Dance Ethnology and the Anthropology of Dance Author(s): Adrienne L.

Kaeppler Reviewed work(s): Source: Dance Research Journal, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Summer, 2000), pp. 116-125 Published by: Congress on Research in Dance Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1478285 . Accessed: 18/12/2011 04:17
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American Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. Schon, L. C. and A. F DiStefano. 1999. "Evaluationand Treatmentof PosteriorTibialis Tendinitis:A Case Report and Treatment Protocol." Journal of Dance Medicine & Science 3/1: 24-27. Skrinar,M. 1986. "MotorLearningResearch May Help the Dancer." In The Dancer as Athlete, ed. C. G. Shell. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Skrinar,M. and N. H. Moses. 1988. "Who's Teaching the Dance Class?" In Science of Dance Training, eds. P. Clarkson and M. Skrinar.Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. Solomon, R., S. Minton, and J.Solomon. 1990. Preventing Dance Injuries: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Reston, VA: American Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.

Solomon, R. and J. Solomon, eds. 1995. "Science and Somatics." Impulse 3/4. Solomon, R. and J. Solomon. 1998. Dance Medicine and Science Bibliography. Andover, NJ: J. Michael Ryan Publishing, Inc. Solomon, R., E, Trepman,and L. J. Micheli. 1989-1990. "Foot Morphology and Injury Patternsin Ballet and Modem Dancers."Kinesiology and Medicinefor Dance 12?1: 2040. Teitz, C. C. 1990. "Knee Problems in Dancers." In Preventing Dance Injuries, eds. R. Solomon, S. Minton and J. Solomon. Reston, VA: American Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.. Welsh, T. M. and S. J. Chatfield. 1997. Research Designs for Dance "Within-subject Medicine and Science." Journal of Dance Medicine & Science 1/1: 16-21.

I. Dance Ethnologyand the Anthropologyof Dance

Choreographers, dancers, and viewers of dance are socially and historically placed individuals who operate according to sociocultural conventions and aesthetic systems. This is also the case with those who study and write about dance-dance historians, dance ethnologists, anthropologists. This essay will focus on dance studies by anthropologists, dance ethnologists, and indigenous scholars and how their interpretations have been presented as well as how they have evolved and changed. Although Western dance and its music have made inroads into the performing arts of even the most remote corers of the world, the indigenous dance traditions of most nations are still alive and well, and indeed continue to influence dance in the West. Studies of non-Western dance traditions are usually carried out by anthropologists or dance ethnologists who are likely to have the backgroundknowledge that would help them to appreciate and understand dance and other structured movement systems in the larger scheme of cultural forms. There are also numerous studies of dance by indigenous researcherswho work on the dance traditionsof their own cultures as well as the dance traditions of others, including ballet and modern dance. What these researchers have in common is that they feel that dance is not transparent,giving up its secrets to the uninitiated,but that it must be seen as an integralpart of a total way of life. Unlike most dance in the West, in many other parts of the world dance is not simply entertainment. Recent trends in dance studies suggest that the terms "Western dance" and "non-Western dance" perpetuate false dichotomies and that a focus on who studies the dances, and their points of view, might be more appropriate. Some studies result from turning the anthropological eye upon "ourselves" while others use insights from dance history to explore the "other." For

