1

PLANNING OF WATER SUPPLY & WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction/Definitions Planning A sequence of anticipated actions that are to be executed for a purpose. System A series of related processes which achieve a certain end. Management Decisions and actions, which govern the working of a system. Project A series of actions governed by objectives, targets, methodologies, implementation, operation, maintenance and evaluation, e.g., for a water supply project the different aspects of planning are: i) Objectives, which may be: To provide safe water to the community in adequate quantities and at reasonable costs; To supply safe and wholesome water to the community and thereby control and combat diseases e.g. cholera, dysentery etc; To promote hygiene; To make water easily available to consumers; For industrial purposes. Targets would be for example coverage where you consider providing a given quantity of water to a given population by a given date e.g. 80lpcd to 70% of the population by the year 2020. Targets depend on the level of service.

ii)

iii) Methodologies: These include Verification of the source (quantity and quality) Determination of the demand Choice of the treatment units, materials, equipment and identification of means of distribution etc. iv) Implementation: At the implementation stage, considerations include the cost of the project (capital/ investment costs), manpower, financial, infrastructure (roads, buildings, etc), topography, legal aspects etc. v) Operation and maintenance: The major aim is to achieve sustainable utilization of the project. Issues to consider include: operation and maintenance daily schedules, decisions on manpower to be used, identification of spare parts and other materials that will be routinely required etc. vi) Evaluation of the project: This involves an assessment of the impact of the project on the target community groups to see whether the objectives have been satisfied/met e.g. Prevalence of disease

Normal course Impact Course after implementation of the project

-5yr

0yr

Time

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85% Water coverage

Course after implementation of the project Impact Normal course

40%

2002

2005

2020

Time

The impact of the project is the difference in results brought about by project implementation. Note: That there are also negative impacts of projects e.g., Irrigation Schistosomiasis, Hydropower Dracunculiasis or river blindness, Displacement of people. 1.2 Types of Planning There are basically three levels/types of planning: comprehensive community/general planning, comprehensive functional planning (also known as preliminary or feasibility study) and definitive or project planning. a) Comprehensive Community/General Planning This is the study of the total region or part of the region within the context of the total region to identify priority projects. It involves a study of the different aspects of public health and their inter-relation. These may include water supply, wastewater management, solid waste management, community health services, etc. It is a multidisciplinary activity involving the participation of politicians and policy makers, health and social workers, hydrologists, engineers, architects, planners etc. A comprehensive community planning process includes: A statement of the goals and objectives Basic studies, mapping and data analysis Plan preparation Plan implementation Public information and community action Re-evaluation and continual planning b) Comprehensive Functional Planning/Preliminary or Feasibility Study After the identification and selection of priority projects from the comprehensive community planning a comprehensive feasibility study is carried out to consider in some detail, the several ways (alternatives) in which the project can be executed, together with approximate costs. No detailed engineering or architectural construction plans are prepared at this stage, but engineering, political, legal, economic and social feasibility or acceptance of each alternative is presented, with advantages and disadvantages, environmental impact, recommendations and cost estimates/source of funding. The study should be sufficiently complete to enable decision makers (politicians) decide as well as NEMA and public information needs. c) Definitive/Project Planning After the decision makers give a go ahead for the project, the next step is the establishment of the legal entity to administer the project as provided for by the state or local law. This is followed by acquisition of necessary rights, resolution of any legal constraints, rate setting, financing of the operation and maintenance, debt repayment, etc. The consulting engineer is then selected, followed by the preparation of plans, specifications, contract drawings, advertising of bids and subsequently awarding of contracts.
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Supervision is carried out by a consulting engineer (not necessarily one who initially drew plans, specifications etc.). A site engineer is also employed to take charge of the construction at the site. The consulting engineer provides updated drawings/manuals and guidelines to the municipality and/or community as well as to the operation and maintenance personnel and trains staff to take over full operation. 1.3 Some Constraints of Project Planning

