CONTROLLING OF APPLIANCES USING CARD

A mini project report submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING AWARDED BY JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY KAKINADA
B.SINDHURI (08H41A0412) B.SARITHA (08H41A0409) BY Under the esteemed guidance of Mr.B.V.RAMANA, B.E, M.Tech, MISTE Assistant professor Department of ECE N.BHARGAVI (08H41A0444) V.S.R.PRASAD (08H41A0459)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BVC INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE AMALAPURAM 2011-12

B V C INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE AMALAPURAM 533201

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify the mini project work CONTROLLING OF APPLIANCES USING CARD submitted by B.SINDHURI, N. BHARGAVI, B.SARITHA, V.S.R.PRASAD are examined and adjudged as sufficient as a partial requirement For the BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

awarded by Jawaharlal Technological University, Kakinada is a bonafide record of the work done by group of students under my guidance and supervision.

Project Guide Mr.B.V.RAMANA, B.E, M.Tech, MISTE MISTE DEPARTMENT OF ECE

Head of the Department MR.B.V.RAMANA, BE, M TECH,

DEPARTMENT OF ECE

B V C INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE AMALAPURAM 533201

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify the mini project work CONTROLLING OF APPLIANCES USING CARD submitted by B.SINDHURI, N. BHARGAVI, B.SARITHA, V.S.R.PRASAD are examined and adjudged as sufficient as a partial requirement For the BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING awarded by Jawaharlal Technological University, Kakinada is a bonafide record of the work done by group of students under my guidance and supervision.

Project External Examiner................ Project Internal Examiner................ Head of the Department...................

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Written words have unfortunate tendency to degenerate genuine gratitude into a formality. However it is the only way to record ones feelings permanently. We were bestowed the golden opportunity to conduct our Project on Electronic Jam, and hence take this opportunity to express my heartfelt thanks to all those who have been associated with my project. We would like to thank our principal Dr.G.M.V.Prasad, M.Tech, PhD and the management of B.V.C.I.T.S for providing their cooperation for completing the work in time. We express my heartfelt gratitude to our Head of the Department and our project guide Mr. B. V. Ramana, M.Tech, MISTE, E.C.E department, for providing us with endless support and encouragement in all our endeavours at every movement during our project. We would like to place on record the constant encouragement, support and guidance that we received from him in abundance. His valuable advice helped us tremendously in improving the quality of our dissertation. We are thankful both teaching and non-teaching staff members of E.C.E department for their kind cooperation and all sorts of help bringing out this project work successfully. Last but not the least; we acknowledge operation and collaboration. B.SINDHURI N.BHARGAVI B.SARITHA V.S.R.PRASAD all our fellow students for their co-

ABSTRACT
Card lock system can be used as a lock for important electronic and electrical appliances. Using this circuit we can lock and unlock seven devices. A simple plastic card acts as a key to each device. To unlock the appliances the corresponding card should be inserted in to the card slot. The card is inserted just like a floppy disk inside the disk drive. Each card has a single hole at a unique point; the place of the hole determines the appliance to be switched on. The card should be rectangular in shape with only one punched hole on it. The circuit uses eight photo-transistor detectors from a light source, which is arranged over it. Light is made to fall only on that phototransistor which corresponds to the device to be operated by inserting a card with hole at the particular at. Then the corresponding device is turned on. You can make these cards using a black, opaque plastic sheet. A small rectangular notch is made on this card to indicate proper direction for insertion. The circuit consists of mainly ICs ULN2003, 74LS244 and photo transistors. This can be used in organizations where all the employees are not permitted to operate certain devices which contain all valuable data and in domestic and usage where all the appliances can be switched on only by the owner.

INDEX
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1: AIM OF THE PROJECT 1.2: LITERATURE SURVEY 1.3: FEATURES 1.4: ADVANTAGES 1.5: APPLICATIONS 1.6: LIMITATIONS 1.7: ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS CHAPTER 2: THEORY RELEVENT 2.1: INTRODUCTION 2.2: BLOCK DIAGRAM 2.3: BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION 2.4: SCHMATIC DIAGRAM 2.5: SCHMATIC EXPLANATION CHAPTER 3: MAIN COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION 3.1: IC ULN2003 3.2: IC 74LS244 CHAPTER 4: HARDWARE DESIG CONSIDERATIONS 4.1: COMPONENTS USED AND THEIR DESCRIPTION 4.2: IC UM66 4.3: POWER SUPPLY 4.4: RELAY 4.5: PHOTO TRANSISTORS 4.6: RESISTORS 4.7: CAPACITORS 4.8: DIODE 4.9: TRANSISTORS 4.10: LED 4.11: ZENER DIODE CHAPTER 5: RESULT AND CONCLUSION 5.1: RESULT 5.2: FUTURE ASPECTS 5.2: CONCLUSION

1.1 AIM OF THE PROJECT:

The aim of this project is to provide a lock for important electrical/electronic appliances.

