Creep and Durability of Environmentally Conditioned FRP-RC Beams Using Fiber Optic Sensors

AASHISH SINGHVI i2 Technologies 909 E. Las Colinas Blvd. Dallas, TX 75239 AMIR MIRMIRAN1 Department of Civil Engineering North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC 27695
ABSTRACT: Accelerated environmental conditioning increases creep rate of FRP bars and results in 2%3% moisture absorption. Presence of salt in the solution does not affect creep rate of FRP-RC beams or moisture absorption of FRP bars. Effect on strength and stiffness of FRP is about 3% for saline solutions and none for moisture. Environmental conditioning lowers post-cracking stiffness of the beams due to stiffness degradation of FRP and loss of bond between FRP and concrete. Fiber optic sensors are less sensitive than foil gages to temperature effects, but must be handled properly during construction and secured carefully against harsh environments. KEY WORDS: composites, concrete, creep, durability, fiber optics, FRP.

INTRODUCTION

national investment in the civil infrastructure on the one hand, and the extent of its deterioration on the other hand are well known and publicized. Ohio represents a good example. With over 57% of its nearly 43,000 bridges rated inadequate for current design loads, the state spends $200 million annually on bridge replacement and rehabilitation alone. These economic necessities have made durability the main driving force for the use of fiber reinforced
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Journal of REINFORCED PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES, Vol. 21, No. 4/2002

0731-6844/02/01 035111 $10.00/0 DOI: 10.1106/073168402026254 2002 Sage Publications

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polymer (FRP) bars in infrastructure. FRP bars are not expected to deteriorate in the presence of road salts or marine environment, which shorten the life of conventional steel-reinforced concrete structures. Yet data on long-term behavior of FRP-RC structures is scarce. Research on creep of FRP-RC has not accounted for the environmental effects. Most durability studies, on the other hand, have been carried out on non-loaded FRP-RC members or FRP bars alone. Since sustained loads may result in open cracks, they could potentially alter durability characteristics of the structure and accelerate its deterioration. Also, stiffness degradation of FRP bars in harsh environments could possibly increase their creep rate. These issues provide the basic motivations for the present study to combine the creep and durability tests together. Moreover, with their serviceability and safety in the balance, there is a clear need for in-service monitoring of FRP-RC structures. Fiber optic sensors can provide such a system. However, their sensitivity and ruggedness for long-term use in harsh environments must be investigated. The objectives of the present study are as follows: 1. Evaluate performance of FRP-RC beams and their components under simultaneous effects of accelerated environmental conditions and sustained loads. 2. Assess stability, sensitivity and suitability of fiber optic sensors for long-term monitoring of FRP-RC beams in harsh environmental conditions. PREVIOUS RESEARCH Studies in the early 1990s revealed serious durability problems for glass FRP bars in alkaline environments such as in concrete. Sen and Shahawy (1993) placed 8 pretensioned beams with steel and glass FRP strands in saltwater with 15% concentration, and subjected them to wet/dry cycles simulating tidal effects in coastal areas. Half of the beams were pre-cracked at mid-span. The beams were tested to capacity at periodic intervals and compared against unexposed control specimens. A complete loss in the effectiveness of glass FRP strands was noticed after only 6 months in the pre-cracked beams and after 15 months in the un-cracked beams. There was no comparable loss of capacity in the specimens with steel strands. Saadatmanesh and Tannous (1998) evaluated durability of eight types of glass FRP bars, and two types of carbon and one type of aramid FRP tendons by simulating accelerated exposure to seven different field conditions. Test results indicated long-term durability problems for glass bars, whereas carbon and aramid tendons performed well in harsh environments. Tannous and Saadatmanesh (1999) also carried out a durability study on FRP bars made from alkali resistant glass. Test variables included temperature, matrix material (polyester and vinylester), chemical solution, and ultraviolet radiation. They also tested FRP-RC beams in flexure to examine the effect of exposure to deicing salts. Test results showed that alkali