1) Lack of resources Financial Materials and equipment Manpower (managerial, skilled workers etc.) Land. 2) Infrastructure Roads (access to the project site) Communication Energy Water supply. 3) Institutional arrangement Water supply and wastewater management projects are usually under a ministerial department or NGO, therefore: responsibility at all levels should be ensured line of command should be clear protocol within institutions should be respected. 4) Political instability Change of governments may lead to extermination of projects as different governments may have different priorities. 5) Public opinion Negative attitudes, ignorance etc of the people may lead to failure of a project. 1.4 Planning Considerations In general, planning of water supply and wastewater management projects can be divided into three basic steps: i) the determination of the current and future needs ii) the appraisal of all possible means to meet these needs iii) the selection of the most economic approaches for satisfying the anticipated requirements. Although the concept may be straight forward, the planning process may be exceedingly complex in practice. Numerous detailed investigations and studies are usually required. Examples of the most important of these are: 1. Project site This could be decided by policy makers (politicians) i.e. decisions about project site are usually made at a higher level; 2. Size of the project area including information on population, economic land use, and other associated planning studies essential for the prediction of the water quality and quantity requirements for the various anticipated uses for the duration of the planning period chosen; 3. Topography of the area this determines whether the water (in case of water supply) flows by gravity with respect to distribution thereby reducing costs. Wastewater flow by gravity to its disposal site/treatment plant is also determined by topography and this should be utilised as much as possible since pumping of wastewater is very costly; 4. Hydrologic investigations to provide estimates of the quantities of fresh surface water and groundwater entering the basin and of the temporal distribution of these supplies. It is often the case that sufficient data on the meteorological and hydrologic characteristics of the basin are not available. Therefore additional field measurements and statistical analyses must frequently be relied upon to yield the required information;
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5. Comprehensive field investigations to evaluate the physical, chemical, radiological and biological characteristics of the surface waters of the basin. The information determined will indicate (a) the degree to which the water will have to be treated in order to be subjected for various purposes, (b) the ability of the watercourse to assimilate waste discharges while continuing to sustain fish and wild life, and (c) the recreational and aesthetic values of the waters; 6. Studies of the storage capacities and uses of existing and proposed reservoirs in the basin. In some cases, it will also be necessary to make detailed studies of the topography and geology of the basin with the object of determining additional reservoir sites of a satisfactory nature. Storage estimates for these potential storage locations would also be required; 7. Investigations to determine the location and extent of ground water storage, aquifer characteristics and the quality of the underground supplies; 8. Studies to provide information on existing and anticipated sources of wastes that will be introduced into surface and underground water bodies. Knowledge of the characteristics and volumes of these wastes will be necessary. Information on the optimum treatment that these wastes could be expected to undergo will also be required; 9. Estimates of water requirements to be used to augment low flows for quality and quantity control of surface water bodies. Low-flow augmentation can play an important role in fish and wild life preservation and in combating pollution; 10. Public health information on the area such would include information on what kind of water related diseases e.g. water washed (quantity related) or water-borne (quality related). Information on the kind of prevalent diseases assist in the selection of water treatment requirements. This information may also be important in soliciting funds e.g. from WHO, UNICEF, AMREF e.t.c. 11. Standards of living (socio-economic status) this affects the water use and consequently the quantities of wastewater generated; 12. Availability of local materials for construction this affects construction costs; 13. Legal aspects Activity should not violate laws of the land. Examples of legal instruments that need to be considered for projects are; Public Health Act, National Environment Statute, WHO drinking water quality standards, Discharge standards for wastewater etc. 14. Manpower availability both skilled and unskilled; 15. Construction, operation, maintenance and repair should preferably be within the competence of local technical staff. The available skills in the local community need to be utilised and improved, if required e.g., through training; 16. Evaluation of the benefits that will result from the proposed water supply and wastewater management project. In arriving at conclusions regarding benefits, it is important that the optimum economic or socially desirable development water projects be based on studies of all practical combinations and alternatives of objectives. 1.5 Design Considerations 1.5.1 Introduction

Prior to the design of a water treatment plant, thorough investigations must be carried out to determine the QUANTITY of water (Yield of the source) and whether it would be feasible to use alternative sources with better raw water QUALITY. In the next sections, the various considerations required before attempting to design water supply and wastewater management scheme are described. 1.5.2 Basis of Volume

These are parameters, which are used in the determination of the design/future demand/volume. Design of water supply and wastewater management systems is a function of the design demand (design volume). The factors that determine the design volume are: Design period, design population, economic status, which affects the level of service and the per capita income, etc. 1.5.2.1 Design Period This is the time within which the project will be serving satisfactorily. It depends on the following factors:
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i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi)

Project size/cost this is especially important when the source of funding is a loan. High interest rates corresponds with shorter design periods Running (operation and maintenance) costs Population growth Financial constraints Durability (service life) of the different components of a water supply scheme Future extensions

