DC Macines Mohamedeeen

Notes on DC Machines
Prof. Adel L. Mohamadein; February 2008

1
CHAPTER (1)
THEORY OF OPERATION & CURRENT MACHINES: DIRECT
STRUCTURE

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Electrical Energy is considered the backbone of modern civilization. Many
applications could not be practically realized without this type of energy. Though
electricity is often utilized after being transformed into other useful forms of energy, still it
represents a clean, efficient and easily controlled way of transmitting energy from one
place to another.
Electrical energy can be produced by different methods namely;
Chemical reaction as in dry cells, batteries ..etc.
Thermal energy as in thermo-couples.
Solar energy as in solar cells.
Mechanical energy as in Dynamos.
Most of electrical energy used in practice is being produced by the last method,
since a reasonable amount of energy could be generated in less space at a moderate
cost and in a rather efficient means. Electrical machine by definition is a bidirectional
electro-mechanical energy converter, i.e. it can change mechanical energy into electrical
one and hence acts as a GENERATOR or vice versa and thereby acts as a MOTOR, see
Fig (1).

Fig (1)
1.2 TYPES OF INDUCED VOLTAGES
Production of electrical energy due to motion is performed via magnetic fields. Two
main types of electrical energy are produced namely;
1.2.1 STATICALLY INDUCED VOLTAGES
A voltage is induced across the terminals of a coil made of "N" turns of insulated
copper wire when a time varying flux links its turns, see Fig (2). The value of the
induced voltage depends on number of turns as well as the rate of change of flux linkage.
Mathematically, the previous relation can be formulated as;
dt
d
N e

=
2
Where;
= Flux linking the coil;
N = Number of coil turns.

Fig (2)

1.2.2. DYNAMICALLY INDUCED VOLTAGES
This type of voltages as its name implies is produced due to motion. A conductor
of length L in meters when set to cut perpendicularly flux lines of density B Tesla at a
speed of V m/sec, will show a potential difference e across its terminals given by;
Volts V L B e =

Fig (3)
Regarding the direction of the induced voltage it can be determined using the Right Hand
Rule as shown in Fig (3).

1.3 FORCE PRODUCED FROM ELECTRICAL ORIGIN
A conductor wire of length L meters when placed perpendicular to flux lines of a field
having a flux density B Tesla, will be subjected to a force F
e
Newtons when a current I
amps flows in it. The magnitude of this force is given by;
Newtons i L B F
e
=
While its direction is determined by the Left Hand Rule, see Fig (4).

3

Fig (4)
Production of electric force F
e
is attributed to the interaction of magnetic fields produced
by the current flowing in the conductor and existing field. Flux lines produced by
current flow in the conductor are concentric circles when combined with already existing field
lines, Fig (5-a), results in the distribution shown in Fig (5-b). Concentration of flux lines at

Fig (5)
one side of the conductor and its dispersion at the other side sets up a force tending to move
the conductor to the left in a way to let the existing field regain its shape.

1.4. ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
Electrical machines as mentioned before are Bi-Directional electro-mechanical energy
converters. The principles governing its performance when acting as a generator or
motor are outlined in Arts. 1.2.2. & 1.3 respectively. However, the process involving the
conversion of energy can be easily seen by considering the system shown in Fig (6). The
system consists of a straight wire conductor sliding on two copper strips connected to DC
supply of voltage V. There exists a field whose flux lines cut the conductor perpendicularly
with a density of B Tesla. Flow of current due to the DC supply will interact with field
lines producing electrical force F
e
with a direction determined by the L.H.R.

4
The conductor will tend to accelerate in the direction of F
e
. It will move at a
constant velocity V if an external mechanical load is exerted on it such that;
i L B F F
e m
= =

Fig (6)
Negative sign means that F
m
is in opposite sense to F
e
. The mechanical power
delivered to the mechanical load is;
V i L B
V F P
m m
=
= .

Movement of the conductor with a speed V will in turn induce a dynamic type of voltage with
a direction determined by the R.H.R. It is observed that the induced voltage is opposing
applied source voltage and hence is termed the Back EMF e
b
.
It follows then that;
i e P
b m
=
which means that the amount of power converted from electrical into mechanical type equals
the product of back EMF by the current.

1.5. ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
An elementary electric generator can be made by establishing a magnetic
flux and setting a conductor to cut the flux lines perpendicularly. This could be practically
realized by using the arrangement shown in Fig (7-a). In such an arrangement, the flux is
established using two magnets between them a coil is rotated around its axis. The instant
shown in Fig (7-a), shows induced voltages in the direction abcd. Rotating the coil
180
0
, Fig (7-b), will set the induced voltage around the loop in the direction dcba. The
voltage collected at coil terminals could be made uni-directional by using a splitted copper
cylinder with two halves electrically insulated from each other and rotating with the coil.
Two stationary carbon brushes are in contact with the two halves. In this way
as the induced voltage around the loop changes direction, the carbon brushes changes
5
contact with the two halves such that the polarity of the brushes are kept unchanged. The
splitted copper cylinder is known as the Commutator. From the elementary scheme
shown, the following conclusions can be derived:-
1. The voltage collected at the load side though being unidirectional (DC), however the
voltage induced around the coil is alternating.
2. The voltage around the coil is in the same direction maintaining that one coil side lies
under the North Pole while the other side lies under the South Pole. This means
that coil pitch should be as near as possible to the pole pitch.

1.6. CONSTRUCTION OF AN ACTUAL DC MACHINE:
The elementary DC generator shown earlier can not be utilized practically due to the
following drawbacks:-
The space between poles is large to allow coil rotation. Therefore, the amount of
flux lines produced will be negligibly small.
Using permanent magnets to produce the required flux is not satisfactory since flux
density produced in this case will be very low.
In actual DC machines, electrical magnets are used while the space between poles is
occupied by a cylindrical steel structure in which the coils are embedded. In this way
the amount of flux resulted will be of high level thus inducing reasonable levels of voltage.
Constructional details of an actual DC machine is shown in Fig (8). Flux is
produced by an even number of electro-magnets poles of alternate polarities. Coils are
embedded on the surface of a rotating cylindrical steel structure while their terminals are
brought out to commutator segments mounted on rotor shaft and rotating with it.
Specifications and properties of different parts are given in the following sections.