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resistant glass did not improve the behavior of bars in the aggressive field conditions. While most research on strength and stiffness of FRP-RC beams has focused on their short-term behavior, there are few and limited studies on their long-term response. Hundley and Dolan (1996) tested glass, aramid and carbon FRP tendons for their short-term characteristic creep-rupture times, i.e., the time a material will sustain the load before ultimate fracture. Tests were conducted at stress levels of 90% and 100% of the respective static strength of the tendons. Wang et al. (1999) carried out tests on the bond creep of eight types of FRP bars. The average creep slip of FRP bars was only slightly larger than that of steel bars. Pullout tests, however, showed that bond strength of aramid bars decreased by about 15% as a result of sustained loads. Fuhr et al. (1993) and Huston et al. (1992) have successfully measured strains in concrete structures using fiber optic sensors. Initially, there were concerns regarding the alkali reaction with silicon in the glass fibers. However, jacketing the fibers with plastic buffers made of Kevlar has resolved the problem. Avoiding deterioration pinching and micro bending of sensors during concrete placement and compaction is still a difficult task. Maaskant et al. (1997) installed fiber optic instrumentation in a prestressed concrete bridge in Canada. A more promising approach is to embed the sensors in FRP bars and tendons during pultrusion. Kalamkarov et al. (2000) subjected such tendons to sinusoidal and trapezoidal loads of 11 kN (2.5 kip) magnitude inside a temperature chamber. They showed that performance of the sensors was not affected by either the load or the ambient temperatures within the range of 40 and +60C. EXPERIMENTAL WORK The following tests were carried out for the long-term behavior of FRP-RC beams: 1. Creep-durability of FRP-RC beams under sustained loads and accelerated environmental conditions for six months, followed by creep recovery for 10 days 2. Reserve strength of FRP-RC beams after their creep recovery 3. Reserve strength of FRP bars (in tension) and concrete cylinders (in compression) after 6-month exposure to the same accelerated environmental conditions as the beams 4. Diffusion of FRP bars during 6-month exposure to the same accelerated environmental conditions as the beams Creep-Durability Tests These tests were carried out on four identical FRP-RC beams to simulate field

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conditions under service loads as they experience harsh environments such as moisture, seawater, or deicing salts over their lifespan. The effect of environmental conditioning was accelerated to offset the short (6-month) duration of the tests. The beams were 152 mm (6 in) wide, 203 mm (8 in) deep, and 2.74 m (9 ft) long, and were reinforced with three 10 mm (3/8 in) diameter glass FRP bars at a depth of 160 mm (6.3 in). The bars were manufactured using a pultrusion process. To help increase their bond with concrete, the bars were sand-coated and spirally wound with additional fibers to create indentations similar to those in deformed steel bars. The manufacturer reported a tensile strength of 900 MPa (130 ksi) and a modulus of elasticity of 38,600 MPa (5,600 ksi) for the bars. Concrete was prepared in the lab with a mix ratio of 1.00:0.50:1.65:1.97 (cement:water:gravel: sand). The beams were moist cured for 3 days, and de-molded after 28 days. Twelve concrete blocks of 305 mm (1 ft) wide, 610 mm (2 ft) high, and 915 mm (3 ft) long were cast as overburden, each weighing 4 kN (900 lb). The blocks provided a uniform load of 4.4 kN/m (300 lb/ft), which was approximately 15% of the flexural capacity of the beams, and large enough to initiate cracking. Shear stresses due to sustained loads accounted for only 22% of shear strength of concrete. Therefore, no stirrup was provided to avoid corrosion (or diffusion) of secondary steel (or FRP) ties. After the beams were placed on the supports, they were partitioned with particleboards and plastic sheets to create four separate environmental chambers for air (control), moisture, seawater, and deicing salt solutions. The height of the chambers was such that each beam would be fully immersed in the respective solution. Three plastic containers were placed on top of the concrete blocks to initially siphon the solutions into the chambers, and to later maintain the water level in each chamber. Figure 1 shows the beams with overburdens and the environmental chambers. The solutions simulating seawater and deicing salt environments consisted of 15% (by weight) sodium chloride (NaCl or rock salt) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) in water, respectively. Dore et al. (1997) have suggested that 15% chloride solution for one year simulates 20 years of service in field conditions. The beams were instrumented with a pair of fiber optic sensors and foil gages at the top (compression face) and bottom (on FRP bar) at the mid-span (Figure 2). The foil gages were 30 mm (1.2 in) unidirectional electrical resistance type. The sensors were of Bragg grating type, made of fused silica glass with 10 mm (0.4 in) gage length, a strain range of 1% and a temperature range of 50 to 80C (58 to 176F). They could be bonded onto (or embedded in) concrete or composites. The information in Bragg grating sensors is directly encoded into the wavelength, which is an absolute parameter. Therefore, the output does not depend directly on the total light levels, losses in the connecting fibers and couplers, or the source power. An epoxy adhesive was used to bond both the sensors and the gages onto the bars. They were then wrapped with polyurethane tapes to protect them from any seepage of moisture or chloride ion. The connecting wires for the sensor and