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example,SusanFoster'sdancehistorywork Movement analyses from anthropological is informed anthropological theory,while points of view encompass all structured by Novak's anthropologicalstudies movementsystems, includingthose associCynthia were informedby dance history.The work ated with religious and secularritual, cerDrewalin performance studies emony,entertainment, martialarts,sign lanof Margaret is informed both-as is evidenced her guages, sports,and games.Whatthese sysby by workon Africandanceand her studyof the tems shareis that they resultfrom creative also Rockettes.JoannKeali'inohomoku has processesthat manipulate (i.e., handlewith bodiesin time andspace.Some writtenon Hopi danceand ballet as an eth- skill)human movementmay be nic dance,whileAnyaRoyce,a balletdancer, categoriesof structured for has written a general book on the anthro- furthermarkedor elaborated, example, of dance. My own work invokes a by being integrally related to "music"(a pology categoryof variety of disciplines in my studies of specially markedor elaborated dance-for example,in compar- "structured sound"),and text. Polynesian traditions with the Broadway Analysesthatwouldmakeit possible ing Polynesian musical Cats to raise questionsabouthow to separatemovementsystems conceptualaccordpoetic and movementidioms are conveyed ized as "dance"and "non-dance" and understood in performance, thereby ing to indigenouspoints of view (or even the emphasizing necessityof understanding askingif thereare such concepts)have not the total culturein orderto understand spe- yet been carriedout in many areas. Most for researchers cific performances. simplyuse the term"dance" associatedwith and all body movement researchers Most anthro/ethno agree any to thatit is necessary examinehow individu- music, but it should be rememberedthat termand concept(just is als involved in studyingdance learn to in- "dance" a Western whatthey see. The notionthatdance as is the term"music"). terpret Structuredmovement systems are is a "universallanguage"is still too common and is often associatedwith the idea systemsof knowledge-the productsof accan that "outsiders" understand body move- tion and interaction as well as processes ments of others without knowing the cul- throughwhich action and interactiontake tural movement language. On the other place-and are usually partof a largeracand feel hand,manydancers researchers that tivity or activity system. These systems of ballet and modern dance are universal knowledgeare socially and culturallyconmovement languages that can (and have structed-created by, known, and agreed What can we upon by a group of people and primarily been) adopted"universally." learn from ways in which anthro/ethno/in- preserved in memory. Though transient, have interpreted content, dance, movementsystemshave structured digenousresearchers of and dancing? dances, they can be visual manifestations social aesthetic relations,the subjectsof elaborate Dance as a StructuredMovementSystem systems, and may assist in understanding of values andthe deep structure the forms that resultfrom the creative cultural Cultural use of humanbodies in time and space are society.Ideal movementstudieswould anabodiesare but often glossedas "dance," the worditself lyze all activitiesin whichhuman in that carrieswith it preconceptions maskthe manipulated time and space, the social and importance usefulnessof analyzingthe processes that producethem accordingto movementdimensionsof humanactionand the aestheticpreceptsof a specific groupof interaction.Dance is a multi-facetedphe- people at a specific point in time, and the the that nomenonthat includes,in additionto what components groupor separate various movement dimensions and activities we see and hear,the "invisible" underlying and into kinesthetic visualform. system,the processesthatproduceboth the theyproject system and the product,and the socio-po- Indigenouscategoriescan best define what litical context.In manysocietiestheretradi- movement systems,if any,fit these,or other, and were no categoriescomparableto characterizations how they should be tionally the Westernconcept and the word "dance" classified. Discovering the structureand movementsystems,as has been adopted into many languages. contentof structured
Dance Research Journal 32/1 (Summer 2000) 117

well as the creative processes, movement theories and philosophies from indigenous points of view are difficult tasks, but they are necessary for understandingculture and society. In order to be understood as dance some other special movement category), (or movements must be grammatical,they must be intended as dance and interpreted as dance. The grammarof a movement idiomlike the grammarof any language-involves structure,style, and meaning; and one must learn to recognize the movements that make up the system, how they can be stylistically varied, and their syntax (rules about how they can be put together to form motifs, phrases, larger forms, and whole pieces). Competence to understand specific pieces depends not only on movement itself, but on knowledge of cultural context and philosophy.

Dance StudAnthropological/Ethnological ies and their Roots

Cultural and academic differences must be considered when reading dance studies. Some Europeantraditionsderived from comparativemusicology and folkloristics,American studies derived primarily from the anthropological views of Franz Boas, while traditions in other parts of the world derive from historic written accounts, oral tradition, and colonial encounters. In recent years, owing to meetings of the ethnochoreological study group of the InternationalCouncil for TraditionalMusic, there is more understanding of this variety of perspectives that has led to sharing and adoption of each other's views. European dance studies often used comparative methods to derive classifications, local and regional styles, historical layers, and interculturalinfluences-similar to the aims of musical folklorists at the time. There was also a focus on dance structure that was systematized by a group of Eastern European scholars under the aegis of the InternationalFolk Music Council (now the InternationalCouncil for TraditionalMusic, ICTM) which published its syllabus in 1974 (Giurchescu and others). Work on structural analysis is still part of the ICTM Ethnochoreology Study Group. Recent books incorporatingstructuraltraditions in-