6

7
1.6.1. ARMATURE:
The armature as stated before is
made up of cylindrical steel structure.
However, it can not be fabricated from
solid steel, since eddy and hystresis losses
may reach prohibitive values and damage the
armature windings insulation. Fig (9) shows
paths of eddy currents in armature core if
made of one solid part. Reduction of eddy
current losses can be achieved by fabricating
armature core of insulated laminated silicon
steel. Sheets of silicon steel of 0.35 mm
thick are punched to form the shape of the
armature slots and teeth, then insulated on
both sides and assembled to form armature
core. Hystresis loss can be reduced by
adjusting the amount of silicon in the steel
such that the hystresis loop area of the alloy is
kept as low as possible. A punched
silicon steel lamination is shown in Fig (10).

1.6.2. THE COMMUTATOR:
The commutator is made up from a
hard drawn copper segments forming cylinder
rotating with the shaft. For small
sized machines, this is achieved by mounting
the segments on a bakelite ring fitted on the
shaft. The segments are insulated from each
other and fixed on the bakelite ring using
adhesives. See Fig (11). For machines
with high ratings, the previous method is not
practical. Commutator in this case is
assembled from commutator segments
shaped as shown in Fig (12). The
segments are fitted into two guides as shown
in Fig (13) and insulated from each other and
from the guides using mica paper. The two
guides are bolted to armature core fixing
segments in place.

Fig (10) Silicon Steel
Lamination for an
armature of a DC
Machine

Fig (12) Commutator
Segment
8

1.6.3. THE BRUSHES:
Brushes are fitted to collect or conduct current from or into the armature. They are
made of graphite with high hardness to ensure long life time during service. Brushes are
usually fitted in brush box (holder) and pressed on commutator segments by virtue of spring.
The brush holder is fixed in motor frame and insulated from it. Details of brush
holder are shown in Fig (14).

1.6.4. FIELD SYSTEM:
The magnetic flux in a DC machine is established by electro-magnets shaped in the
form of salient poles attached to a cylindrical yoke. The pole itself is made from two
main parts, shank and shoe. The shank may be of circular or rectangular cross section
while fabricated from cast steel, wrought iron or cast

Fig (13) Longitudinal Section of a Cylinder-Type
Commutator.
1- Commutator Bar 2- Clamping Cones
3- Insulating Cups 4- insulating Gasket
5- Riser
Fig (14) Brush Holder
1- Brush holder Box;
2- Brush
3- Pressure Spring
4- Live Pigtail
9
iron. There is no need for laminating it since flux flow is unidirectional. As for the shoe, it
keeps field windings in place and distributes flux lines over larger area and thus avoids
saturation of flux lines in armature teeth. Pole shoe is essentially laminated to keep
iron loss in it to a minimum. Iron loss in pole shoe is produced by tooth pulsations. Fig
(15) shows main parts of a field system. Field windings are made by concentric number of
turns of insulated copper wire wound on a former. The former is made of
bakelite and is shaped as shown in Fig (15).

1.7. ARMATURE WINDINGS:
Armature windings are made of the shape of prewound coils as shown in Fig (16).
The armature is wound in a double layer fashion to avoid irregular shape of end connections.
Moreover, coil pitch should be as near as possible to pole pitch to ensure voltage
summation around the coil. On the other hand, to obtain a reasonable value of collected
voltage, the coils are connected in series maintaining that their voltages are in the same
sense. This is achieved in two alternative methods of windings; namely, Lap and Wave types
of windings.

Fig (16) an Armature Coil
a) - View of end connection in double
layer windings;
b) - Lap winding in double layer type
of windings.

10
1.7.1. LAP WINDINGS:
In this type of windings, the successive coils of
the armature overlap each other as shown in Fig (17).
Successive coils are connected in series with
their ends connected to successive commutator
segments. The pitch of the coil as viewed from
commutator end is termed as the front pitch while that
measured from other end is called the back pitch.
These pitches should not be equal to ensure
winding progress.

In defining the pitch, number of coils embraced by the coil is taken as a measure for
that pitch. If an armature is wound with C coils and having 2P number of poles, then
the back pitch should be equal to the number of coils occupying one pole pitch i.e.
Coils
P
C
y BackPitch
b
2
=

And hence;
coils
P
C
y FrontPitch
f
1
2
=

Positive sign is used for winding retrogression while the negative sign is for winding
progression. Commutator pitch is then given by;
1 =
C
y

Moreover, from Fig (17), it is evident that number of commutator segments should be equal
to the number of coils since each commutator segment is connected to a coil.
Consequently;
C Segments Commutator of Number =

Example
Design a suitable armature winding for an armature with 12 slots each containing two
coil sides. The winding is double layer and number of poles is 4.

