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To begin, it is useful to determine whether the function is even or odd, since this will eliminate half the calculations you
need to do.
. . . . . .
0
1
2T 1T 1T 2T
Its pretty clear that this signal is odd.
Before we start, it is helpful to get the formula for the function over 1 period, whichever is the easiest to work with. In
this case, the period from 0 < t < T is the easiest.
x(t) =
t
T
for 0 < t < T
Since this function is odd, it means that a
n
= 0 n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
But as you can see, a
0
is not included in this. To nd a
o
, you can use the function to nd an average value over 1 period
and solve for a
0
a
0
2
=
1
T
T
_
0
x(t)dt
a
o
=
2
T
T
_
0
x(t) dt =
2
T
T
_
0
t
T
dt =
2
T
2
T
_
0
t dt =
2
T
2
_
t
2
2
_
T
0
=
2
T
2
T
2
2
= 1
a
0
= 1
Now we need to solve for b
n
, which is governed by the following equation.
b
n
=
2
T
T
_
0
x(t) sin(n
0
t) dt where
0
=
2
T
b
n
=
2
T
T
_
0
x(t) sin
_
2n
T
t
_
dt
Lets solve this.
b
n
=
2
T
T
_
0
t
T
sin
_
2n
T
t
_
dt =
2
T
2
T
_
0
t sin
_
2n
T
t
_
dt
Integration by parts is necessary here.
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u = t dv = sin
_
2n
T
t
_
dt
du = dt v =
T
2n
cos
_
2n
T
t
_
=
2
T
2
_
_
t
T
2n
cos
_
2n
T
t
_
+
T
_
0
T
2n
cos
_
2n
T
t
_
dt
_
_
=
2
T
2
_
t
T
2n
cos
_
2n
T
t
_
+
T
2
(2n)
2
sin
_
2n
T
t
__
T
0
=
2
T
2
_

T
2
2n
cos (2n) +
T
2
(2n)
2
sin (2n)
_
Since n is only of integer value, sin (2n) = 0 and cos (2n) = 1
=
2
T
2
_

T
2
2n
_
The T
2
and 2 cancel out, leaving us with
b
n
=
1
n
2
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Note that all the colors of the variables in the three convolution examples are just used as an aid in understanding variable
substitution. The colors can be removed and it still makes sense, its just easier to see when youre substituting in the same
variable with itself shifted by a constant.
6.3
f
1
(t)
1 2
1
0
f
2
(t)
1 2 3
1
0
You need to transform f
2
(t) so it is reversed and along the y-axis.
Do this by rst adding 1 to the inside
f
2
(t + 1)
1 2
1
0
Then making it negative on the inside
f
2
((t + 1))
2 1
1
0
To convolve them together, start where they rst meet and continue until you reach a section where the formula for either
of the lines changes.
You need to know the equations of the lines for each segment you are working with.
Here f
2
() is always equal to 1, while f
1
() =
_
0 < < 1
1 1 < < 2
Lets start with the rst region, dened where 0 < < 1
t t-2 2 1 1 2
1
0
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f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) =
t
_
0
()(1)d =
t
_
0
d =

2
2

t
0
=
t
2
2
for 0 < t < 1
Now for the second region we will have to do two integrals, one for the part of the box in the region from 1 < < 2 and
one for the part of the box in 0 < < 1
t t-2 2 1 1 2
1
0
f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) =
1
_
0
()(1)d +
t
_
1
(1)(1)d =
1
_
0
d +
t
_
1
1d =

2
2

1
0
+ |
t
1
= t
1
2
for 1 < t < 2
The third region is when t is no longer in the bounds of integration, but we now have to deal with t 2
t t-2 2 1 1 2 3
1
0
f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) =
1
_
t2
d +
2
_
1
1d =