clude Anca Giurchescu and Sunni Bloland (1995), Egil Bakka (1995) and Lisbet Torp (1990). British traditionsinclude derivations from folklore (such as Buckland's studies of Morris dancing) and social anthropology (such as studies by John Blacking and Andree Grau [Grau 1993]). Several British social anthropologists published their dance perspectives in a book edited by Paul Spencer (1985). American dance researchers(usually termed "dance ethnologists" or "anthropologists of human movement") continue to question what constitutes the field: should dance studies be primarily about movement products or should they incorporate more anthropological notions about process, event, ethnoaesthetics,and culturalconstructions about structured movement? Unlike European dance researchers, Americans have often worked with movement traditions not their own, and their research tends to be more diffuse and less detailed in movement content. GertrudeKurath noted that the ethnographic study of dance was "an approach toward, and a method of, eliciting the place of dance in human life-in a word, as a branch of anthropology"(1960:250). Kurath was drawn into the study of American Indian dance by William Fenton and Frank Speck to examine dance in areas where they had already carried out ethnographic research. Recognizing that movement or "dance" was an importantpart of ritual activity in Indian life, they looked for someone who would be able to describe, analyze, and make sense of the movements. They had already done the "context," and Kurath's task was to assist them in amassing the empirical data they were after-descriptions of choreographic groundplans, generalized descriptions of body movement, and statements about cultural symbolism as reflected in choreographic patterns. Kurath was a pioneer of empirical, product-orientedstudies in America, but her colleagues were in Europe. They included Curt Sachs, whom she called "the amiable wizard,"as well as folklorists and musicologists working within their own cultural traditions that focused on systemization, classification, and diffusion. She was also inter-