Solution
Coils
slot per sides coil of Number slots of Number
Coils of Number
12
2
2 12
2
=
=

Hence;

Fig (17) Lap Winding
11
2 4
1 3 1 3 &
3
4
12
2
OR
OR y
Coils
P
C
y
f
b
=
+ =
= = =

Y
f
is taken equal to 2 to ensure less end connection length.

a) - Winding Diagram for the Example

b) - Developed Simple Lap Winding (Schematic Diagram)
S = 12, C = 12 & 2P = 4
12

c) - Connections between Coil Sides in Lap Wound
Armature Showing parallel circuits and suitable
Brush Positions
Fig (18) Winding Diagrams for Lap Wound Armature
S = 12, C = 12 & 2P = 4

The previous example showed some salient features for the Lap type of windings in
DC machines. The position of brushes should be chosen to ensure maximum voltage
collection. This can be achieved by placing the brushes such that it would be in contact
with the coil sides occupying the neutral zone between poles. For example, the brushes in
the previous example are situated in touch with coil sides 1, 4, 7& 10 which occupy positions
very close to the neutral axis. On the other hand, the number of brush area needed is
equal to the number of poles. Moreover, the voltage collected between the brushes is the
voltage generated by the series connected conductors between these brushes. In the Lap
type of windings, though closed on itself however, by virtue of brushes, it is divided into
number of parallel groups equals number of poles. Therefore, the voltage collected
between the brushes is the voltage generated in one parallel circuit. It follows then, in
Lap type of windings, the number of parallel circuit denoted as 2a is always equal to number
of poles 2P. Hence; in Lap winding;

1.7.2. WAVE WINDINGS
In this type of windings, the coils connected in series are either progressing or
retrogressing all the way. Fig (19) shows schematic representation for a partially
wound armature with wave windings. The distance between successive coil sides
P a 2 2 =
13
occupying nearly the same location under similar poles is termed the resultant pitch y and is
equal to;

Where y
b
and y
f
are the back and front pitches of the winding.

Fig (19) Schematic representation for wave winding

Fig (20) Wave winding for six pole armature
The resultant pitch y occupies double pole pitch, therefore for a machine with 2P
poles;
1 = C P y
The term is used to ensure winding progress and filling all armature slots as the
windings proceed, see Fig (20).
On the other hand, commutator pitch in terms of commutator segments will be then
given by;
y y
c
=
As for the brush position and number of parallel circuits, it could be well
demonstrated by the following example.
f b
y y y + =
14
Example
Design a suitable wave winding for a DC armature having the following particulars;
Number of Slots = 14
Number of Poles = 6
Coil Sides per Slot = 2
Solution
Only ogressive
P
C
y
Coils C
Slot per Sides Coil Slots of Number
C Coils of Number
Pr 5
3
1 14
1
14
2
2 14
2
" "
=
=
=
=

y
b
and y
f
should be as close to each other as possible and nearly equal to a pole pitch. Since
"y" occupies double pole pitch, then
3 & 2
2 & 3
= =
= =
OR
y y
f b

Schematic representation for the winding in this case is shown in Fig (21), while electrical
connections between coil sides are shown in Fig (22).

Fig (21) Schematic Diagram of Wave Winding
15

Fig (22) Electrical Connection Between Coil Sides
In a Wave Winding C = 14 & 2P = 6
From Fig (22) in the previous example, and following the directions of induced
voltages in series connected coil sides, it is clear that :-
a) There are only two parallel circuits whatever the number of poles is.
b) Two brush arms can only be used for voltage collection (A & B). However,
extra brush arms are used to limit the current in each brush arm (C , D , E &
F). Number of brush arms = Number of poles as in the case of Lap
windings.
c) Again brush location is decided relative to position of poles and best location
is such that brushes should be in contact with coil sides in the neutral zone.
d) Number of parallel circuits in this type of windings whatever the number of
poles is always equal to Two.
For Wave Winding

1.8. E.M.F. EQUATION
It has been already established in the previous sections that the voltage collected
between two alternate brush sets (Positive and Negative ones) in a DC armature is the sum
of individual conductor voltages generated in one parallel circuit. Therefore, with an
armature winding made of "C" coils, each having "u" turns, then the total number of
conductors "z" is then given by ;
C u Z 2 =
Consequently, number of conductors per parallel circuit "Z
c
" is given by;
2 2 = a

16
a
Z
Z
c
2
=
Assuming then that the value of average induced voltage in one conductor is e
avc
, then the
induced voltage in one parallel circuit, which is the collected armature voltage, is given by;
a
Z
e E
avc
2
=
The average induced voltage in a conductor can be evaluated as follows:-
a) The flux density distribution along one pole pitch
p
of the armature is as shown in
Fig (23).
b) If a single conductor of the armature cuts such distribution with a speed " " then the
induced voltage in such a conductor is given by;
= l B e
c

c) Induced conductor voltage changes
Fig (23)
with time in the same way as B
changes with along the pole
pitch, see Fig (23-C). Average value of induced conductor voltage
is then given by;
= l
av avc
B e

17
d) On viewing Fig (23-b), the speed with which the conductor cuts flux lines is the
peripheral speed given by;
s m
n D
/
60
=
Where;
D = diameter of the armature in meters.
n = Speed of armature rotation in rev/min (rpm)
e) The amount of flux under each pole is given by;
l =
p av p
B
Where;

p
= length of pole pitch along armature periphery
=
P
D
2

l = Armature Axial length.
f) The value of e
avc
is then given by;
60
2
60
2
60
n
P
n
D
D
P
n D
B e
p
p
p
p
av avc
=
=

=
=
l
l
l

g) The induced armature voltage (voltage in one parallel circuit) is then given by :-
a
Z
e E
avc
2
=

Where;
2P = Number of poles;
2a = Number of parallel circuits;
p
= Flux per pole in Weber;
Z = Total number of conductors
= Number of Coils * Number of turns per coil * 2
n = Speed of armature rotation in rpm
*******************************************************

60 2
2 n
Z
a
P
E
p
=
18
CHAPTER (2)
DC MACHINES ON LOAD

In the previous chapter, constructional features as well as EMF equation were
presented. However, loading a DC machine will lead to appearance of some
accompanying effects which should be considered.

2.1. ARMATURE REACTION
Flow of armature current in armature winding due to either electrical or mechanical
loading will produce a magnetic field called the armature reaction. Therefore, the
machine will be under the influence of two magnetic fields, the first produced by field system
and the second established by armature reaction.
2.1.1. NATURE OF ARMATURE REACTION
The switching action of the commutator
sets the direction of current flow in armature
conductors under certain pole always the same
i.e. in the same direction regardless of rotor
rotation. On the other hand, current
direction reverses as we proceed from one pole
to another. Therefore, the directions of
armature current flow will be as shown in Fig
(24) and it will appear stationary in spite of
armature rotation.