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY:

The source of this project is from the electronic for you magazine. We searched several web sites but we finally took the idea from EFY and designed the project. The theory for this project is collected by searching the topics in Google, few sites and from books. We have selected this project because it provides security to the selected devices with low cost.

BIBLOGRAPHY
www.electronicsforu.com www.betaengineers.com www.seminartopics.com www.scribd.com www.electronicsgarage.com www.alldatasheets.com www.wikipedia.com

1.3 FEATURES
High security Operation is simple and user-friendly Compact design Ensures safety of user Consumes low power More than one device can be operated at a time Affordable cost to construct It is reliable Generates a musical tone when any device

1.3 ADVANTAGES
There is no risk about electrical shock. Facilitates privacy with low cost Prevents unauthorized access to important devices Consumes low power

1.4 APPLICATIONS
Provides security for any electrical/electronic appliances It serves as a switch board It can be used anywhere like industries,organizations,shopping malls etc.,

1.5 LIMITATIONS
There is no system in the world which is flaw less. Even though our system has many advantages it too had some limitations. The following are the certain limitations of our system If the pattern of holes is revealed to others, then it becomes easy for them to operate or misuse the devices. Each combination of devices needs a separate card to operate and this leads to increase in number of cards in turn increases the complexity. The increase in number of cards leads to confusion.

1.7ORIGANIZATION OF THE THESIS:

Organization thesis proper management or systematic arrangement of the contents in the thesis. Here first we study about the theory of important technology we used to implement this project then abstract gives idea about the project. Next we study about the advantages and applications regarding this project. Here we mainly discussed about the IC74ls244 and IC ULN2003. All the hardware components assembled to make up the device which is finally followed by result and conclusion of this project.

CHAPTER 2 THEORY RELEVANT

INTRODUCTION:

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION:

The block diagram consists of power supply, photo transistors, buffer, relay driver, relay and external appliances.

POWER SUPPLY:
The power supply is designed to convert high AC voltage to a suitable DC low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A power supply can be divided into series of blocks each of which performs a particular function and dc power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of ac main fluctuations as load variation is known as regulated power supply. In this project power supply of 12V and 5V are required.

PHOTO TRANSISTOR:
Photo transistor is a device which is used to convert light energy into electrical energy. This block consists of eight photo transistors. One among the eight photo transistors is used to enable the Buffer block and rest of the photo transistors are used to drive the devices. When there is no card light falls from incandescent lamp L1 (40-watt, 230V) on all the photo- transistors. After insertion of the card a particular phototransistor will be turned on according to the hole pattern on the card.

BUFFER:
The output obtained from the photo transistors is given as input to the buffer amplifier. A buffer is an electronic amplifier that is designed to have an amplifier gain of 1. Buffers are used in Impedance matching, the benefit of which is to maximize energy transfer between circuits or systems. Here we are using IC 74LS244 as a buffer.

RELAY DRIVER:
When an input of this IC is made logic high, the corresponding output will go logic low and relay connected to that pin gets energized. Relay driver ic provides sufficient current to operate the relays.

RELAY:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Most of the relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically. In this seven DPDT relays are used to turn on or off the devices connected to it. Based on the output of the relay driver a particular relay gets energized.

EXTERNAL APPLIANCES:
The devices which are to be operated are connected to the relays. Whenever relay gets energised, corresponding appliances will be turned on. At this section, we can connect any type of electrical/electronic appliances.

2.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

2.5 SCHEMATIC EXPLANATION

The circuit uses eight photo-transistors (T1 through T8). When there is no card in the lock, light from incandescent lamp L1 (40-watt, 230V) falls on all the photo- transistor detectors. Transistor T8 is used as enable detector for IC1 (74LS244). When light is incident on it, it conducts and its collector voltage goes low. This makes transistor T16 to cut-off, and its collector voltage goes high. This logic high on its collector terminal will inhibit IC1 as long as light is present on phototransistorT8.