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and ested in comparisons, often drew them "contrastiveanalysis,"were elaboratedas such as ethnotheoriesand ethnoscientificstructurfromEuropean folkdancetraditions, and were studies made by Danica and Ljubica alism. Movements choreographies Jankovicof South Slav populations.Most analyzedto find underlyingsystems. Sysof Kurath'spublications,however, are de- tems, of course, cannot be observed, but scriptionsof specific dance occasions,with mustbe derivedfromthe social andcultural detailed informationon costumes, musical construction specific movementworlds. of instruments,ground plans, postures, ges- Existing in memoryand recalledas movetures, and steps, with some analysis, com- ment motifs, as imagery, and as system, movementsare used to createcompositions parisons,and context. FranzBoas was one of the founders thatproducesocial and culturalmeaningin of anthropologyin the United States; al- performance. Such analyses involve the though he came from a Germanscientific deconstructing movementsinto culturthe tradition,he rejectedmany of the ideas of ally recognized pieces andlearning rules his homeland focussedon cultural and vari- for constructing compositionsaccordingto ability,rejectinguniversallanguagesof art the system. This type of analysishas been or dance and laying a foundationfor the used primarilyby anthropologists, exfor of examiningdance in the con- ample,Kaeppler the structure Tongan on of possibility text of culturalrelativism.Boas's daughter, dance (1972); IreneLoutzaki,in a study of Franziska,was a dancerand Boas himself dance style among Greek refugees from wrotearticlesaboutNorthwest CoastIndian NorthernThrace now resident in Greece dance (1944). The intellectualdescendants (1989);andFrank Hall, in a studyof improof this Boasian traditioncan be followed visationin American clog dance(1985).Drid fromBoas, through Herskovits Merriam Williams,studyingwith Britishanthropoloand to JoannKeali'inohomoku Anya Royce. gists, adapted concepts from Chomsky, and Merriam was an important into semiotics,and "semasiology" anthropological Saussure, voice in Americanethnomusicologyfrom a methodologyconcernedwith the semanthe 1950s until his death, and his students tics of body languages whichthe focus is in were imbuedwith the Boasiandoctrinethat on meaning.The methods of semasiology in dance and music must be considered the have been used by Brenda Farnell in her context of the society of which they are study of Plains Indian "sign language" em- (1994) andby RajikaPurito investigate the parts.The Boasian and Herskovitzian on cultural relativism widespread place of hasta mudrain Indiandanceas an was phasis in America and was elaboratedby propo- expressionof Indiansociety (1983). JudithLynneHannahas workedon nents of ethnosciencein the 1960s. These and emotion, and ideas were intermixedwith Malinowski's gender,communication, basis concept that our goal should be "to grasp has investigatedthe psychobiological to the native'spointof view, his relation life, of dance, and in what ways humandance of to realizehis vision of his world"(1922:25) differsfrom the so-called"dances" other Loken-Kim and KennethPike's dictumthat we should animals.Christine exploredthe of to "attempt discoverandto describethe pat- social construction female genderin Koof ternof thatparticular languageor culturein rea by investigating the representation referenceto the way in which the various emotion in dance and the sentimentterms women's bothin evaluating elementsof that cultureare relatedto each usedby Koreans accounts other in the functioning of the particular salp'uri dance and in first-person (1954:8).FromPike camethe "etic/ of Koreanwomen'slives (1989). Lois Ibsen pattern" emic"distinction (1954:11)thathas contin- Al Faruqi,workingin variouspartsof the ued as a theoreticalbasis that informsthe MiddleEast, delineatedaestheticprinciples in anthro/ethno dance and examinedhow they were manifested workof manyAmerican researchers.In addition,ideas about com- variousculturalforms and how they might derivedfromcon- be appliedto humanmovement.She noted petenceand performance an danceis not considered art cepts promulgated by Saussure and thatalthough movements formin this area,human remaincurrent. express Chomsky Etic/emic distinctions, derived by the same aesthetic evaluative concepts as
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other Islamic visual arts such as architec- which they are composed.In addition,her cross-cultural ture (1978). emphasisand work on dance What makes movementstudies an- symbolism(1974) are important ethnologithropological is the focus on system, the cal concerns,which also deal with cultural of importance intention,meaning,and cul- identity (1989). Elsie Dunin's extensive tural evaluation.Anthropologists inter- work on Balkan dance, carriedout in the are ested in sociallyconstructed movementsys- Balkans, California,and Chile, is focused and tems, the activitiesthat generatethem,how on movementsand choreography how andby whomthey arejudged,andhow they thesepersistor changeovertimein theirarea can assist in understanding society. Some of origin and when they are transplanted, such as Cowan(1990) and plus the eventsin whichthey occurandconanthropologists, Schieffelin (1976)choosenot to get involved cerns with ethnicity and ethnic identity. in movementdetail, but focus primarily on Dancing in the diasporahas also been adcontextand meaning.Otheranthropologists dressedby JudyVanZile who has focussed combinedetailedattention the movement on the transplantation Bon dance tradito of itself with the historical,social and cultural tions fromJapan Hawaii(1982).VanZile to systems in which the movementis embed- has also carriedout researchon historical ded. Farnell's work on Plains Indian sign aspectsof Koreandancemovementand has and languagefocuses on the movementsof the done extensive work on Labanotation signing tradition,the stories told, and the its applicationto non-Westernmovement culturethey express-all of which can be systems. Colin Quigley, in his work on accessed by reading her monograph or Newfoundland traditions NorthAmeriand a CD ROM which, in addition can step-dancing(1985), raises the importhrough teaches the rudiments of Labanotation. tant issue of expressiveidentityin diverse withinthe pluralism Ameriof Kaeppler's monographon Hawaiian hula dancecultures pahu (1993),focuseson the ritualnon-Chris- can society-how and why distinctivetratianbasisof a moder Hawaiian dancegenre ditions are perpetuated and/or changed with the underlying theme of how tradition throughcontactwith otherculturalworlds. is negotiatedto make it appropriate its Concernswith ethnicidentity,minoritystafor time. A study by Susan Reed focusses on tus, gender,the conceptsof body, self, and thepolitical of importance dancein SriLanka personhoodare topics receiving attention Otheranthropological concernsin- withindanceethnology. these studies,the In (1998). clude Cartesian dualism(Farnell social relationshipsof the people dancing mind/body while the danceit1995; Varela 1992), martial arts (Lewis are often backgrounded 1992), iconography(Seebass 1991), tour- self and its changes over time are ism (Sweet 1985), and urban multi- foregrounded. culturalism(Ness 1992). In short, the aim Beyond Europe and America are fromthe rest of the world of anthropological works is not simply to danceresearchers studiesof dancesof theirown understand dancein its cultural context,but withnumerous and to rather understand society through analyz- traditions elsewhere-the followinglists of only a sampling the richesthatlie beyond: ing movementsystems. stud- Dance has been an academicsubjectat the In contrastto anthropological ies of dance, the focus of dance ethnolo- Universityof Ghanasince 1962 and several and gists is oftenon dancecontent, the study theses have been writtenby AfricanscholArts the ars.At the School of the Performing at of culturalcontext aims at illuminating dance. For example, researchon the court Hong Kong the three-prongedcurriculum contextof the JavaneseBedhayais brought includesballet,moder, and Chinesedance. has scholarKimikoOhtani rethe to bear on understanding dance (rather The Japanese than researchingthe Bedhaya in order to searcheddancein Japan,Okinawa, Hawaii, understand the Javanese court). Allegra and India.Koreanscholarshave researched Fuller Snyder'swork on YaquiEastercer- theirown dancesandtheirbasis in shamanemoniesdeals with the events withinwhich ism and Buddhism as well as ballet and dances occur and the syncretismof Chris- modem dance. KapilaVatsyayanhas pubtian and pre-Christian movements from lished extensivelyon Indiandanceand cul120 Dance Research Journal 32/1 (Summer 2000)