2
2

1
t2
+ |
2
1
=
3
2

(t 2)
2
2
for 2 < t < 3
Now the last region is the only one left, this is where 3 < < 4 and even though t wont be in there at all, the tail end
still is!
t t-2 2 1 1 2 3 4
1
0
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f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) =
2
_
t2
(1)(1)d = |
2
t2
= t 4 for 3 < t < 4
The entire piecewise function for f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) can now be written.
f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) =
_

_
t
2
2
0 < t < 1
t
1
2
1 < t < 2
3
2

(t2)
2
2
2 < t < 3
t 4 3 < t < 4
0 otherwise
Using the Time Shifting property of convolution, we know that f
1
(t) f
2
(t +1) = f(t +1). However, we want to get f(t) !
To do this, make a variable substitution in the piecewise function where t = t + 1 and t 1 = t
f(t) =
_

_
(t1)
2
2
0 < (t 1) < 1
(t 1)
1
2
1 < (t 1) < 2
3
2

((t1)2)
2
2
2 < (t 1) < 3
(t 1) 4 3 < (t 1) < 4
0 otherwise
Solving this gives you
f(t) =
_

_
(t1)
2
2
1 < t < 2
t
3
2
2 < t < 3
3
2

(t3)
2
2
3 < t < 4
t 5 4 < t < 5
0 otherwise
Note that in Gajics textbook the answer he has underneath the problem statement is wrong, since he substituted in
t = t + 2 and t 2 = t (most likely an accident)
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6.4
t
f
1
(t) =
_
t 0 < t < 1
0 otherwise
1 2
1
0
t
f
2
(t) =
_
t 1 1 < t < 2
0 otherwise
1 2 3
1
0
We have to add 1 from the inside f
2
(t) to get it next to he origin. To do this, substitute t = t 1 and t + 1 = t
t
f
2
(t + 1) =
_
t 0 < t < 1
0 otherwise
1 2
1
0
We now ip it over the axis by making the inside negative.
t
f
2
((t + 1)) =
_
t 1 < t < 0
0 otherwise
1 2
1
0
Note that we need to get f
2
in terms of t where our = t. We therefore substitute t ( +1) in for into the piecewise
function to get the following equation. We also need to get f
1
(t) in terms of tau. Simply substitute in for t and you have
it.
f
2
(t ( + 1)) =
_
t (t 1) < < t
0 otherwise
f
1
() =
_
0 < < 1
0 otherwise
Having done this, we can now convolve f
1
(t) and f
2
(t + 1)
t
1 1 2 3
1
0 t t 1
f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) =
t
_
0
f
1
()f
2
(t ( + 1))d =
t
_
0
()(t )d =
t
_
0
t
2
d =
_

2
2
t

3
3
_

t
0
=
t
3
6
for 0 < t < 1
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The next integral just so happens to be the last integral, just because there is only 1 more area where the bounds touch
before the signals arent on top of each other at all.
t
1 1 2 3
1
0 t t 1
f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) =
1
_
t1
f
1
()f
2
(t ( + 1))d =
1
_
t1
()(t )d =
1
_
t1
t
2
d =
_

2
2
t

3
3
_

1
t1
t
2

1
3

(t 1)
2
2
t +
(t 1)
3
3
for 1 < t < 2
We can now write out the piecewise function for f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) = f(t + 1)
f
1
(t) f
2
(t + 1) = f(t + 1) =
_

_
t
3
6
0 < t < 1
t
2

1
3

(t1)
2
2
t +
(t1)
3
3
1 < t < 2
0 otherwise
Since we have f(t + 1) and we want f(t), we must do a nal variable substitution to get the correct answer.
Here t = t 1 and t + 1 = t
f(t) =
_

_
(t1)
3
6
0 < (t 1) < 1
(t1)
2

1
3

((t1)1)
2
2
(t 1) +
((t1)1)
3
3
1 < (t 1) < 2
0 otherwise
Which when solved leaves you with the following.
f(t) =
_