IC1 will get enabled only when the card is completely inserted inside the lock mechanism. This arrangement ensures that only the selected appliance is switched on and prevents false operation of the system. You can make these cards using a black, opaque plastic sheet. A small rectangular notch is made on this card to indicate proper direction for insertion of the card. If an attempt is made to insert the card wrongly, it will not go completely inside the mechanism and the system will not be enabled.

When card for any appliance (say appliance 1) is completely inserted in the mechanism, the light will fall only on photo-transistor T1. So only T1 will be on and other photo-transistors will be in off state. When transistor T1 is on, its collector voltage falls, making transistor T9 to cutoff. As a result, collector voltage of transistor T9 as also pin 2 of IC1 go logic high. This causes pin 18 (output Q1) also to go high, switching LED1 on. Simultaneously, output Q1 is connected to pin 1 of IC2 (ULN2003) for driving the relay corresponding to appliance 1. Similarly, if card for appliance 2 is inserted, only output pin 16 (Q2) of IC1 will go high making LED2 on while at the same time energizing relay for appliance2 via ULN2003. The same is true for other cases/appliances also. The time during which card is present inside the mechanism, the system generates musical tone. This is achieved with the help of diodes D1 through D7 which provide a wired-OR connection at their common-cathode junction. When any of the outputs of IC1 is logic high, the common cathode junction of diodes D1 through D7 also goes logic high, enabling IC3 (UM66) to generate a musical tone.

In this circuit IC1 (74LS244) is used as buffer with Schmitt trigger. All outputs (Q1 through Q7) of this IC are connected to IC2 (ULN2003) which is used as relay driver. IC2 consists of seven high current relay drivers having integral diodes. External free-wheeling diodes are therefore not required. When an input of this IC is made logic high, the corresponding output will go logic low and relay connected to that pin gets energised. This switches on a specific appliance and the corresponding LED. Once a specific card is inserted to switch on a specific relay, that relay gets latched through its second pair of contacts. Thus even when the card is removed, the specific appliance remains on. The same holds true for all other relays/appliances as well. The only way to deenergise a latched relay after removal of the corresponding card is to switch off the corresponding switch (S1 throughS7) which would cut-off the supply to the desired relay. The +5V and +12V supplies can be obtained with conventional arrangement using a step-down transformer followed by rectifier, filter and regulator (using 7805and 7812 etc).

3.1: IC ULN2003 DESCRIPTION

The ULN2003 is a monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington transistor arrays. It consists of seven NPN darlington pairs that features high-voltage outputs with common-cathode clamp diode for switching inductive loads. The collector-current rating of a single darlington pair is 500mA. The darlington pairs may be paralleled for higher current capability. Applications include relay drivers, hammer drivers, lamp drivers, display drivers (LED gas discharge), line

for operation directly with TTL or 5V CMOS devices.

DIP-16

FEATURES
500mA rated collector current(Single output) High-voltage outputs: 50V Inputs compatible with various types of logic. Relay driver application Seven darlingtons per package Outputs can be paralleled for higher current Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify layout

PIN CONFIGURATION

Pin No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Function Input for 1st channel Input for 2nd channel Input for 3rd channel Input for 4th channel Input for 5th channel Input for 6th channel Input for 7th channel Ground (0V) Common freewheeling diodes Output for 7th channel Output for 6th channel Output for 5th channel Output for 4th channel Output for 3rd channel Output for 2nd channel Output for 1st channel

Name Input 1 Input 2 Input 3 Input 4 Input 5 Input 6 Input 7 Ground Common Output 7 Output 6 Output 5 Output 4 Output 3 Output 2 Output 1

This ULN2003 driver can drive seven relays at a time. The pins 8 and 9 provide ground and Vcc respectively.