Moreover, as has been stated in the previous chapter, brush sets are always placed
such that it would be in electrical contact with coil sides in the neutral zone. Therefore,
symbolically brushes are represented as shown in Fig (24).
The magnetic field produced due to armature current flow will be then stationary in
space since current pattern causing it is also stationary. Moreover, number of current
directions change along armature periphery is equal to the number of poles and hence
number of induced armature reaction poles is equal to the number of main poles. On the
other hand axes of armature reaction mmf coincides with the neutral axes of the machine.
To determine the value of armature reaction ampere turns and its distribution along
armature surface a simplified machine made of two poles only will be considered as will be
detailed in the next section.

Fig (24)
19
2.1.2. WAVE FORM OF ARMATURE REACTION M.M.F.
Consider the armature symbolically shown in Fig (25). It is clear that the resultant
armature reaction m.m.f. axis will be along A A. Such an m.m.f. is established by
number of turns equal to number of conductors under one pole pitch.
Therefore, if number of armature conductors is Z each carrying I
c
then;

c
I Which is the conductor current i.e. current per
parallel path, is related to total armature current by the
following relationship;
a
I
I
a
c
2
=
Where 2a = Number of parallel circuits.
The total armature reaction m.m.f. is totally used in
circulating the flux along the axis A A' and hence
magnitude of m.m.f. exerted at armature surface along A
A' is half of the total value and hence;

Regarding the distribution of m.m.f. along armature surface, consider its magnitude along
axis B B displaced by an angle from A A. The value of ampere turns along B
B is established by |
\
|

P
Z
2
conductors less
P
Z
2
.
Hence;
( )
(
=
(
\
|
=
2
2 2 2 2 2
1
2 2 2 2 2
1
__
P
Z
a
I
P
Z
a
I
P
Z
a
I
P
Z
a
I
A
a a
a a
ar

Variation of ar A
___
along armature periphery will be as shown in Fig (26).

2.1.3. EFFECTS OF ARMATURE REACTION
The presence of armature reaction will interact with main field flux causing distortion.
This can be demonstrated by Fig (27) which shows the combination of field and armature
reaction m.m.f.s As a result, presence of armature reaction leads to flux lines

P
Z
I f m m total action Armature
c
2
. . . Re =
Fig (25)
p
z
a
I
A
a
ar
2 2 2
1
___
=
20
concentration at one pole edge, and dispersion at the other. Moreover, in the neutral
axes, flux density will acquire a certain definite value and actual neutral axes (Having zero
flux densities), will be shifted, as shown in Fig (27).

Fig (26) Distribution of Armature Reaction along
Armature Surface

Fig (27) Effect of Armature Reaction on Main Field Distribution

2.2 COMMUTATION IN DC MACHINES
To clarify the commutation process, consider the coil abcd at three successive
instances of time t, t + t & t + t
c
as shown in Fig (28). The current around the coil
abcd at the two instances of t and t + t
c
has changed direction of flow since it moves from
one parallel path into another.
21

Fig (28) Current Reversal in a coil undergoing commutation
The process of current change occurs during the instant "t + t" in which case coil
"abcd" is short circuited on itself (called period of commutation). Therefore, during period of
commutation and due to coil inductive effects, change of coil current will induce an inductive
voltage of
dt
di
L . Such a voltage will in turn circulate a short circuit current around the
coil passing under the brush. Moreover, as has been explained in sec. 2.1.3., presence of
armature reaction will in turn produce flux density in the neutral zone, thereby; another type of
voltage is produced in the short circuited coil. This voltage is of the dynamic type which will
contribute to an increased value of short circuit current.
In conclusion, coil undergoing commutation will have the following types of voltages
induced in it during the short circuit period;
a) Reactive voltage due to current reversal ;
dt
di
L
b) Dynamic type of voltage due to established flux density in the neutral zone
due to armature reaction = l B 2 ; where B is the flux density under
loading conditions in the geometrical neutral axis.
Presence of this current will combine
with brush current
b
I , thus current
distribution will tend to concentrate at
one edge of the brush and disperse at
the highly loaded side, see Fig (29).

Fig (29

22
2.3. ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ANGLES
Rotation of armature conductors past field magnets will give rise to a periodically
changing voltage, see Fig (30). Therefore, a
Complete cycle of the voltage results from
conductor travel by double pole pitches. The
period of the complete cycle is equal to "2 " in
electrical quantities. This has resulted from a
conductor travel by
|
\
|
P
2
actual or mechanical
angle.
Electrical and corresponding mechanical angles are then related to each other by the

2.4. METHODS OF IMPROVING COMMUTATION
The problem of commutation as explained earlier is associated with the existence of
high values of short circuit current in the coil undergoing commutation. This in turn will lead
to presence of sparking and early damage for brushes. In treating this problem, different
methods are used as follows;

2.4.1. USING HIGHLY INDUCTIVE COIL LEADS
In this method, the leads connecting
coil terminals to commutator segments are
made of highly resistive material. In
this way the short-circuit current in the coil
undergoing commutation is limited, see Fig
(31).

Fig (31)
2.4.2. SHIFTING BRUSH AXES
In this method, the brush axis is shifted by an angle "" such that the resultant " t A
___

becomes perpendicular to the brush axis (along which the axis of ar A
___
coincides). In
such a position, the component of m.m.f. along brush axis is zero. This in turn means
zero flux density at coil sides of the coil undergoing commutation and hence dynamic voltage
induced during period of commutation is cancelled. Short-circuit current is then limited
and can be even eliminated by proper adjustment of "", see Fig (32 a).