Normally, water demand projections should be made for the Initial year, the Future year and the Ultimate year. The Initial year is the year when the water supply scheme is expected to be commissioned into operation, which may be assumed to be 5 years from the date of commencement of the feasibility studies. The Future year is 10 years and the Ultimate year is 20 years ahead of the Initial year. A water supply scheme should normally be designed for the Ultimate year demand. However, phasing of the implementation will often prove necessary from the financial point of view, and the possibilities of phasing should therefore be examined against the background of the Initial year and the Future year water demand projections. Electrical and mechanical equipment is normally designed for shorter periods than civil engineering and building works, a reflection of the different service life/Economic life periods for the different water supply scheme components as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Typical design periods for selected systems in water supply
Component Dams Intake works, including boreholes, mass concrete structures such as intakes, underground pits, culverts etc Boreholes and wells Pumps Diesel Engines Electrical motors, cables and switch gears Piping of all types Treatment works: Treatment works in masonry or reinforced concrete Storage tanks in masonry or reinforced concrete Storage tanks, sectional steel including towers Storage tanks, corrugated galvanised steel (C.G.S) on timber stands Water kiosks, latrines, licensed retailer points etc Water meters Chemical dosing gear Instruments and testing apparatus Fences, G.S wire or mesh on timber Fences, G.S wire or mesh on concrete posts Source: DWD Water Supply Design Manual, 2000. Design period/Economic life (years) 40 40 20 10 10 10 30 30 30 20 10 20 10 10 5 10 20

1.5.2.2 Design Population This refers to the projected population for the design period. A useful formula commonly used for future population projections is as follows

r Pn = Pi 1 + 100
Where:

Pn Pi r n

= = = =

Projected future population after n years, the design population Initial population in the base year Estimated annual population growth rate in % Number of years/Design period
-5-

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture notes

Population projections can also be estimated by other methods such as the graphical/extrapolation methods, the ratio and correction method, the least square method etc. NB: 1. The projection of future population can be quite difficult. Therefore, all available demographic information should be collected and evaluated. The following sources of information, wherever applicable, will be useful in determining the likely future population growth rates: The growth in population, which has taken place in the past. Compare figures of the 1969, 1980, 1991 and 2002 censuses and the respective intercensal population growth rates District Development Plans Town council physical development plans Official projections by the Statistics Department of the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning Opinions of the Local Administrators. 2. The present populations in a proposed water supply scheme area should be estimated based on the latest (2002) census figures. However, the results should be crosschecked with information obtained from other sources such as the local council (LC) authorities. 3. Populations in principal towns and urban centers should be analyzed separately for different areas and different categories. High, medium and low income housing populations should be projected independently.

1.5.2.3 Water Demand (Flows/Loads)

A water supply scheme will almost without exception cater for water demand, which will be increasing with the years to come. When designing a scheme, a decision has to be taken regarding the time in the future, for which the various components of the scheme are to be designed. To calculate the water demand for a water supply scheme, it is necessary to do the following: determine the numbers of consumers falling within the different consumer categories at various stages of the design period determine the average day unit water demand figures for the various consumer categories concerned. There are different types of water demand. These include domestic demand, institutional demand (educational institutions, health institutions etc), commercial demand (shops, workshops, restaurants, bars, hotels, banks etc), industrial demand, other demands (e.g., irrigation, fire-fighting, livestock demand, losses/unaccounted-for-water and internal water works demand). The calculation of water demand can be divided into a number of stages. These include choosing the boundary of the scheme; choosing an appropriate design life; estimating the population and calculating the likely water demand in the area. Each stage must be completed before moving onto the next. There is no single answer, and therefore, it may be necessary to return to previous stages if earlier decisions later produce unrealistic results. Each stage requires data and assumptions to be made about the future needs. Provisions can sometimes be made in the design for additional pipes or storage after five or ten years to cope with population growth. This approach is particularly useful if the population growth rate is unknown. Designers must cater for the inherent variations in flows and loads. This is done by defining various duration averages, minima and maxima. The average flow Q , (m3/s) for a specified period T, (s) is defined as

1 Q= T

Q(t )dt for continuous data,

Q and Q =

for discrete data

where n = total number of discrete flow measurements; Q(t) = flow at time t.