The working of ULN driver is as follows: It can accept seven inputs at a time and produces seven corresponding outputs. If the input to any one of the seven input pins is high, then the value at its corresponding output pin will be low, for example if the input at pin 6 is high, then the value at the corresponding output i.e., output at pin 11 will be low. Similarly if the input at a particular pin is low, then the corresponding output will be high.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

ULN 2003 is a chip with 7 sets of darlington pair transistors inside, which is implemented in the our project to drive the relays. Each channel of the ULN is capable of delivering upto 500 ma of current. The above figure shows the schematic diagram of ULN2003; it has seven of these, one for each output stage. It has 2 transistors connected in Darlington configuration to multiply the current gain. The output transition is an open collector, this means that it can either leave the output floating of it can sink current (provide ground). What we do with this kind of circuit is to connect your load to the positive supply and the other side to the output of the ULN2003, when the input of ULN gets a positive voltage it connects the output load to the ground and current can flow through the load, when the input of

ULN is 0 then the output is left in a high impedance state (floating) and no current can flow through the load.

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS (Ta=25C)

Characteristic Collector-Emitter Voltage Input Voltage Peak Current Total terminal Power Dissipation Operating Temperature Storage Temperature EmitterCollector

Symbol VCE VI Io

Value 50 30 500

Unit V A mA

IOK

500 950 Tamb=25C 495 Tamb<85C -20~ +85 -65 ~ +150

mA mW mW C C

Pd

Topr Tstg

3.2: BUFFER IC (74LS244): a) GENERAL DESCRIPTION

These buffers/line drivers are designed to improve both the performance and PC board density of 3-STATE buffers/ drivers employed as memory-address drivers, clock drivers, and busoriented transmitters/receivers. Featuring 400 mV of hysteresis at each low current PNP data line input, they provide improved noise rejection and high fan-out outputs and can be used to drive terminated lines down to 133W.

b) FEATURES
3-STATE outputs drive bus lines directly PNP inputs reduce DC loading on bus lines Hysteresis at data inputs improves noise margins Typical IOL (sink current) 24 mA Typical IOH (source current) -15 mA Typical propagation delay times Inverting 10.5 ns Non inverting 12 ns Typical enable/disable time 18 ns Typical power dissipation (enabled)

c) CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

d) FUNCTION TABLE:
INPUT _ G L L H L = LOW Logic Level; H = HIGH Logic Level Z = High Impedance A L H X OUTPUT Y L Z Z

X = Either LOW or HIGH Logic Level;

d) ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

Supply Voltage 7V Input Voltage 7V Operating Free Air Temperature Range 0C to +70C Storage Temperature Range -65C to +150C

Note 1: The Absolute Maximum Ratings are those values beyond which the safety of the device cannot be guaranteed. The device should not be operated at these limits. The parametric values defined in the Electrical Characteristics tables are not guar anteed at the absolute maximum ration... The Recommended Operating Conditions table will define the conditions for actual device operation.

e) RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS

SYMBOL PARAMETER VCC VIH VIL IOL IOL TA Supply voltage HIGH level input voltage LOW level input voltage HOGH level output current LOW level output current Free air operating temperature 0 0.8 -15 24 70 MIN NOM MAX UNITS 4.75 5 5.25 V V V mA mA Degrees C

4.1: COMPONENTS USED AND THEIR DESCRIPTION:

The hardware used plays a major role in defining the efficiency of the system. The hardware components used in our project are listed below: IC UM66 POWER SUPPLY RELAY PHOTO TRANSISTORS LED RESISTORS CAPACITORDIODE TRANSISTORS ZENER DIODE

4.2 IC UM66
DESCRIPTION: The UM66 series is a CMOS LSI designed melody generator IC for use in telephones and toys application. It has an on-chip ROM programmed for musical performance. Produced by CMOS technology, the device results in very low power consumption. And with built-in RC oscillator, a compact melody module can be constructed with only a few additional components.

FEATURES: 64-Note Rom memory 1.5V ~ 4.5V power supply and low power consumption Dynamic speaker can be driven with external NPN transistor OSC resistor hold mode Power on reset: melody begins from the first note Built in level hold mode

PIN DIAGRAM:

Pin No 1 2 3

Function Melody output Supply voltage (1.5V - 4.5V) Ground (0V)

Name Output Vcc Ground

ABSOLUTE MAXIMIM RATINGS (Operating temperature range applies unless

otherwise specified)
Parameter DC supply voltage Operating ambient temperature range Storage temperature range Topr Tstr Symbol Value Unit V

1.5 ~ 4.5 -10 ~ +60 -55 ~ +125

Degrees C
Degrees C

NOTE:

Stress above those listed under absolute maximum ratings may cause permanent damage to the device. These are stress ratings only. Functional operations of this device at these or any other conditions above those indicated in the operational section of this specification is not implied and exposure to absolute maximum ratings conditions for extended periods may affect device reliably.