Fig (30)
P
mechanical electrical
=
23

Fig (32)
The disadvantages of this method can be pointed out as follows:-
1) Brush shift angle should be adjusted for every change in armature current.
Therefore, it is not practical to use this method in the case of fast varying loads.
2) Brush movement will in turn shift armature reaction ampere turns, which could be
regarded as made up of two components; namely;
a)- DEMAGNETIZING COMPONENT ( d A
___
)
This component is attributed to a group of conductors occupying an angle of 2
(Belts AB & CD) and is given by;

Note that in the previous equation is in electrical scale and hence;

This demagnetizing component reduces appreciably the flux produced by field
system and hence collected voltage decrease.

b)- CROSS-MAGNETIZING COMPONENT ( c A
____
)

This component is produced by conductors occupying an angle of ( - 2), see Fig
(32 b), (belts BD & AC) and is given by;

2 2
8
___ __
=
= ar
a
d A
P a
Z I
A
mech
c mech c
d
Z I
P
P
Z I
A

= =
2
2
4
___

d ar
ar
a
c
A A
A
P a
Z I
A
___ ___
___ ___
2
1
2
8
=
|
\
|
= |
\
|
=

24

This cross-magnetizing component distorts the wave shape of main flux causing flux
lines concentration at one pole edge and scattering at the other.

2.4.3. USING INTERPOLES (COMMUTATING POLES)
In this method small poles are fitted in the interpolar zone and excited with windings
connected in series with the armature, see Fig (33).
The number of turns of the interpole
winding is so chosen such that the ampere
turns developed by it is equal and opposite to
armature reaction peak ampere turns.
Moreover, extra amount of ampere
turns are also intended to exist to produce
dynamic voltage equal and opposite to the
inductive type of voltage resulted from current
change during commutation, see Fig (34).

Fig (34) Interpoles & Armature Reaction M.M.Fs
Therefore;
i
o
i a
i a
g
B
P a
Z I
N I + =
8

Where;
B
i
= Flux density under the interpole.
g
i
= Air gap under the interpole.
N
i
= Number of turns on the interpole.
In conclusion, the functions of the interpoles are;

Fig (33)
25
a) Producing equal and opposite ampere turns to peak value of armature reaction in the
neutral zone
|
\
|
P a
Z I
a
8
.
b) Producing extra ampere turns inducing dynamic voltage equal and opposite to
inductive voltage " "
dt
di
L produced in the coil undergoing commutation.

26
CHAPTER (3)

DC GENERATORS

DC machines can be operated as generators maintaining that flux is established in its
air-gap while its armature is driven by external means. In this case, the machine converts
mechanical energy of the prime mover into equivalent electrical energy. Under these
circumstances of operation, some basic relationships should be known beforehand.

3.1. BASIC PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING GENERATOR OPERATION
Consider conductor a shown in Fig (35)
which is set to rotate at a peripheral speed of
past a flux established by the pole with a density
of B Tesla. The induced e.m.f. in the
conductor in magnitude is given by;
l B e =
While its direction is as shown in Figure. As the
armature is connected to a load, a current will be
circulating in the winding with a direction similar to
that of the induced voltage.
Therefore, an electric force is set up with a direction opposite to " " and magnitude
given by;
i B F
e
l =
Following the treatment given in sec. 1.4., the amount of mechanical power
transformed into electrical form is equal to " " i e . Regarding electrical force
established in this case, it would be opposing direction of motion i.e. braking the machine.

Fig (36) DC Machine Stator windings and terminal markings.
(Old BS 822 markings in brackets)

Fig (35)
27
On the other hand, to identify the terminals of different circuits of a DC machine,
standard terminology notations are adopted as shown in Fig (36). These notations are
international and three distinct symbols following British, American and European standards
may be used.

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF DC GENERATORS
DC generators are classified according to the method with which its excitation is
established. The different types of DC generators are classified as shown below.

28
The different methods in which excitation is provided, yield different generator
characteristics as will be shown.

3.3. OPEN-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS OF A DC MACHINE (MAGNETIZATION
CURVE)
This type of characteristics relates the flux produced by the field system and the field
current producing it. It is difficult to measure the flux directly, but it could be measured in
indirect way since;
60 2
2 n
Z
a
P
E
P
=
Hence;
P
E maintaining that n is kept constant.
Therefore the relation between E and field winding current
f
i at constant running
speed will be similar to
f
i / relationship and it will take the shape shown in Fig (37)
showing saturation effects in iron parts at higher flux levels.
At lower values of
P
(and hence,
E), iron parts have negligible reluctance and E
/ i
f
relationship is mainly controlled by air-gap
reluctance. Consequently, at start the
relation between E and i
f
is linear and hence
termed Air-gap line.
It is clear that changing running speed
will result in different O.C.C. and air-gap lines.
Moreover, once an O.C.C. is known at a
specific speed n
1
other characteristics at
different speeds could be determined from the
P f
or i same
n
n
E
E
=
2
1
2
1

For example with a given field current oa , if E
1
is known at n
1
, then E
2
can be
evaluated at a given speed n
2
using the previously given relationship.

3.1.1. EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF O.C.C.
To determine the O.C.C. of a given DC machine experimentally, it is driven by a
prime mover, see Fig (38), at a constant running speed with its field current changed in steps
and corresponding O.C. voltages are recorded. The relation between
f
i E & is then
determined giving the required O.C.C. at the given speed.