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Figure 1. FRP-RC beams under sustained loading and environmental conditioning.

Figure 2. FRP-RC beams: (a) cross section and (b) instrumentation.

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Figure 2 (continued). FRP-RC beams: (a) cross section and (b) instrumentation.

the gage were aligned with the bar, and were taken out of the form at the end section. The top surface was slightly indented in the middle to develop a small groove in concrete, where a sensor and a gage could be placed on the compression side of the beam without being crushed under the dead weight of the overburdens. Initial strain readings were taken before loading. A strain-balance unit and a strain-indicator unit were used to monitor the readings from the strain gages. The gages were connected to the readout device at all times. A stand-alone single-channel FLS 3100-SA readout unit was used to provide 29 volt analog output from the fiber optic sensors, which was later converted to strains using the calibration factors provided by the manufacturer. The readout unit provided measurement up to 8500 with 1 resolution and 5 precision. Figure 3 shows the net creep and shrinkage strains (total strains minus initial elastic strains) from the readings of strain gages in different environmental conditions. The negative values represent tensile strains in the FRP bars, whereas the positive values are for compressive strains in concrete. The fluctuations are due mainly to the change in the ambient temperature, as will be discussed later in this section. It is clear that creep rate for concrete in the control beam was much higher than those in the other three beams. This is due to the fact that drying creep and shrinkage of concrete could not occur for immersed beams. On the other hand, creep of FRP bars in the control beams was slightly lower than those in the other three beams. This shows that the FRP bars and/or their bond with concrete deteriorated over time in harsh environments, and resulted in higher tensile strains. However, the presence of salt in the solution did not adversely affect the creep behavior of the beams in either compression or tension. The final reduction in the tensile and compressive strains is due to removal of the loads and the creep recovery. It is clear from the figure that not all the strains were recovered due to cracking of the beams. Figure 4 shows continuous readings of a foil gage and fiber optic sensor of the same type as those bonded to the specimens, but left unattached or free. In the same figure, daily maximum and minimum temperature as well as temperature at the time of strain readings is shown for comparison. During the creep tests, the maxi-

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Figure 3. Comparison of strain variations for different environmental conditionings.

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Figure 4. Ambient temperature and strain variation in free strain gage and fiber optic sensor.