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION:
UM66T is a melody integrated circuit.. It has an inbuilt tone and a beat generator. The tone generator is a programmed divider which produces certain frequencies. These frequencies are a factor of the oscillator frequency. The beat generator is also a programmed divider which contains 15 available beats. Four beats of these can be selected. There is an inbuilt oscillator circuit that serves as a time base for beat and tone generator. It has a 62 notes ROM to play music. A set of 4 bits controls the scale code while 2 bits control the rhythm code. When power is turned on, the melody generator is reset and melody begins from the first note. The speaker can be driven by an external npn transistor connected to the output of UM66. Many versions of UM66T are available which generate tone of different songs. For example, UM66T01 generates tone for songs Jingle bells, Santa Claus is coming to town and We wish you a merry Xmas.

4.3 POWER SUPPLY

BLOCK DIAGRAM

L1 = Step down transformer with i/p of 230 AC 50 Hz and output of (XX) - 0- (XX) volts (rms). XX = Required DC output voltage. Here is the table for different voltages

Output voltage (DC Volts) Transformer rating (rms Volts) 5 9 12 15 230: 5-0-5 230:9-0-9 230:12-0-12 230:15-0-15

TRANSFOMER
The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

Transformer circuit symbol

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage. Vp turns ratio = Vs Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current = Ns Np and Vs Is = Vp Ip Vs = secondary (output) voltage Ns = number of turns on secondary coil Is = secondary (output) current power out = power in

A FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

A full wave rectifier is a device which is used to rectify all the alternating current components in an alternating supply and make it purely a direct current. The two alternating halves of an alternation current are rectified in a full wave rectifier which is an advantage over a half wave rectifier.

FILTER
Capacitive filter is used to remove the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C voltage varied at this point changes. Therefore a regulator at the output stage.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.

78XX
The Bay Linear LM7XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three terminals. The LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in wide range of applications. In this project, power supply of 12V, 5V are required. In order to obtain those voltage levels, 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive power supply and the numbers 05,12 represents the required output voltage levels.

4.4 RELAY:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations

OPEARATION:
Electromagnetic relay either polarised or non polarised consists of the following three basic parts Namely 1. An actuating part called coil 2. Linkage to transfer the actuation/ dc-actuation of input to output called armature. 3. Spring sets called contacts. The electromagnetic relay consist of multi turn coil, wound on iron core to form a electromagnet when the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetized. Core becomes temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts the actual contacts are available for high current and low current operation. When coil is degenerated the armature and contacts are released. The coil can be energized from a low power source such as a transistor while the contacts can switch High powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also be situated remotely from the control sources.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Rated voltage Frequency of operation Operate and release times Pick up and drop out voltage Rated current Contact bounce overload capacity

TYPES OF RELAYS
Basically relays are of four types. They are

SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity. SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total. DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each). DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.

DPDT stands for double pole double throw relay. Relay is an electromagnetic device used to separate two circuits electrically and connect them magnetically. They are often used to interface an electronic circuit, which works at a low voltage to an electrical circuit which works at a high voltage. Relays are available in different configuration of operating voltages like 6V, 9V, 12V, 24V etc.

There are two sections input and output. The input section consists of a coil with two pins which are connected to the ground and the input signal. The output section consists of contactors which connect or disconnect mechanically. The output section consists of six contactors with two sets. Each set has three changeover contacts, namely, normally open (NO), normally closed (NC) and common (COM). When no supply is given the COM is connected to NC. When the operating voltage is applied the relay coil gets energized and the COM changes contact to NO.

DPDT relay can be used to power wither one device/appliance or another. While SPDT relay can only switch the output circuit between on and off states; a DPDT relay can also be used to change the polarity at the terminals of a device connected at output. For example, to drive a DC motor in both clockwise and anticlockwise directions, following connections can be done. Pins 2 & 7 can be provided with Vcc (9V for motor) and ground, respectively. The first motor terminal can be connected to pins 3 & 4 while the other terminal to pins 5 & 6. In case no input signal is given, the motor would rotate in one direction (say clockwise, depending upon the connection of its terminals). When an input signal is provided, the contactors change their positions, resulting in the anticlockwise rotation of motor.