Fig (37)
29

Fig (38)

3.4. VOLTAGE BUILD-UP IN SELF-EXCITED DC GENERATORS

In self-excited DC generators, field excitation is
achieved by output armature voltage or current or both.
The process of self-excitation can not be started unless
residual flux exists in field poles. Presence of residual
flux will induced voltage in the armature which in turn will
circulate field current in field windings, see Fig (39) for
the case of self-excited shunt generator. Flow of
field current will either increase or decrease field flux
depending on the direction of field m.m.f. developed
relative to existing residual flux. If both are in the same
direction, flux and hence voltage build-up occurs.
Alternatively, if their relative directions are opposite,
voltage build-up will not occur.
As voltage build-up process starts, voltage and flux will increase till a stable state is
reached. During self-excitation process, the following relations hold;

) (
a f f
r R I E + =
And since;
f a
R r <<<
Hence;
f f
R I E =
Plotting O.C.C. at the running speed
of the generator along with a line of a slope of
f
R (Field Line), self excitation can be
viewed as occurring in a stair case fashion,
see Fig (40).

Fig (39)
Fig (40)
30
For example e
1
produces field current corresponding to point 1 which in turn
induces e
2
and so on. Stability occurs at point A, which is the intersection between the
O.C.C. and field line.

3.4.1. Conditions Necessary for Voltage Build-Up in Self-Excited DC Generators

On viewing Fig (40), there exist come conditions necessary for successful voltage
build-up. Decreasing generator speed will alter the O.C.C. Naturally decrease in
generator speed will result in decrease in the generated voltage as seen in Fig (41).
At a specific speed the slope of the
Air-Gap line will coincide with Field Line.
Decreasing generator speed further, the
operating point will exist no more. The
transition speed below which self-excitation
fails is called the CRITICAL SPEED.
Moreover, if the field winding
resistance is increased, a specific value of this
resistance will make the field line coincident
with the air-gap line. Increasing field
winding resistance further will yield no
intersection point between field line and
O.C.C. and hence no voltage is induced.
Such a value of field winding resistance is increased; a specific value of this
resistance will make the field line coincident with the air-gap line.
Increasing field winding resistance further will
yield no intersection point between field line
and O.C.C. and hence no voltage is induced.
Such a value of field resistance is called
CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE, see
Fig (42).
Consequently, failure of machine to
build-up voltage may be attributed to one of
the following reasons:-
a) Reversed field winding polarity and
hence circulation of field current will
tend to oppose residual magnetism
present in field poles.
b) No residual flux or insufficient value of it exists.
c) Field winding resistance is higher than critical value.
d) Generator speed is lower than the critical value.

Fig (41)
Fig (42)
31
3.5. GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of a generator are defined as the different relations that govern its
performance. One of the important characteristics is the external one which relates load
voltage to current. Different types of generators will have different characteristics as
given below.

3.5.1. SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATORS
In this type of generators, keeping n i
f
&
constant then the internal induced e.m.f. E will be
of constant magnitude. The terminal voltage of the
generator (load voltage) is then given by, see Fig
(43);
a L L
r I E V =
The previous equation relates load voltage
to load current which is seen to be a straight line. If
field flux is varied the resulting new characteristics
will be a set of parallel lines as shown in Fig (44).
Same behavior occurs if running speed is also
varied.

Fig (44)

3.5.2. SELF-EXCITED GENERATORS
In self-excited generators, the way in which the field flux is produced influences the
external characteristics of the generator as will be shown in the following sections.

3.5.2.1. SERIES GENERATOR
In this type of generators, armature current is the field current. Terminal voltage of
the generator as related to internal induced e.m.f. is given by; see Fig (45);
) (
a s L L
r R I E V + =
Where;
R
s
= Series field windings resistance &
r
a
= Equivalent armature winding resistance.
Fig (43)

32

F

Fig (45)
Fig (46)

The value of internal induced e.m.f. E is related to I
L
by the O.C.C. of the generator
at its running speed n, see Fig (46). Subtracting from each value of E the corresponding
value of ) (
a s L
r R I + gives the value of V
L
. Repeating such a procedure for different
values of I
L
gives the external characteristic of such a type of generators as shown in Fig (46).
It is clear that increasing load current in this type of generators leads to increase in terminal
voltage.
This type of generators can not produce no-load terminal voltage, since excitation is
achieved by means of load current.

3.5.2.2. DC SHUNT GENERATOR
In this type of generators, the field windings are connected in parallel with the
armature as shown in Fig (47). For this type, the following relations hold;
sh L a
L L
sh sh
a a L
I I I
R I
R I
r I E V
+ =
=
=
=
&

Where;
I
sh
= Shunt field winding
Current.
I
a
= Armature winding
Current.

The variation of V
L
versus I
L
shows a drooping characteristic i.e. a significant drop in
terminal voltage occurs on loading. This drop occurred in this type of generators for the
same load current is more than that would occur if the generator was separately excited, see
Fig (48). The reason for such behavior is the reflection of the value of terminal voltage
on field current.
This can be easily visualized by the following sequence of events;
Since;

Fig (47)
33
a a L
P
r I E V
n
Z
a
P
E
=
=
&
60 2
2

Hence;
As I
a
>> V
L
<< << =
sh
L
sh
R
V
I <<
P

V
L
<< E <<

a. Loading the generator causes
increase in "I
a
" abd hence drop in
the value of "V
L
".
b. Decrease in "V
L
" contributes to
consequent decrease in the value of
"I
sh
" and hence pole flux "
P
"
decreases.
c. Drop in the value of the flux "
P
"
leads to consequent decrease in "E"
and hence more drop in "V
L
" occurs.

3.5.2.3. COMPOUND GENERATORS

The DC shunt generator as explained earlier, suffers from the fact that it has an
appreciable voltage drop on loading. The voltage drop is associated with loading e.g.
increase in load current. Therefore, if increase in load current is utilized in increasing field flux,
and hence internal induced e.m.f. E. This in turn will decrease the drop in terminal voltage
on loading and even cancels it.

