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Introduction
How a single cell (fertilized egg) develops into multicellular individual is fundamental question in modern biology Gametes are haploid reproductive cells o In animals, male gametes = sperm o In animals, female gametes = eggs Development proceeds in ordered phases through animals life cycle: o Gametogenesis o Fertilization o Cleavage o Gastrulation o Organogenesis
Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis: formation of gametes in reproductive organs of adult organisms Both sperm and egg contribute chromosomes o Mammalian gametes have haploid genome containing one allele of each gene will be contributed to offspring Egg cells contribute more than just chromosomes and are much larger than sperm cells o contribute nutrients and developmental regulatory molecules (cytoplasmic determinants)
Fertilization
Fertilization: fusion of haploid sperm and egg cells to form a diploid zygote (fertilized egg) Many conditions must be met before zygote can form: o Gametes must be in same place at same time o Gametes must recognize and bind to each other o Gametes must fuse together o Fusion must trigger onset of development Sea urchins are model system for studying fertilization o produce large number of gametes and undergo external fertilization
Cleavage
Cleavage: set of rapid cell divisions that take place in animal zygotes immediately after fertilization o first step in embryogenesis o process makes single-celled zygote into multicellular embryo o partitions egg cytoplasm without additional growth of zygote Blastomeres: cells created by cleavage divisions When cleavage is complete, embryo consists of mass of blastomere cells called blastula
Cytoplasmic Determinants
Cytoplasmic determinants: o found in specific locations within egg cytoplasm o end up in specific populations of blastomeres Egg cytoplasm divides precisely (during cleavage) to distribute cytoplasmic determinants to certain cells o Initiates step-by-step process that, in combination with signals received from other cells, results in differentiation of cells
If an egg distributed all the constituents of its cytoplasm uniformly, what consequence would be most logical?
A. all cells will express the same genes B. all cells will die C. all cells will move D. all genes will be expressed E. all genes will be silenced
Cleavage in Mammals
Cleavage results in blastocyst (specialized blastula consisting of two populations of cells): o external, thin-walled hollow trophoblast o inner cell mass (ICM) contains cells that undergo gastrulation and develop into the embryo
Gastrulation
Extensive and highly organized cell movements radically rearrange embryonic cells into structure called the gastrula Gastrulation: results in formation of embryonic tissue layers o Tissue: integrated set of cells that function as a unit Most early embryos have three primary tissue layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm o embryonic tissues (germ layers) give rise to adult tissues and organs
Germ Layers
Ectoderm: forms nervous system and outer covering of adult body Mesoderm: gives rise to muscle, most internal organs, and connective tissues such as bone and cartilage Endoderm: produces lining of digestive tract (gut), along with some of associated organs
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Completion of Gastrulation
In addition to establishing embryonic tissue layers, gastrulation has another major outcome: o major body axes become visible o ex) blastopore in frog becomes anus At end of gastrulation: o three embryonic tissues are arranged in layers o gut has formed o major body axes have become visible
Organogenesis
Organogenesis: process of tissue and organ formation o begins once gastrulation is complete and embryonic germ layers are in place o cells proliferate and become differentiated become specialized cell type
Differentiated cells have distinctive structure and function because express distinctive suite of genes!
Somite Formation
Once neural tube forms o mesodermal cells become organized into blocks of tissues called somites form on both sides of neural tube down length of the body
Initially, somite cells can become any of somitederived elements of body As somite matures o somite cells become irreversibly determined
Cell Determination
Somite cells differentiate in response to signals from nearby tissues (dependent on their location) o step-by-step process guided by regulatory gene cascade! o signals diffuse away from cells in notochord, neural tube, and nearby ectoderm and mesoderm act on specific populations of target cells in somite triggers production of transcription factors required for expression of tissue/organ specific proteins!
Muscle cells are created from mesoderm and express a regulatory protein MyoD. In comparison, neurons _____.
A. don t have MyoD gene B. don t express MyoD gene C. will transform into muscle cells if MyoD is expressed D. don t have MyoD gene and don t express MyoD gene E. don t express MyoD gene and will transform into muscle
Concepts to Remember
Fertilization begins with specific interactions between proteins on the plasma membranes of sperm and egg. Earliest cell divisions divide fertilized egg into mass of cells individual fates depend on key regulatory molecules they contain and signals they receive. Early in development, cells undergo massive, coordinated movements to form distinct tissue layers. o Each layer gives rise to different set of tissues and organs As development proceedsspecialized organs and other structures form through interacting effects of cell-cell signals, cell proliferation, cell movements, and differentiation. o Differentiation is complete when cells express tissuespecific proteins.