Pin Diagram:

COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch. NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off. NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on. -- Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.

Advantages of relays:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors. Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays can switch many contacts at once. Disadvantages of relays: Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second. Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

APPLICATIONS:
Circuit selection and switching in various systems. Automatic control process in industrial plants. Mathematical functions in computers. Traffic control signals. Temperature controllers. Electric motor switches. Automatic stabilizers. Electrical and electronic applications. Industries. Televisions.

4.5 PHOTOTRANSISTOR
There is a wide selection of photosensitive devices that are available to the electronic designer. Whilst photo-diodes fulfil many requirements, phototransistors or photo transistors are also available, and are more suitable in some applications. Providing high levels of gain, and standard devices are low cost, these phototransistors can be used in many applications. The idea of the photo transistor has been known for many years. William Shockley first proposed the idea in 1951, not long after the ordinary transistor had been discovered. It was then only two years before the photo transistor was demonstrated. Since then phototransistors have been used in a variety of applications, and their development has continued ever since.

PHOTOTRANSISTOR STRUCTURE
Although ordinary transistors exhibit the photosensitive effects if they are exposed to light, the structure of the phototransistor is specifically optimised for photo applications. The photo transistor has much larger base and collector areas than would be used for a normal transistor. These devices were generally made using diffusion or ion implantation.

Homojunction planar phototransistor structure Early photo transistors used germanium or silicon throughout the device giving a homojunction structure. The more modern phototransistors use type III-V materials such as gallium arsenide and the like. Hetero structures that use different materials either side of the p-n junction are also popular because they provide a high conversion efficiency. These are generally fabricated using epitaxial growth of materials that have matching lattice structures. These photo transistors generally use a mesa structure. Sometimes a Schottky (metal semiconductor) junction can be used for the collector within a phototransistor, although this practice is less common these days because other structures offer better levels of performance.

Heterojunction mesa-structure phototransistor In order to ensure the optimum conversion and hence sensitivity, the emitter contact is often offset within the phototransistor structure. This ensures that the maximum amount of light reaches the active region within the phototransistor.

PHOTOTRANSISTOR OPERATION
Photo transistors are operated in their active regime, although the base connection is left open circuit or disconnected because it is not required. The base of the photo transistor would only be used to bias the transistor so that additional collector current was flowing and this would mask any current flowing as a result of the photo-action. For operation the bias conditions are quite simple. The collector of an n-p-n transistor is made positive with respect to the emitter or negative for a p-n-p transistor. The light enters the base region of the phototransistor where it causes hole electron pairs to be generated. This mainly occurs in the reverse biased base-collector junction. The holeelectron pairs move under the influence of the electric field and provide the base current, causing electrons to be injected into the emitter.

PHOTOTRANSISTOR SYMBOL
The phototransistor symbol for use in electronic circuit diagrams is very straightforward. It is formed from the basic transistor symbol with arrows point in to it to indicate that it is light sensitive. The phototransistor symbol often has two arrows pointing towards it, but other phototransistor symbols show a jagged arrow. Both versions of the phototransistor symbol are acceptable and understood.

Phototransistor symbol The circuit symbol also has the convention arrow and directions on the emitter connection. It points inwards on a PNP phototransistor circuit symbol and outwards on an NPN phototransistor symbol. It can be seen that the phototransistor symbol shown does not give a base connection. Often the base is left disconnected as the light is used to enable the current flow through the phototransistor. In some instances the base may be biased to set the required operating point. In this case the base will be shown in the normal way on the phototransistor symbol.

PHOTOTRANSISTOR CIRCUIT OPERATION

The phototransistor circuits can be used on one of two basic modes of operation. They are called active or linear mode and a switch mode. Operation in the "linear" or active mode provides a response that is very broadly proportional to the light stimulus. In reality the phototransistor does not give a particularly linear output to the input stimulus and it is for this reason that this mode of operation is more correctly termed the active mode. The operation of the phototransistor circuit in the switch mode is more widely used in view of the non-linear response of the phototransistor to light. When there is little or no light, virtually no current will flow in the transistor, and it can be said to be in the "off" state. However as the level of light increases, current starts to flow. Eventually a point is reached where the phototransistor becomes saturated and the level of current cannot increase. In this situation the phototransistor is said to be saturated. The switch mode, therefore has two levels: - "on" and "off" as in a digital or logic system. This type of phototransistor mode is useful for detecting objects, sending data or reading encoders, etc. With most circuits not using the base connection (even if it is available), the only way to change the mode of operation of the circuit is to change the value of the load resistor. This is set by estimating the maximum current anticipated from the light levels encountered. Using this assumption, the following equations can be used: Active mode: VCC > RL x Ic Switch mode: VCC < RL x Ic Where RL = load resistor (i.e., Rc or Re in the diagrams above) IC =maximum anticipated current. VCC = supply voltage.