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mum daily variation in temperatures was as high as 10C (19F). The foil-type strain gages showed much more sensitivity to the temperature variations, as compared to the fiber optic sensors. This is an advantage of fiber optic sensors over the conventional strain gages. However, the stability of the sensor is questionable, as discussed below. It was noticed that fluctuations of strain gage readings were less for the beams immersed in water or saline solutions. Figures 59 compare the readings from the fiber optic sensors and the strain gages for each of the four beams. Three of the sensors failed during the creep tests, with two of them in tension and the other in compression. Tensile sensor for the beam in the moisture environment gave low signals after only 10 days, indicating that the fiber optic cable might have broken. This was attributed to the cracking of the beam. Tensile sensor for the beam in deicing salt failed after about 4 months. The sensor remained readable. However, it provided erroneous, unreliable, and inconsistent data. This was attributed to the cracks in the beam that perhaps disconnected the sensor from the bar. The only sensor that failed on the compression side was that of the control specimen right after it was loaded, and perhaps due to mishandling of the overburdens. Generally, readings of the sensors were close to those from the strain gages. For the control beam, tensile strain readings from the sensor and the gage were very close and comparable. It is also noted that the sensor readings are less variable, as the strain gage readings fluctuated around the sensor strains. As stated before, this was attributed to the sensitivity of the foil gages to temperature variations. For the beam in the moisture environment, compressive strain readings from the sensor and the gage were initially different. However, they both stabilized around the same value after about 45 days. In this case, the readings of the fiber optic sensor on the compression side are presumed incorrect, as some values appear to be negative. For the beam in the seawater environment, compressive and tensile strains are very consistent for both the sensors and the gages. The sudden decrease in tensile strain readings from the sensor at the age of about 140 days was not however expected based on the strain gage readings. For the beam in the deicing salt environment, the gages and the sensors provided quite comparable results, until the tensile sensor failed. Reserve Strength of FRP-RC Beams After creep recovery, the beams were tested for their reserve strength in three-point flexure. They were loaded at a deflection rate of 5 mm (0.2 in)/min using a 90 kN (20 kip) servo-controlled actuator in a self-reacting frame. The strain gages and fiber optic sensors of the creep tests were also used for data acquisition in the strength tests. Deflections were monitored at the mid-span. Figure 9 shows the typical mode of failure of the beams as well as their load-deflection at mid-span. The flexural and shear capacity of the beams were estimated to be 62 kN

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Figure 5. Strain variation for the FRP-RC beam in the control environment.

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Figure 6. Strain variation for the FRP-RC beam in the moisture environment.

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Figure 7. Strain variation for the FRP-RC beam in the marine environment.

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Figure 8. Strain variation for the FRP-RC beam in the deicing salt environment.

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Figure 9. Load-deflection and typical failure of FRP-RC beams in reserve strength tests.

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(14 kip) and 25 kN (5.6 kip), respectively. Since no stirrup was provided in the beams, they all failed in shear. Therefore, the only significant measure of the environmental conditioning was the post-cracking stiffness of the beams. As shown in Table 1, the saline solutions lowered the post-cracking stiffness much more than the moisture environment. Reserved Strength of Components In order to distinguish between the deterioration rate of FRP and concrete, twenty 760 mm (30 in) FRP bars and eight 152 305 mm (6 12 in) concrete cylinders were subjected to the same environmental conditioning as the FRP-RC beams for the same period of six months. The bars were then tested for their reserve strength in tension, while the cylinders were tested for their reserve strength in compression. The tensile tests followed ASTM standard D3916 at a deflection rate of 5 mm (0.2 in)/min. Since FRP bars may crush under lateral pressure, a custom-made T-6061 aluminum tab-grip adapter was prepared according to the ASTM standard to hold the bar and fit inside the grips of the universal test machine. The gap between the tabs was found to be of great importance. A small gap would result in bar slippage out of the tab assembly, whereas a large gap may cause pinching and crushing of the bar inside the tab assembly. An optimum size of tabs was found, so that no slippage would occur and the failure would be by tensile fracture in the middle of the bar. Also, the bar-tab assembly was epoxy injected to remove any likelihood of slippage. The insets in Figure 10 show the tab-grip assembly and the typical failure of FRP bars. Two bars from each group were instrumented with a foil gage at mid-height. Figure 10 shows the typical stress-strain curves for the different environmental conditions. Table 2 presents a summary of test results, as well as the manufacturer data. The values shown in the table are averages of 5 specimens from each group. The strength values appear to be more than 30% below the manufacturer data, whereas the elastic modulus is about 10% above the manufacturer data. The tests show that environmental conditioning had little deteriorating effect on the
Table 1. Summary of reserve strength tests of FRP-RC beams.
Failure Load, kN (kip) 25 (5.6) 40 (8.9) 35 (7.8) 35 (7.8) Ultimate Deflection, mm (in) 38 (1.5) 43 (1.7) 38 (1.5) 46 (1.8) Post-Cracking Stiffness kN/mm (k/in) 0.63 (3.61) 0.55 (3.13) 0.41 (2.35) 0.42 (2.41) Relative Value 1.00 0.87 0.65 0.67