_
(t1)
3
6
1 < t < 2
(t1)
2

1
3

(t2)
2
2
(t 1) +
(t2)
3
3
2 < t < 3
0 otherwise
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6.5
t
f
1
(t)
1 2
1
0
t
f
2
(t)
1 2
1
0
Since f
2
(t)s edge is already at the y-axis, simply ip it.
t
f
2
(t)
1
1
0
It is necessary to gure out what the equations of the functions are in what intervals.
f
2
() = 1 Thats why we picked it to be shued.
f
1
() =
_
1 0 < < 1
1 1 < < 2
Now start shuin that little bitch across f
1
(t)

1 1 2
1
0 t t 1
f
1
(t) f
2
(t) =
t
_
0
(1 )(1)d =
t
_
0
1 d =

2
2

t
0
t
t
2
2
for 0 < t < 1
The next interval will require two separate integrals, one for the head and one for the tail.
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1 1 2
1
0 t t 1
f
1
(t) f
2
(t) =
1
_
t1
(1 )(1)d +
t
_
1
( 1)(1)d =
_


2
2
_

1
t1
+
_

2
2

_

t
1
= t
2
3t +
5
2
for 1 < t < 2
Now there is only one integrable region left, the tail end over 1 < < 2

1 1 2
1
0 t t 1
f
1
(t) f
2
(t) =
2
_
t1
( 1)(1)d =

2
2

2
t1
=
t
2
2
+ 2t
3
2
for 2 < t < 3
We can now write the full piecewise function for f
1
(t) f
2
(t) = f(t)
f
1
(t) f
2
(t) = f(t) =
_

_
t
t
2
2
0 < t < 1
t
2
3t +
5
2
1 < t < 2

t
2
2
+ 2t
3
2
2 < t < 3
0 otherwise
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7.6 d
First I got
3
+ 3
2
+ 3 + 1 = 0
I guessed that + 1 would factor into it and did long division, shown below using the polynom package
x
2
+ 2x + 1
x + 1
_
x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 3x + 1
x
3
x
2
2x
2
+ 3x
2x
2
2x
x + 1
x 1
0
And
2
+ 2 + 1 is easy to factor so we have ( + 1)
3
= 0 to give us
1
=
2
=
3
= 1
Giving us h
0
(t) = (C
1
+tC
2
+t
2
C
3
)e
t
From equation 7.41 we know that
h
0
(0
+
) = 0 = C
1
h

0
(0
+
) = 0 = C
2
h

0
(0
+
) = 1 = 2C
3
C
3
=
1
2
h
0
(t) =
1
2
t
2
e
t
h

0
(t) =
1
2
_
t
2
+ 2t

e
t
h

0
(t) =
1
2
_
t
2
4t + 2

e
t
h(t) =
_
t
2
4t + 2

e
t
+
1
2
_
t
2
+ 2t

e
t
+t
2
e
t
h(t) =
_
t
2
4t + 2
1
2
t
2
+t +t
2
_
e
t
h(t) =
_
3
2
t
2
3t + 2
_
e
t
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7.10 a
solve y
h
(t)

2
+ 2 + 1 = 0
( + 1)
2
Double Root
y
h
(t) = (C
1
+C
2
t)e
t
solve y
p
(t)
F(s) =
1
s + 3
H(s) =
1
s
2
+ 2s + 1
F(s)H(s) =
1
(s + 3)(s + 1)
2
=
k
1
s + 3
+
k
2
s + 1
+
k
3
(s + 1)
2
=
1
4
1
s + 3

1
4
1
s + 1
+
1
2
1
(s + 1)
2
L
1
_
1
4
1
s + 3

1
4
1
s + 1
+
1
2
1
(s + 1)
2
_
=
1
4
e
3t

1
4
e
t
+
1
2
te
t
Putting them together to get y(t)
Solve for the Constants
y(0

) = 1 = C
1
y

(0

) = 0 = (1)(C
1
+ 0) + (C
2
) C
2
= 1
y(t) = e
t
+te
t
+
1
4
e
3t

1
4
e
t
+
1
2
te
t
=
1
4
e
3t
+
3
4
e
t
+
3
2
te
t
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7.14
y
h
(t)