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Similarly, for wastewater loads, the instantaneous contaminant load W(t) is the product of the instantaneous contaminant concentration C(t) and the instantaneous wastewater volumetric flow rate Q(t) i.e. W (t ) = Q(t ) C (t ) for continuous data, and Wi = Qi C i for discrete data The average contaminant load W , (kg/s) during some interval T, (s) is calculated as

1 W= T

W (t )dt

W for continuous data and W =

for discrete data

The usual averaging periods are: The annual average or daily average The maximum (or minimum) 1 hour average The maximum (or minimum) 24 hour average The maximum (or minimum) 7 day average The maximum (or minimum) 30 day average In each case the database should be of 12 consecutive months. For water supply, the average daily per capita consumption (ADPCC) is defined as

ADPCC =
where ADPCC TAC P n

TAC Pn

= Average daily per capita consumption = Total annual consumption = Design population for the area to be served = No of days in a year (365days)

NB: 1. Because of uncertainties in developing the design demand, the projected values only set boundaries to the problem. They set guidelines to maximum plant capacity, storage volume, land area and other resources that may be required. 2. Water demand for institutions should be estimated based on the situation prevailing at the time of scheme design (present population) and the future development plans of the institutions (e.g., Ministry of Health and District Local Government Development plans for Health institutions; Ministry of Education and District Local Government Development plans for educational institutions etc). Wherever such data is not available, the assumptions used by the designer to estimate water demand should be stated clearly. 3. Water demand for commercial enterprises should be based on the situation prevailing at the time of scheme design, and the expected development based on the area development plans. In this regard, it can be assumed that future increases in commercial activity will be directly related to the growth in population. 4. Water demand for industries should be studied in detail by consulting the proprietors concerned and other relevant agencies, e.g., Planning department of the government, Uganda investments Authority etc. Areas designated as industrial areas in the town council physical development plans, but for which the exact nature of the industry is not known, should be allocated quantities of water per unit area as indicated in Table 3. However, realistic time-frames for the gradual development of such areas must be considered. 5. Normally, water demand considerations should not include provisions for irrigation, apart from very limited garden watering, which, in any case, is already included in the per capita unit water demand figures given in Table 3. 6. In principal towns, water demand for fire-fighting should be determined in collaboration with the relevant fire authorities. For smaller urban centers, it is recommended that the capacity for fire-fighting should not be less than 10l/s during a period of 2hrs. Normally, there should not be any provision made for fire-fighting in rural water supply schemes. 7. An allowance of 20-25% of total Average Day Demand should be included to cater for leakage, wastage, water demand for flushing pipelines, storage tanks and other ordinary internal water works usage. However, in some cases, these losses may rise to as high as 30-50% of total Average Day Water
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Demand/Production; For example, the current unaccounted-for-water by NWSC in Kampala stands at 39% of the total water produced (Sept. 2003). Average Day Unit Water Demand Figures The average day unit water demand figures, which are to be used in conjunction with the numbers of the domestic, institutional, commercial, industrial and other consumers to calculate the Average Day Demands are shown in Table 3. The average day unit water demand figures are represented as guidelines, which may be adjusted if different figures are shown to be more appropriate in a particular situation. The figures represent the mean values of water demands for the respective consumer types. For each given consumer type, there will be considerable variations in water demands from member to member. Table 3: Average Day Unit Water Demand Figures
Consumer Type Domestic Standpipe Yard tap House connection Average Day Unit Water Demand 20 litres/person/day 40 litres/person/day 200 litres/person/day; High Income Consumers (with multiple fixtures and a garden tap; includes car washing and garden watering) 100 litres/person/day; Medium Income Consumers (with a kitchen sink, one or two WCs, showers and bathtubs and hand wash basins). 50 litres/person/day; Low Income Consumers (with limited fixtures, a WC and one or two taps). Institutional Schools Day (students and staff) Boarders (students and staff) Hospitals Outpatients and non resident staff In-patients and resident staff Mosques Churches Prisons Commercial Hotels Lodges Shops Bars/Restaurants Offices Petrol stations/washing bays Abattoirs/butcheries Industrial Milk cooling Dry processing mills Unspecified industrial areas Livestock Livestock Unit Source: DWD Water Supply Design Manual, 2000 5 litres/person/day 50 litres/person/day 10 litres/person/day 100 litres/person/day 15 litres/person/day 5 litres/person/day 50 litres/person/day 100 litres/bed/day 50 litres/bed/day 25 litres/shop/day 200 litres/day 5 litres/person/day 200 litres/day 50 litres/day 200 litres/day 30 litres/day 10,000 litres/hectare/day 50 litres/head/day

NB:

1 Cattle = 0.7 Livestock Units; 1 Pig = 0.4 Livestock Units; 1 Goat/sheep = 0.15 Livestock Units

1.5.2.4 Peaking Factors

Peaking factor is defined as maximum demand over a given period of time divided by the average demand over the same period of time.
Qmax Demand

Qaver

6a.m

12

18

24

12

Time of Day -8-

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture notes

(a)