To achieve this goal, the field pole is wound with two coils as shown in Fig (49). The
first coil is made of thin wire with large number of turns (shunt field), while the second is
made up of few turns of thick wire (series coil field).
The m.m.f. acting on field magnet is then
equals to ;
s s sh sh
I N I N F M M = . . .
If (N
s
* I
s
) is in the same sense as (N
sh
*I
sh
),
the machine is said to be COMMULATIVELY
COMPOUNDED ; whereas if (N
s
* I
s
) is opposing
(N
sh
* I
sh
), then the machine is said to be
DIFFERENTIALLY COMPOUNDED.

(48) Fig

Fig (49)
34
There are two alternative ways of connecting series field coil e.g. short and long-
shunt as shown below.

Regarding generator characteristics, it is
not seriously influenced by the method of
connection. However, it is mainly affected by
the direction of series coil m.m.f. relative to that
of the shunt coil i.e. being cumulatively or
differentially compounded.
For a cumulatively compounded
generator, the drop in voltage is less than that of
a shunt generator whereas for differentially
compounded generator the drop in voltage is
high than that of the same generator when
acting as a shunt generator, see Fig (50).

3.6 EFFICIENCY OF DC GENERATORS
DC generators on transforming mechanical energy into electrical one, looses some of
the input energy in the form of losses (mainly heat). These losses may be classified as :-
a) Friction & Windage losses : which is the amount of power lost in
machine bearing as well as that lost due to air resistance to rotating member.
LONG SHUNT

s s sh sh
sh L a
sh sh
s a a L
sh sh s a a
I N I N F M M
I I I
R I
R r I E V
R I R r I E
=
+ =
=
+ =
+ + =
. . .
) (
) ( *

SHORT SHUNT

L s sh sh
sh L a
s L sh sh
s L a a L
sh sh a a
I N I N F M M
I I I
R I R I
R I r I E V
R I r I E
=
+ =
=
=
+ =
. . .

60 2
2 n
Z
a
P
E
P
=

Fig (50)
35
b) Iron Loss : As conversion of energy in this type of machines is
associated with existence of magnetic flux, eddy and hysterias loss takes
place.
c) Copper Loss : Flow of current in both armature and field circuits produces
heat effects which is not utilized.

The power chain as it flows from the input of the generator (the shaft) till received in
its output port (V
L
* I
L
) is shown in Fig (51).

Fig (51) Power Flow Diagram of a DC Generator

36
CHAPTER (4)
DC MOTORS
4.1. GENERAL
One of the merits possessed by electrical machines, is their ability to convert energy
in both directions, i.e. it is a bi-directional power flow device. On motoring, the DC
machine converts electrical input power into mechanical one.

4.2. MOTOR AND GENERATOR ACTIONS
To understand the difference between the two actions, let us consider Fig (52) which
shows two simplified DC machines.

Fig (52)
In Fig (52 a), the armature is rotated counterclockwise by external torque T
mech
at
a speed and hence induced voltage will be in the direction shown in Figure, i.e. out of the
paper. Connecting the armature terminals to a load will circulate current " "i in the
same direction of voltage. Flow of this current will set up a force opposing direction of
rotation T
e
.

Now consider the machine shown in Fig (52 b) which is set to act as a motor,
where current " "i is supposed to flow out of the plane of paper by means of an external
impressed armature voltage. The force produced by virtue of this current will set the
armature to rotate in the clockwise direction, inducing a voltage whose direction opposes
current flow and hence termed as the BACK EMF. The difference in action between
motoring and generating can be well demonstrated by Fig (53), which shows relative
directions between armature induced voltages and currents in both modes of operations.

In both modes of operation, the amount of power converted from mechanical into
electrical or vice versa is given by :
a a
I E P Power Armature =

37

Fig (53)
4.3. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TORQUE IN DC MACHINES
As explained earlier, the amount of power converted from electrical to mechanical
side and vice versa is given by E * I
a
. Consequently;
a e
I E T =
i.e.
a P e
I
n
Z
a
P n
T =
60
* *
2
2
60
2

Therefore;

The previous equation shows that electro-magnetic torque developed by the
DC machine is directly proportional to the product ) (
a P
I .

4.4. CLASSIFICATION OF DC MOTORS
DC motors may be classified according to the method with which excitation is
provided. The types of motors known in this way are :-
a) DC Series Motor;
b) DC Shunt Motor; and
c) DC Compounded Motors.

4.4.1. DC SERIES MOTOR
In this type of motors, armature current
is the field current. Voltage balance
equation as derived from Fig (54) can be written
as follows :-
E R r I V
s a s s
+ + = ) ( *
Where;
R
s
= Field Winding Resistance
mt N I Z
a
P
T
a P e
. ) (
2
2
2
1
=

Fig (54)
38
r
a
= Armature winding resistance
on the other hand;
60 2
2 n
Z
a
P
E
P
=
And
P
is produced by I
s
i.e.
P
= Function of I
s

The relationship between
P
& I
s
is the magnetization curve of the motor which is by
nature a non-linear function. Therefore, to derive the output torque/speed relationship,
graphical method is ought to be used.
The magnetization curve of the
motor shown in Fig (55) can be
approximated into two regions;
a) For 0 < I
s
< b the magnetic
circuit is unsaturated and hence;

and since;
s P e
I T

2
s e
I T

b) For I
s
> b The magnetic circuit saturates
and hence;
t Cons
P
tan
Therefore;
s s P e
I I T
The relation between
P
and
s
I will be as shown in Fig (55) and it could be
observed that "
e
T " increases by increase in "
s
I " however, with different rates.
Moreover, increase in "
s
I " is accompanied with increase in "
P
". Noting that
n K E V
P s
= ; hence
P
s
V
n

which means that increase in "
P
" is associated with decrease in "n".
In conclusion as I
s
>>
P
& T
e
>> and n <<. Consequently;
n
T
e
1

and the T
e
/ n relationship will be as shown in Fig (56). It is observed that this type of
motors has a high starting torque (torque developed when n = 0). On the other hand, no-load

s P
I
Fig (55)
39
speed (speed when T
e
= 0) might reach dangerously high values and therefore, care should
be taken to ensure that this type of motors is NEVER STARTED UNLOADED.
Moreover, running speed drops
considerably upon loading. This type of
motors is used frequently for applications
demanding high starting torque such as
traction ( ), petrol engine starters
etc.