2
+ 2 + 1 = 0

1
=
2
= 1 Double Root
y
h
(t) = (C
1
+C
2
t)e
t
y
h
(0

) = y(0

) = 1 = C
1
y

h
(0

) = y

(0

) = 2 = (1)(C
1
+C
2
(0))e
0
+ (e
0
)(C
2
)
C
2
C
1
= 2
C
2
= 3
y
h
(t) = (1 + 3t)e
t
y
p
(t)
h
0
(t) = (C
1
+C
2
t)e
t
h
0
(0
+
) = C
1
= 0
h
0
(0
+
) = C
2
= 1
h
0
(t) = te
t
h(t) = te
t
since the numerator of the transfer function is 1
y
p
(t) =
t
_
0

(e

)(u(t ))dt =
t
_
0

d
This requires integration by parts
u = dv = e

d
du = d v = e

y
p
(t) = e

+
t
_
0

d = e

|
t
0
= 1 te
t
e
t
y(t)
y(t) = y
h
(t) +y
p
(t) = e
t
+ 3te
t
+ 1 te
t
e
t
y(t) = 2te
t
+ 1
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7.21 a
n = 2, m = 1 h[1] = b
1
= 1
h[k + 2] + 4h[k + 1] + 4h[k] = [k + 1] + 4[k]
For k = 0
h[2] + 4h[1] + 4h[0] = [1] + 4[0]
h[2] + 4 = 4
h[2] = 0
Now for characteristic equation

2
+ 4 + 4 = 0
( + 2)
2
= 0

1
= 2,
2
= 2 Double Root
h[k] = (C
1
+C
2
k)(2)
k
Now solve for constants
h[1] = (C
1
+C
2
(1))(2)
1
= 1
C
1
=
_
C
2
+
1
2
_
h[2] = (C
1
+C
2
(2))(2)
2
= 0
4C
1
+ 8C
2
= 0
C
1
= 2C
2
C
1
= 1, C
2
=
1
2
Therefore
h[k] = (2)
k
+
1
2
k(2)
k
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7.21 b
n = 2, m = 1
h[n m] = h[1] = b
1
= 1
h[1] = 1 & h[0] = 0
h[k + 2] +
1
6
h[k + 1]
1
6
h[k] = [k + 1] +[k]
For k = 0
h[2] +
1
6
h[1]
1
6
h[0] = [1] +[0]
h[2] +
1
6
= 1
h[2] =
5
6
Now solve the characteristic equation

2
+
1
6

1
6

1
=
1
2
&
2
=
1
3
h[k] = C
1
_

1
2
_
k
+C
2
_
1
3
_
k
h[1] = 1 = C
1
_

1
2
_
1
+C
2
_
1
3
_
1
C
2
=
3
2
C
1
+ 3
h[2] =
5
6
= C
1
_

1
2
_
2
+C
2
_
1
3
_
2
Solving for these we get
C
1
=
6
5
& C
2
=
24
5
Therefore
h[k] =
6
5
_

1
2
_
k
+
24
5
_
1
3
_
k
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7.22
To solve this you need to rst determine what n and m are. n = 5 and m = 3.
Therefore h[n m] = h[5 3] = h[2] = b
m
= b
3
= 1
h[2] = 1
And we also know that h[1] = 0 and h[0] = 0 since n m > 1 > 0
Now substitute f[k] = [k] and y[k] = h[k] to get the template equation.
h[k + 5] 3h[k + 3] + 4h[k + 2] h[k + 1] + 2h[k] = [k + 3] 2[k + 2] + 5[k + 1] +[k]
Sift through the dierent values of k to get all the initial conditions
For k = 2:
h[3] 3h[1] + 4h[0] = [1] 2[0]
h[3] = 2
For k = 1:
h[4] 3h[2] + 4h[1] h[0] = [2] 2[1] + 5[0]
h[4] 3(1) = 5
h[4] = 8
For k = 0:
h[5] 3h[3] + 4h[2] h[1] + 2h[0] = [3] 2[2] + 5[1] +[0]
h[5] 3(2) + 4(1) = 1
h[5] = 1 6 4 = 9
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7.28 b
To gure out stability, you need to nd the eigen values and the poles.