Environment Control Moisture Seawater Deicing salt

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Figure 10. Stress-strain response and typical failure of FRP bars.

Environmentally Conditioned FRP-RC Beams Using Fiber Optic Sensors Table 2. Summary of reserve strength tests of FRP bars.
Rupture Stress Failure Load, kN Relative Rupture (kip) MPa (ksi) Value Strain 43 (9.7) 44 (9.9) 42 (9.4) 42 (9.4) 607 (88.1) 618 (89.7) 587 (85.2) 590 (85.5) 900 (13) 1.00 1.02 0.97 0.97 0.0143 0.0145 0.0143 0.0144 0.0232

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Modulus of Elasticity MPa (ksi) 42,446 (6,156) 42,577 (6,175) 41,156 (5,969) 40,805 (5,918) 38,600 (5,600) Relative Value 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.96

Environment Control Moisture Seawater Deicing salt Manufacturer data

response of FRP bars. No strength degradation was observed for the bars in moisture, whereas 3% strength degradation is apparent for specimens in seawater and deicing salt solutions. The saline solutions had similar effect on the stiffness degradation of the bars. Eleven 152 305 mm (6 12 in) concrete cylinders were cast together with the beams. They were moist-cured for 7 days, and de-molded after 8 days. Three of the cylinders were kept in the lab and tested after 28 days for the initial compressive strength of the beams. The other 8 cylinders were placed in the same environmental chambers as the FRP-RC beams for six months. At the end of this period, the cylinders were removed and dried for one day, and then tested in compression. Table 3 provides a summary of test results. It is clear that the environmental conditioning had no adverse effect on the compressive strength of concrete. The higher strength of the immersed cylinders could be attributed to their extended curing. It is interesting to note that the inside of the cylinders that were kept in the seawater and deicing salt solutions was completely wet after failure, as compared to the cylinders in control or moisture environments. Based on test results of components of the FRP-RC beams, it appears that the stiffness degradation of the beams is more due to deterioration of the bond between

Table 3. Summary of compressive strength tests of concrete cylinders.

Age at Testing, Days 28 208 208 208 208 Strength MPa (ksi) 34.5 (5.00) 35.6 (5.16) 39.4 (5.71) 41.0 (5.94) 40.3 (5.84) Relative Value 1.00 1.11 1.15 1.13 Remarks 28-day compressive strength No change in texture, dry inside Dry inside Wet inside Wet inside

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Figure 11. Moisture contents of FRP bars for different environmental conditionings.