4.4.2 DC SHUNT MOTOR
In This type of motors, the field windings are connected in shunt with armature as
shown in Fig (57). In this case, the following equations apply;

sh sh
a a s
R I
r I E V
=
+ =

&
=
=
P
P
K
n
Z
a
P
E
60 2
2

Therefore;

a a P s
r I K V + =
And since;
a P
a P a
e
I K
I K I E
T =
= =

Hence;
P
a e
P s
K
r T
K V
+ =
Field current "I
sh
" is constant maintained V
s
& R
sh
are kept constant. Therefore,
P
is assumed constant and then;

The variation of armature torque versus armature current is shown in Fig (58) where it
is observed to be a linear relationship. The torque / speed characteristic of shunt motors is
also shown in the same Figure, where it could be observed that;

Fig (56)

Fig (57)
( )
e
P
e
P
s
T B A
K
T
K
V
=
=
2

40

Fig (58)
a) This type of motors has a definite value of no-load speed
|
|
\
|
P
s
K
V
. Therefore, it
could be used for applications having periods of no-load.
b) The change in running speed upon loading is small and therefore, it is considered as
an almost constant speed motor.
Typical applications suitable for this type of motors are; Lifts, Cranes, Lathes,
Excavators .etc.

4.4.3. DC COMPOUND MOTORS
This type of motors resembles in its connections, the compound generators
previously studied i.e. it may be connected as either long or short shunt. Relevant
motor equations and directions of voltages and currents are as listed below and shown in
Fig (59).

LONG SHUNT

( )
sh sh
s a a s
sh a s
R I
R r I E V
I I I
=
+ + =
+ =

SHORT SHUNT
sh sh s s
s s a a s
sh a s
R I R I
R I r I E V
I I I
+ =
+ + =
+ =

41

Fig (59)
The torque / speed relationship of this type of motors is slightly affected by the
method of connection i.e. being long or short shunt, but mainly determined by the relative
direction of series ampere turns to shunt field ampere turns. e.g. being cumulative or
differential.
To determine the torque / speed and torque / current relationships, consider first the
case of short circuiting the series turns whereupon the motor will act as a shunt motor with
characteristics previously shown. Effect of series turns is summarized as follows;
If Cumulative then
P
>> and <
P
s
V
n " "
As T
e
>> then I
a
>>
If Differential then
P
<< and >
P
s
V
n " "
In the cumulative compounded case [
a P e
I T ] and since I
a
> &
P
>, then for
a given torque, I
a
will increase at a rate less than that would happen with "
P
= constant",
(shunt motor case). Inversely, in the differential compounded case as T
e
> , I
a
> &
P
< , which means more armature current for a given torque compared to either cumulative
or shunt cases.
The corresponding torque / speed & torque / armature current characteristics are
shown in Fig (60).

Fig (60)
Differentially compounded motors are not used in practice, however, cumulatively
compounded type find numerous applications demanding high torques at low speeds with
60 2
2 n
Z
a
P
E
P
=
( )
s s sh sh P
I N I N ( )
s s sh sh P
I N I N
+ve sign for cumulative
-ve sign for differential
42
definite values of no-load speed, such as , Rolling Mills ( ) , Shear Punches
( ), Press Work ( ) .etc.

4.5. EFFICIENCY IN DC MOTORS
DC motors as any other energy converters, changes some of its input energy into
losses . The losses in DC motors are similar to those of the generators i.e. iron ,
mechanical and copper types of losses. The power flow diagram in this case will be
similar to that of DC generator with reversed power flow direction, see Fig (61).
Note that when the machine acts as a motor or a generator, the power converted
from mechanical to electrical or vice versa is given by;
a a
I E P Power Armature = " "

Fig (61)

4.6. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS
One of the merits possessed by DC motors is the ease with which the running speed
of the motor can be varied. This makes DC motors suitable for many variable speed
drives.
In fact speed control can be achieved by changing either armature voltage or field
current. This can be explained by noting the e.m.f. equation. In DC motors, the
back emf "E" is always less than applied armature voltage "V
s
" by the drop on armature
winding resistance "I
a
r
a
" which is usually very small (less than 5% of V
s
at full-load).
Therefore;
P
s
P s
V
n
n
Z
a
P
E V
=
60 2
2

which means that "n" can be varied by either changing "V
s
" or "
P
". However, increasing
"V
s
" causes increase in "n", while increasing "
P
" results in decrease in "n". Variation of
"n" versus "V
s
" for constant values of "
P
" is shown in Fig (62), which is observed to be linear.

43

Fig (62) Fig (63)

On the other hand, "n" varies in an inverse manner to "
P
" as shown in Fig (63).
Ranges of speed control via armature or field can be summarized as follows:-
a) If n
r
is the rated motor speed when V
sr
(rated armature voltage) and
Pr
(rated field
flux), are applied , then;

As rated supply voltage and rated field flux when applied to DC motor will set it to
rotate at its rated speed. Supply voltage or field flux can not be increased beyond their
rated value since this might cause flash over the commutator or field core saturation with
excessive iron losses. Therefore, Armature voltage control can be applied for a range of
supply voltage control from zero value up to its rated value. Same applies for field
current. Therefore, for speeds less than rated value , ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL
WILL THE LONELY VIABLE SOLUTION WHEREAS FOR SPEEDS BEYOND RATED
SPEED FIELD FLUX CONTROL WILL THE ACCEPTED SOLUTION, see Fig (64).
*******************************************

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44

DC Macines Mohamedeeen

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Notes on DC Machines

Prof. Adel L. Mohamadein; February 2008

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