4.6RESISTORS:
Resistor is one of the basic electronic components found in almost all electronic circuits. The property of a conductor which opposes the flow of charge carrier through it is known as resistance.

The property of conductor which opposes the flow of charge carriers through it is known as resistance. It is represented by the letter R and its unit is ohms. The instrument that measures resistance is known as ohmmeter. Good conductors have small resistance and insulators have medium resistances. The reciprocal of resistance is conductance and its unit is mho.

FEATURES:
These are two terminal, passive bilateral elements. The effect of resistance is same for both AC and DC

USES:
To limit current To establish proper values of circuit voltages due to IR drops To provide load

CAPACITOR:
A capacitor or condenser is a two terminal passive component which: 1. Has the ability to store electric charge. 2. Opposes instantaneous changes of voltage in the circuit in which it is connected. 3. Blocks the passage of direct current and allows the alternating current through it.

A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating medium called dielectric. It has the property of capacitance.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.

DIODE:
A pn junction is formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors together in very close contact. The term junction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions of the semiconductor meet. If they were constructed of two separate pieces this would introduce a grain boundary, so pn junctions are created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping, for example by implantation, diffusion of dopant, or by epitaxial (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of do pant).

PN junctions are elementary "building blocks" of almost all semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two pn junctions in series, in the form npn or pnp.

DIODE 1N4007:
A diode is a two terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode with a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass through one direction is called the diode forward condition. While blocking current in opposite direction is the reverse condition. This unidirectional behaviour is called rectification and is used convert alternating current into direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

Diode 1N4007 In this circuit diode 1N4007 is in reverse bias so it acts as resistor as well as switch. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction while blocking current in the opposite direction.

FEATURES:
Glass passivity High maximum operating temperature Excellent stability Available in ammo-pack

4.7 TRANSISTOR:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

Types of transistor

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with Transistor circuit symbols different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN transistors and if you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use these first. The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).

APPILICATIONS:
Transistors are widely used in electronic circuits. These are mainly used to amplifying weak signals. It can use as an ON and OFF switch. It is used in Oscillator circuits.

BC548:
BC548 is general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction transistor. It is used for amplification and switching purposes. The current gain may vary between 110 and 800. The maximum DC current gain is 800.

Its equivalent transistors are 2N3904 and 2SC1815. These equivalent transistors however have different lead assignments. The variants of BC548 are 548A, 548B and 548C which vary in range of current gain and other characteristics.

BC548 transistor The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC548 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.

BC109 FEATURES
Low current (max. 100 mA) Low voltage (max. 45 V).

PIN DESCRIPTION
PIN 1 2 3 DESCRIPTION emitter base collector

DESCRIPTION
NPN transistor in a TO-18; SOT18 metal package. PNP complement: BC177

BC109LIMITINGVALUES
collector-basevoltage30V collector-emittervoltage20V emitter-basevoltage5V collector current (DC) 100 mA peak collector current 200 mA peak base current 200 mA total power dissipation Tamb 25 C - 300 mW storage temperature 65 +150 C junction temperature 175 C operating ambient temperature -65 +150 C DC current gain (hFE) IC = 10 mA; VCE = 5 V 100 -- 270

APPLICATIONS
General purpose switching and amplification

4.8 LED:
A light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as an indicator lamp in many devices, And are increasingly used for lighting. Early LEDs emitted low intensity red light, But modern versions are Available across the visible, ultraviolent and Infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light emitting diode is forward biased electrons are able to recombine with holes with in the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the colour of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area, and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer life time, improved robustness, small size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expansive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. LED symbol

ADVANTAGES:
Low energy longer life time. Improved robustness. Smaller size. Faster switching. Greater durability and reliability.

