dominate attempts to define the meaning of either artificial or intelligence. A good general definition of AI could be:

AI is the part of computer science concerned with designing intelligent computer systems, that is, computer systems that exhibit the characteristics we associate with intelligence in human behaviour understanding language, learning, reasoning and solving problems.

2-Explain briefly about the Mundane tasks, Formal tasks and Expert tasks of artificial intelligence? Ans One possible classification of AI tasks is into 3 classes: Mundane tasks, Formal tasks and Expert tasks. Mundane Tasks Perception Vision Speech Natural Language understanding, generation and translation Common-sense Reasoning Simple reasoning and logical symbol manipulation Robot Control Formal Tasks Games -Chess Deep Blue recently beat Gary Kasparov - Backgammon - Draughts - GO To solve these problems we must explore a large number of solutions quickly and choose the Best One. Mathematics -Geometry and Logic Logic Theorist: It proved mathematical theorems. It actually proved several theorems from Classical Math Textbooks - Integral Calculus Programs such as Mathematical and Mathcad and perform complicated symbolic integration and differentiation. Proving Properties of Programs e.g. correctness Manipulate Symbols and reduce problem (usually recursively), until the answer is obvious. That is, it can be looked up in a table. Expert Tasks Engineering - Design - Fault finding - Manufacturing Planning Scientific Analysis Medical Diagnosis Financial Analysis 3. Explain about the Depth search first algorithm with example.

Ans Depth-first searches are performed by diving downward into a tree as quickly as possible. It does this by always generating a child node from the most recently expended node, then generating that childs children, and so on until a goal is found or some cutoff point d is reached. If a goal is not found when a leaf node is reached or at the cutoff point, the program backtracks to the most recently expended node and generates another of its children. This process continues until a goal is found or failure occurs. This search is very reliable but sometimes can take a long time or even turn into an exhaustive search (a search that looks at every point until it reaches the goal). The Depth-First search can also be modified to go from the right to the left. Time Complexity of Depth-First Search The time complexity of Depth-First search is O(bd). Space Complexity of Depth-First Search The space complexity of Depth-First search is O(d) since only the path from the starting node to the current node need to be stored. Therefore, if the depth cutoff is d, the space complexity is just O(d). Advantages: Always finds the goal The depth-first search is preferred over the breadth-first search when the search tree is known to have a plentiful number of goals. It requires less memory as space complexity is O(d) compared to O(bd) of breadth-first search. Disadvantages: Often can be slow Can result in an exhaustive search Can get stuck in long paths that dont reach the goal The depth cutoff introduces some problems. If it is set too shallow, goals may be missed; if it is set too deep, extra computation may be performed. 4. Explain about state space search briefly. Ans State space search is a process used in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) in which successive configurations or states of an instance are considered, with the goal of finding a goal state with a desired property. The concept of State Space Search is widely used in Artificial Intelligence. The idea is that a problem can be solved by examining the steps which might be taken towards its solution. Each action takes the solver to a new state.In AI, problems are often modeled as a state space, a set of states that a problem can be in. The set of states form a graph where two states are connected if there is an operation that can be performed to transform the first state into the second.State space search as used in AI differs from traditional computer science search methods because the state space is implicit: the typical state space graph is much too large to generate and store in memory. Instead, nodes are generated as they are explored, and typically discarded thereafter. A solution to a combinatorial search instance may consist of the goal state itself, or of a path from some initial state to the goal state. A state space consists of:

 A representation of the states the system can be in. In a board game, for example, the board represents the current state of the game. A set of operators that can change one state into another state. In a board game, the operators are the legal moves from any given state. Often the operators are represented as programs that change a state representation to represent the new state. An initial state. A set of final states; some of these may be desirable, others undesirable. This set is often represented implicitly by a program that detects terminal states. The classic example is of the Farmer who needs to transport a Chicken, a Fox and some Grain across a river one at a time. The Fox will eat the Chicken if left unsupervised. Likewise the Chicken will eat the Grain. In this case, the State is described by the positions of the Farmer, Chicken, Fox and Grain. The solver can move between States by making a legal move (which does not result in something being eaten). Non-legal moves are not worth examining. The solution to such a problem is a list of linked States leading from the Initial State to the Goal State. This may be found either by starting at the Initial State and working towards the Goal state or vice-versa. The required State can be worked towards by either: Depth-First Search: Exploring each strand of a State Space in turn. Breadth-First Search: Exploring every link encountered, examining the state space a level at a time. 5. What are the drawbacks of hill climbing technique algorithm and the solutions for it? Ans 6. Prove that A* is optimal. Ans The catch with A* is that even though it is complete, optimally efficient, it still cant always be used, because for most problems, the number of nodes within the goal contour search space is stillexponential in the length of the solution.Similarly to breadth first search, however the major difficulty with A* is the amount of space thatit uses 7. What are the properties that should be possessed by a knowledge representation system? Explain briefly. Ans Several kinds of information need to be represented: Long-term Knowledge: This is accumulated knowledge about the world. It can include simple data, general rules (every person has a mother), programs, and heuristic knowledge (knowledge of what is likely to work). The collection of long-term knowledge is often called a knowledge base(KB). Human long-term memory seems unlimited, but writing to it is slow.