3
+ 2
2
+ + 2 = 0
x
2
+ 1
x + 2
_
x
3
+ 2x
2
+x + 2
x
3
2x
2
x + 2
x 2
0
( + 2)(
2
+ 1) = 0

1,2
= j and
3
= 2
There are no double roots. The system is marginally stable since the real part of the roots are 0, however not
asymptotically stable since they are equal to zero for
1
and
2
This is not BIBO stable since there are two eigenvalues which are imaginary.
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7.32 a

2
+ 1.5 1 = 0
=
1.5
_
1.5
2
4(1)(1)
2(1)
=

3
2

_
25
4
2(1)
=
3
4

5
4

1
=
1
2
,
2
= 2
Since the one eigenvalue is outside the unit circle, this is unstable.
Also it is not BIBO stable since the eigenvalues are not in the unit circle.
17
D
a
n
i
e
l
T
o
w
n
s
e
n
d
12.9 a
M
1
(s) =
25
s
2
+ 8s + 25
=

2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
From this its pretty easy to see that
n
=

25 = 5
Also we can see that 8 = 2
n
Plugging in for
n
we can solve for
=
8
10
=
4
5
is really the only variable we need to determine the MPOS.
MPOS = e

1
2
_
= e

_
_
_
_
_
4
5

_
1
4
5
2
_
_
_
_
_
If you plug that shit into your calculator youll get about 1.52%
To determine t
5%
s
, use the equation in the book.
t
5%
s

3

n
=
3
4
5
5
t
5%
s

3
4
18
D
a
n
i
e
l
T
o
w
n
s
e
n
d
12.10
Since H(s) =
1
12
s
2
+
_
1
1
+
1
2
_
s +
1
12
N(s) =
1
12
and D(s) = s
2
+
_
1
1
+
1
2
_
s +
1
12
M(s) =
N(s)
N(s) +D(s)
=
1
12
s
2
+
_
1
1
+
1
2
_
s +
2
12
You need the numerator to be the same as the last term of the denominator, so factor out a
1
2
M(s) =
_
1
2
_
2N(s)
N(s) +D(s)
=
1
2
2
12
s
2
+
_
1
1
+
1
2
_
s +
2
12
Use the equations to nd
n
and

n
=
_
2
12
=
_
1
1
+
1
2
_
2
_
2
12
19
D
a
n
i
e
l
T
o
w
n
s
e
n
d
12.13
G(s) = 1 (unity feedback)
H(s) =
114.26s
2
+ 1535.49s + 3592.09
s
4
+ 24.32s
3
+ 151.92s
2
For Unit Step Error
K
p
= lim
s0
{G(s)H(s)} = lim
s0
_
114.26s
2
+ 1535.49s + 3592.09
s
4
+ 24.32s
3
+ 151.92s
2
_
=
e
step
ss
=
1
1 +K
p
= 0
For Unit Ramp Error
K
v
= lim
s0
{sG(s)H(s)} = lim
s0
_
114.26s
2
+ 1535.49s + 3592.09
s
3
+ 24.32s
2
+ 151.92s
_
=
e
ramp
ss
=
1
K
v
= 0
For Unit Parabolic Error
K
a
= lim
s0
{s
2
G(s)H(s)} = lim
s0
_
114.26s
2
+ 1535.49s + 3592.09
s
2
+ 24.32s + 151.92
_
=
3592.09
151.92
23.6446
e
parabolic
ss
=
2
K
a
=
2
23.6446
= 0.0846
20