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FRP bars and concrete, rather than individual degradation of each component. This, however, should be confirmed by additional pullout tests. Diffusion of FRP Bars In order to determine the effect of environmental conditioning on the moisture absorption and physical properties of FRP bars, twenty 76 mm (3 in) bars were tested according to ASTM standards. The bars were weighed and divided into four groups. Each group was placed in one of the same environmental chambers as the FRP-RC beams. Every month for six months, the bars were removed from the chambers, wiped to remove surface water, weighed, and then placed back in the chambers. The control bars were also weighed each time to assure consistency of the scale and the readings. No visual change was observed in the physical appearance of any of the bars during the entire period. Figure 11 shows the percent increase in the weight of FRP bars as a function of square root of time in hours. Each curve represents an average of five samples in the respective group. In the same figure, data for 10 mm (3/8 in) and 20 mm (3/4 in) diameter alakali resistant glass with either polyester or vinyl ester resin is shown from Tannous and Saadatmanesh (1999) for the purpose of comparison. It is clear that alkali resistant glass, bar diameter and vinyl ester resin all improve the diffusion behavior of FRP bars. However, the different saline solutions in the present study did not alter diffusion of the bars. ANALYTICAL MODELING An analytical model was developed for the creep of FRP-RC beams. The model is based on the age adjusted effective modulus method for concrete (Bazant, 1972), whereby total concrete strain at time t caused by a constant stress o applied at time T is given by the sum of elastic, creep and shrinkage strains (sh) as
(t ) = o (t ) + + sh Ee (t, T ) Ee (t, T )

(1)

where Ee(t,T) and Ee(t,T) are the effective modulus and the age-adjusted effective modulus of concrete, respectively, and are given by
Ee = Ec (T ) 1 + (t, T )

(2)
Ec (T ) Ee = 1 + (t, T ) X (t, T )

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where Ec(T) is the modulus of elasticity of concrete at the loading age of T, and (t,T) is the age-dependent creep coefficient, which varies between 0 at time T and 1.54.0 at time t = , and X(t,T) is the aging coefficient varying between 1.0 and 0.6. The Findlays creep model is used for FRP (Triantafillou and Plevris, 1992), whereby FRP strain f at time t is given by
t f = o + m to
n

(3)

where o is the initial strain, m is a function of stress, and n and to are material constants. From the above equation, a visco-elastic modulus Ev can be obtained as
Eo o m
n

Ev =

t o + Eo m to

(4)

where Eo is the initial elastic modulus of the FRP material. The model adopts a stress-relaxation technique to develop moment-curvature response of the cross section as a function of time (Bradford and Gilbert, 1990). In this method, the strain distribution is initially assumed to remain unchanged during each time interval. If the total strain is assumed constant but the creep and shrinkage strains are allowed to change, then the elastic component of the total strains in concrete and FRP need to change accordingly by an opposite and equal amount. The basic assumptions in the model are as follows: Linear strain gradient such that plane sections remain plane and normal to the neutral axis throughout the creep process of the beam Linear creep for both FRP and concrete. This assumption is valid at the level of service loads, as the stresses remain linear elastic for both materials. Strain compatibility between concrete and FRP reinforcement, such that no slippage occurs between concrete and FRP. Although some slippage may occur at higher load levels, this assumption is considered valid at the level of service loads. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected in the analysis. Once time history of the moment-curvature is established, deflections of the beam can be calculated by the moment-area method. More details on the analytical model can be found elsewhere (Singhvi, 2000). Figure 12 shows the predicted and experimental curvature over the six-month test period. It is observed that the measured curvature is slightly higher than the analytical values for the un-cracked sec-

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Figure 12. Comparison of the model with the creep experiments for the FRP-RC beams.