ture. Mohawk Indian Nina de Shane has of workedon the politicalimportance dance to ethnic identity. Arzu Ozturkmanhas worked on dance and nationalism in her native Turkey.Indonesianscholarsincluding I Made Bandem, Soedarsono, Sal and I YayanDibia have done Murygianto, extensive research on dance traditionsof their own culture as well as elsewhere in Indonesia and beyond. The research of MohdAnis Md Nor in his nativeMalaysia, Amy Ku'uleialoha Stillman on Hawaiian Kauraka Jon Jonassen and dance, Kauraka on Cook Island dance, MariaSusanaAzzi on Tango, and a myriadof others suggest that we have only begun to realize the importanceof dance to political and national of values,as art,andas a marker ethnicand the culturalidentitythroughout world.

difficult is the analysisof meaningof specific movementsand meaningsof a movementsystemas a whole. Meaningis usually associated with communication the preand sentation the self to othersand ourselves. of Conceptsthatcan be usefullyemployedare thosederivedfromChomsky, basedon competence and performance, and Saussure, based on langue andparole. "Competence" or knowledgeabouta specific dance tradition is acquiredin much the same way as competence in a spoken language is acrelatesto the cognitive quired.Competence learning of the shared rules of a specific dance traditionas langue is acquiredin a Saussurian mode. Competenceenables the a moveviewer to understand grammatical ment sequence that he/she has never seen before. "Performance" refers to an actual Studies of Dance in the New Century renderingof a movementsequence,parole I two Finally, wantto mention typesof analy- of Saussure, which assumes that the persis which I believe will be important the former a certain in has level of competence and 21st century-ethnotheory and meaning. the skill to carryit out. A viewermusthave 1. Theoretical and EthnotheoreticalAnaly- communicative competencein orderto unsis. Important the studyof humanmove- derstandmovementmessages. in Anthro/ethno researchers derive ment systems is the study of movement and philosophy of movementfrom their data from a wide variety of sources, theory the pointof view of the societyin whichthe but basic to their studiesis the importance movementtakes place. The use of Western of fieldwork. A recent book edited by dance theory for analysis of non-Western TheresaBucklandhas focussed our attenof to danceis inappropriate, a researcher must tion on the importance fieldwork dance and to discover indigenous theories studies (1999). What anthro/ethno/indigattempt about movement. How did the structured enous fieldworkersdo with their data and Are movement systemsoriginate? they codi- how it is presented in publication varies focus our fied into genres? How and by whom can widely.But all of theseresearchers dances be composed?How can (and can- attentionon movementcontent as well as and not) movements posturesbe combined? social, culturaland political concernssuch and of Is therea vocabulary motifs and a gram- as gender,the body,ethnic,cultural namar for their use? Are there notions about tional identity,the negotiationof tradition, energy and how it should be visually dis- and turning the ethnographiceye on any played? On the basis of movement, can society. In orderto find the largerview as dance be separatedfrom ritual?And more advocatedhere, fieldworkis not only recin but basic still, does a culture have such con- ommended is necessary orderto bring movementinto focus as partof a total culcepts? turalsystem. Institution Smithsonian
Adrienne L. Kaeppler

2. Movement and Meaning. Perhaps most

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III. Dance Theory, Sociology,and Aesthetics

My brief is to discuss recent developments in dance theory, touching on the areas of sociology and aesthetics in the light of the coming millennium. In considering how currentmy focus should be, I have reflected upon the pace at which dance scholarship and indeed knowledge as a whole can sometimes move. My initial plan was to point out that dance theory is not just for dance scholars; dance artists like Isadora Duncan and Yvonne Rainer have recognised the need to articulate the theoretical aspects of their art in order to create a discursive context for the reception of their work. Indeed, progress and change in dance practice necessitate reciprocal developments within dance scholarship. I was therefore going to look at the ways in which some of the more radical aspects of recent dance theory and practice issue a challenge to rethink the relationship between the sociology of dance and aesthetics. While I still intend to cover this area, two recent incidents have caused me to change my focus and look more critically than I originally intended at the work which I and others have been doing on dance and representation. The first incident is a conversation during a conference in April 1999 with an American who teaches performance studies. Why, she asked me, were so many dance scholars working on issues concerning identity? My reply at the time was that in my opinion the majority of dance scholars actively publishing work were concerned with establishing a history of canonical artists,

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