APPLICATION:
Automotive lighting. Aviation lighting. Traffic signals. Remote control units of many commercial products.

ZENER DIODE
Zener diodes are a form of semiconductor diode that are widely used in electronics circuits as voltage references. Zener diodes provide a stable and defined voltage and as a result Zener diode circuits are often used in power supplies when regulated outputs are needed. Zener diodes are cheap and they are also easy to use and as a result they are used in many applications and many circuits.

Zener diode basics

Zener diodes are sometimes referred to as reference diodes as they are able to provide a stable reference voltage for many electronics circuits. The diodes themselves are cheap and plentiful and can be purchased in virtually every electronics components store. Zener diodes have many of the same basic properties of ordinary semiconductor diodes. They conduct in the forward direction and have the same turn on voltage as ordinary diodes. For silicon this is about 0.6 volts.

In the reverse direction, the operation of a Zener diode is quite different to an ordinary diode. For low voltages the diodes do not conduct as would be expected. However, once a certain voltage is reached the diode "breaks down" and current flows. Looking at the curves for a Zener diode, it can be seen that the voltage is almost constant regardless of the current carried. This means that a Zener diode provides a stable and known reference voltage.

Zener diode markings

There are many styles of package for a Zener diode. Some are used for high levels of power dissipation and others are contained within surface mount formats. For home construction, the most common type is contained within a small glass encapsulation. It has a band around one end and this marks the cathode. It can be seen that the band around the package corresponds to the line on the diode circuit symbol and this can be an easy way of remembering which end is which. For a Zener diode operating in its reverse bias condition the band is the more positive terminal in the circuit.

Zener diode markings, symbol and package outlines

How a Zener diode works

The Zener diode is particularly interesting in the way that it operates. There are actually two mechanisms that can cause the breakdown effect that is used to provide the voltage reference effect:

Zener breakdown: Although the physics behind the effect is quite complicated, it can be
considered that this effect occurs when the electric field within the semiconductor crystal lattice is sufficiently high to pull electrons out of the lattice to create a hole and electron. The electron then moves under the influence of the field to provide an electric current.

Impaction ionisation: Again this effect occurs when there is a high level of electric field.
Electrons are strongly attracted and move towards the positive potential. In view of the high electric field their velocity increases, and often these high energy electrons will collide with the semiconductor lattice. When this occurs an electron may be released, leaving a hole. This newly freed electron then moves towards the positive voltage and is accelerated under the high electric field, and it to may collide with the lattice. The hole, being positively charged moves in the opposite direction to the electron. If the field is sufficiently strong sufficient numbers of collisions occur so that an effect known as avalanche breakdown occurs. This happens only when a specific field is exceeded, i.e. when a certain reverse voltage is exceeded for that diode, making it conduct in the reverse direction for a given voltage, just what is required for a voltage reference diode. It is found that of the two effects the Zener effect predominates above about 5.5 volts whereas impact ionisation is the major effect below this voltage. The two effects are affected by temperature variations. This means that the Zener diode voltage may vary as the temperature changes. It is found that the impact ionisation and Zener effects have temperature coefficient in opposite directions. As a result Zener diodes with reverse voltages of around 5.5 volts where the two effects occur almost equally have the most stable overall temperature coefficient as they tend to balance each other out for the optimum performance.

Zener diode circuits

The most basic Zener diode circuit consist of a single Zener diode and a resistor. The Zener diode provides the reference voltage, but a series resistor must be in place to limit the current into the diode otherwise a large amount of current would flow through it and it could be destroyed. The value of the resistor should be calculated to give the required value of current for the supply voltage used. Typically most low power leaded Zener diodes have a maximum power dissipation of 400 mW. Ideally the circuit should be designed to dissipate less than about half this value, but to operate correctly the current into the Zener diode should not fall below about 5 mA or they do not regulate correctly.

Basic Zener diode circuit

5.1 RESULT:
The project CONTROLLING OF APPLIANCES USING CARD has been successfully designed and tested.

5.2: FUTURE ASPECTS:

In this project external appliances are limited to seven. So, to increase the number of appliances we have to increase the number of phototransistors and ICs.

5.3: CONCLUSION:
The project CONTROLLING OF APPLIANCES USING CARD has been successfully designed and tested. Integrated features of all hardware components used have developed it. Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit. Secondly, using advanced technology the project has been successfully implemented.