Daily Peaking Factor

This is the maximum daily demand divided by the average annual daily demand. The value is usually between 1.1 and 1.3. The daily peaking factor reflects the seasonal variation in demand and is used to design production and storage facilities and bulk supply mains. Its magnitude depends on climatic factors and the requirement for seasonal uses such as garden watering. In the absence of specific local information, a value of 1.2 may be taken. (b) Hourly Peaking Factor

This is the maximum hourly demand divided by the average hourly demand. The value is usually between 2 and 3. This reflects water use patterns through the course of a typical day and is used in the design of distribution mains. Its magnitude depends on: the number of individual house connections; the number of standposts; industrial and commercial uses; and the extent to which buildings has their own water storage facilities. For the design of a distribution system with a continuous or near continuous supply to house connections, a factor of 2.5 should be taken if local data is not available. NB: Where water supply is intermittent and less than about 12 hours per day, peak factors are likely to be higher. Where local data are not available, the peak factor in such situations may be taken as the number of hours of supply during the day. (c) Weekly Peaking Factor

30 , where N is N

This is not normally used. It is about 50% of the daily peaking factor. Note: Peaking factors vary with the population to be served; the smaller the supply area, the larger the peak factor. Table 2: Recommended peak factors for water demand (US)
Type of community Population greater than 5000, with commerce and industry Purely residential and resort 30 days 1.3 1.9 7 days 1.5 2.2 Averaging Period 1 day 2.0 2.9 1hr 3.3 6.2

1.6 Sustainability of Water Supply and Wastewater Management The concept of sustainability is that activities of the present generation should not compromise the resources or environmental conditions of future generations. According to Warner (1990), the success or sustainability of a project is achieved when it meets its objectives and is maintained by its users over a significant period of time. This definition reflects the fact that the water and sanitation sector is moving through a process of change in which governments are changing their roles from service providers to facilitators. This implies that they provide support to organizations at community level, without taking over their roles. On the contrary, through teamwork, the capacity of the community organizations is being strengthened. This allows the local level, men, women and children to be better involved in the protection of their water supply and their interests. Therefore, a water supply and/or wastewater management system is sustainable when it provides an efficient and reliable service at a level that is desired can be financed or co-financed by the users with limited but feasible external support and technical assistance is being used in an efficient and effective way without negatively affecting the environment Sustainability of water and wastewater management systems involves 4 crucial dimensions: the user community wanting an efficient and reliable service, the technology that has to provide it, the institutional environment and efficient use of the service. The Figure below, shows the interlink between the key elements to be matched in sustainable water supply and wastewater management systems.

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Institutional environment

Technology

User community

It is important that the sustainability definition provides for a reliable service over time. There are five criteria that can be used to establish the quality and level of service of water supply systems. These are: Coverage, Continuity, Quantity, Quality and Cost. Of the three, coverage, continuity and cost can also be used for wastewater management systems. Coverage, refers to the access that the people in the community have to water supply and wastewater management systems. The water and wastewater management services should be equally distributed to the greatest number of users possible in an area. If sufficient water is available, people who want to have more water can obtain this extra service, but at a higher price. For many people, coverage seems to be the most important indicator, however, to obtain health and social benefits, it is not enough to focus on this aspect alone Continuity in service provision is needed in order to help avoid the risk of people returning to contaminated water sources. This may be the case if hand pumps go out of order and are not very quickly repaired. In piped water systems where the water supply is sometimes or frequently interrupted, the risk of recontamination in the distribution network should be investigated very carefully and prevented by making proper designs and identifying protective actions with the community. In the case of intermittent water supply it is important to specify the distribution hours in consultation with the users to avoid unnecessary waiting times. Equally so latrines have to provide continuity as numerous examples exist of latrines being abandoned when they have filled up. Similarly, latrines have to be in operation 12 months a year, which can be a great challenge in areas that are prone to flooding. Quantity of water is an important factor for health improvement. Enough water should be provided and used for drinking, cooking, food preparation and good personal and household hygiene. Bringing water close to the user reduces the time and efforts involved in water collection, a benefit that is particularly important for women and children. Quality of water is a key factor for public health, for the acceptance by the users and for operation and maintenance of the water supply system. Water quality can be reviewed by a combination of systematic observations in sanitary inspections combined with water quality analysis. Cost of systems will be largely determined by the level of service that is chosen and the type of technology that can be applied. The implementation technology should, if possible, be in harmony with socio-economic conditions and above all with the willingness of the users to pay. As a minimum, the tariff should cover aspects such as operation and maintenance, and, if agreed upon between the financing body and the users, recovery of the initial investment. Furthermore, if possible, it should be able to cover unforeseen costs and future expansions. For latrines, the question of ability (and willingness) to pay is an important issue.
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