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tion, but much lower than the analytical values for the fully cracked section. This can be attributed to the fact that the model only considers un-cracked or fully cracked sections. In this particular case, the sustained load provides the exact cracking moment of the beam. Therefore, the mid-span section is expected to partially crack during the creep tests. CONCLUSIONS Based on six-month creep and accelerated environmental conditioning of FRP-RC beams, and reserve strength and diffusion tests of components, these conclusions can be made: Moisture decreases creep rate of concrete, while increasing creep rate of FRP bars. The presence of salt in the solution does not affect the creep behavior of the beams in either the compression or the tension side any more than the moisture alone. Moisture or saline environments do not adversely affect compressive strength of concrete. The effect on strength and stiffness of FRP bars is about 3% for saline solutions and none for the moisture alone. Diffusion of FRP bars is in the order of 2%3% for both moisture and saline solutions. Presence of salt in the solution does not affect moisture absorption of the bars. Environmental conditioning lowers post-cracking stiffness of FRP-RC beams, partially due to stiffness degradation of FRP bars. The more significant factor, however, may be the loss of bond between FRP and concrete. This needs to be confirmed by pullout tests. Fiber optic sensors are less sensitive to temperature effects than foil gages. They can be used for FRP-RC structures as long as they are handled properly during construction and secured carefully against harsh environments. Age adjusted effective modulus method and Findleys model accompanied by stress-relaxation technique can be used to predict the creep behavior of FRP-RC beams. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was supported by the National Science Foundation as the CAREER award to the second author under Grant No. CMS-9625070. The authors are grateful to the Hughes Brothers of Seward, NE for providing the FRP bars. The opinions expressed here, however, are those of the authors alone, and not necessarily the views of the sponsoring agencies. REFERENCES
Bazant, Z.P. (1972). Prediction of concrete creep effects using age-adjusted effective modulus method. ACI Journal, 69(4), 212217.

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Bradford, M.A., and Gilbert, R.I. (1990). Time-dependent analysis and design of composite columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, 116(12), 33383357. Dore, G., Konrad, J.M., and Roy, M. (1997). Role of deicing salt in pavement deterioration by frost action. Transportation Research Record, TRR-1596, 7075. Fuhr, P.L., Huston, D.R., Ambrose, T.P., and Snyder, D.M. (1993). Stress monitoring of concrete using embedded optical fiber sensors. Journal of Structural Engineering, 119(7), 22632269. Hundley, A., and Dolan, C. (1996). Non-accelerated creep-rupture of fiber-reinforced-plastics in a concrete environment. Proceedings of Materials Engineering Congress, ASCE, Washington, D.C., 519526. Huston, D., Fuhr, P., Kajenski, P., and Snyder, D. (1992). Concrete beam testing with optical fiber sensors. Structures Congress, San Antonio, TX, ASCE, Ansari (Ed.), 6066. Kalamkarov, A.L., Fitzgerald, S.B., MacDonald, D.O., and Georgiades, A.V. (2000). Mechanical performance of pultruded composite rods with embedded fiber optic sensors. Composites Science and Technology, 60(8), 11611169. Maaskant, R., Alavie, T., Measures, R.M., Tadros, G., Rizkalla, S.H., and Guha-Thakurta, A. (1997). Fiber-optic bragg grating sensors for bridge monitoring. Cement and Concrete Composites, 19, 2133. Saadatmanesh, H., and Tannous, F.E. (1998). Durability of fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) rebars and tendons in aggressive environments. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Repair and Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Maracaibo, Venezuela, 120133. Sen, R., Mariscal, D., and Shahawy, M. (1993). Durability of fiberglass pretensioned beams. Structural Journal, ACI, 90(5), 525533. Singhvi, A. (2000). Creep and durability of FRP-RC beams under sustained loads and in harsh environments using fiber-optic instrumentation. M.S. thesis, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH. Tannous, F.E., and Saadatmanesh, H. (1999). Durability of AR glass fiber reinforced plastic bars. Journal of Composites for Construction, 3(1), 1219. Triantafillou, T.C., and Plevris, N. (1992). Time-dependent behavior of RC members strengthened with FRP laminates. Journal of Structural Engineering, 120(3), 10161041. Wang, Z., Joh, O., and Goto, Y. (1999). Bond creep behavior of FRP rods and their bond strength after sustained loading. Transactions of the Japan Concrete Institute, Japan Concrete Institute, Vol. 21, 221226.

BIOGRAPHIES Aashish Singhvi Aashish Singhvi is an application engineer with i2 Technologies and a former graduate student of the University of Cincinnati. His research interests include fiber optic sensors and FRP materials. Amir Mirmiran Amir Mirmiran is a Professor of Structural Engineering at the Department of Civil Engineering of North Carolina State University. His research interests include innovative applications of fiber-reinforced polymers in the infrastructure.