Current Data: A representation of the facts of the current situation. Human short-term memory is very limited (7 2 items Conjectures: Courses of action or reasoning that are being considered but are not yet final. These will be represented in a knowledge representation language. Questions that are not directly in the KB may be answered by inference. Properties for Knowledge Representation Systems The following properties should be possessed by a knowledge representation system. Representational Adequacy the ability to represent the required knowledge; Inferential Adequacy the ability to manipulate the knowledge represented to produce new knowledge corresponding to that inferred from the original; Inferential Efficiency the ability to direct the inferential mechanisms into the most productive directions by storing appropriate guides; Acquisition Efficiency the ability to acquire new knowledge using automatic methods wherever possible rather than reliance on human intervention. To date no single system optimizes all of the above. 8. Comment on Why does a human think? Ans Why does a human think? Before we define the reasoning model, it is appropriate to put a question Why does human think? Reasoning is a mediate generalized reflection of appreciable and regular dependences of reality. As such it is an instrument of human life cycle providing. Thinking and acting are the specific human features of man. They are peculiar to all human beings. They are, beyond membership in the zoological species homo sapiens, the characteristic mark of man as man. Since a human life cycle is constituted by a set of profession/living activities, reasoning serves these activities achievement. At that, knowledge is used as the human activities awareness. To Ludwig Edler von Mises human activity is a goal-seeking behavior and human action is necessarily always rational. And so by human activity we mean: Human activity is time-, place-, state-, and event- ordered set of multidisciplinary actions aimed to achievement of socio-specified goal.

9. Discuss the Role of Logic in Artificial Intelligence. Ans The Role of Logic in Arti_cial Intelligence Theoretical computer science developed out of logic, the theory of computation (if this is to be considered a di_erent subject from logic), and some related areas of mathematics.3 So theoretically minded computer scientists are well informed about logic even when they aren't logicians. Computer scientists in general are familiar with the idea that logic provides techniques for analyzing the inferential properties of languages, and with the distinction between a high-level logical analysis of a reasoning problem and its implementations. Logic, for instance, can provide a speci_cation for a programming language by characterizing a mapping from programs to the computations that they license. A compiler that implements the language can be incomplete, or even unsound, as long as in some sense it approximates the logical speci_cation. This makes it possible for the involvement of logic in AI applications to vary from relatively weak uses in which the logic informs the implementation process with analytic insights, to strong uses in which the implementation algorithm can be shown to be sound and complete. In some cases, a working system is inspired by ideas from logic, but acquires features that at _rst seem logically problematic but can later be explained by developing new ideas in logical theory. This sort of thing has happened, for instance, in logic programming. In particular, logical theories in AI are independent from implementations. They can be used to provide insights into the reasoning problem without directly informing the implementation. Direct implementations of ideas from logic|theorem-proving and modelconstruction techniques|are used in AI, but the AI theorists who rely on logic to model their problem areas are free to use other implementation techniques as well. Thus, in [Moore, 1995b, Chapter 1], Robert C. Moore distinguishes three uses of logic in AI; as a tool of analysis, as a basis for knowledge representation, and as a programming language. A large part of the e_ort of developing limited-objective reasoning systems goes into the

management of large, complex bodies of declarative information. It is generally recognized in AI that it is important to treat the representation of this information, and the reasoning that goes along with it, as a separate task, with its own research problems. The evolution of expert systems illustrates the point. The earliest expert systems, such as Mycin (a program that reasons about bacterial infections, see [Buchanan and Shortli_e, 1984]), were based entirely on large systems of procedural rules, with no separate representation of the background knowledge|for instance, the taxonomy of the infectious organisms about which the system reasoned was not represented. Later generation expert systems show a greater modularity in their design. A separate knowledge representation component is useful for software engineering purposes|it is much better to have a single representation of a general fact that can have many di_erent uses, since this makes the system easier to develop and to modify. And this design turns out to be essential in enabling these systems to deliver explanations as well as mere conclusions.4 10. What is Skolemization? How is it accomplished? Ans Skolemization is the process of removing existential quantifiers by elimination. In the simpletranslate into P (A), where A is a constant that does not appear elsewh ere in the KB. But thereis the added complication that some of the existential quantifiers, even though move left, may still benested inside a universal quantifier.Skolemization is accomplished as follows: If the first (leftmost) quantifier in an expression is an existential quantifier, replace alloccurrences of the variable it quantifier with an arbitrary constant not appearingelsewhere and delete the quantifier. The same procedure should be followed for all otherexistential quantifiers not preceded by a universal quantifier, in each case, using differentconstant symbols in the substitution For each existential quantifier that is preceded by one or more universal quantifiers (iswithin the scope of one or more universal quantifiers) replace all occurrences of theexistentially quantified variable by a function symbol not appearing elsewhere in theexpression. The argument assigned to the function should match all the variablesappearing in each universal quantifier which preceded the existential quantifier. Thisexistential quantifier should then be deleted. The same procedure should be repeated foreach remaining

existential quantifier using a different function symbol and choosingfunction arguments that correspond to all universally quantified variables that precede theexistentially quantified variable being replaced.Example of Skolemization Consider Everyone has a heart: Has (x, y) If we just replaced y with a constant, H, we would get, Has (x, H) Which says that everyone has the same heart H.? We need to say that the heart they have is notnecessarily shared, that is, it can be found by applying to each person a function that maps from personto heart: Has (x, F(x)) Where F is a function name that does not appear elsewhere in the KB. F is called a SkolemFunction. In general, the existentially quantified variable is replaced by a term that consists of a SkolemFunction applied to all the variables universally quantified outside the existential quantifier in question.Skolemization eliminates all existentially quantified variables, so we are now free to drop the universalquantifiers, because any variable must be universally quantified