What are Butterfly Valves?

A butterfly valve is a particular type of valve that uses either a circular vane or a disc as the shut-off mechanism. Butterfly valves have a quick opening/closing quarter-turn mechanism that is used to control the flow of liquid through a piping system. They typically pivot on axes perpendicular to the direction of flow inside the flow chamber. Compared with ball valves, butterfly valves do not have pockets to trap fluids when the valve is in the closed position. Butterfly valves are frequently used as throttling devices, controlling the levels of flow in various positions: entirely closed, entirely open or partially open. They can control various substances of air, liquid or solid currents and are situated on a spindle that allows for flow in a single direction. Butterfly valves are offered in many sized diameters, resulting in different flow rates. Smaller valve assemblies may be used where space is limited. Knowing the pipe dimensions, desired flow rate and material is important when considering a valve investment. Installation time is typically low compared to some other types of valves, and additional parts are unnecessary to work and maintain the valve. Butterfly valves have a lever that allows the operator to open or close the valve to control the flow. These valves are part of a family known as rotary valves, which are defined by the quarter turn that is used to move from the open to closed position and vice versa. This results in a lower surface friction, which means that these valves can be smaller than others and still operate efficiently. Butterfly valves are available in numerous closure types and body configurations, depending on the type of flow control needed. These types of valves are commonly composed of metals, like aluminum and stainless steel, but also can be made from various plastics. One kind, flange butterfly valves, can be mounted between flanges. Another, lug butterfly valves, uses metal inserts that are attached to the valve's bolt holes. Using an independent set of bolts for each flange, this valve assembly is fixed between two flanges. Finally, wafer style butterfly valves are the cheapest and most popular type of butterfly valves because of their simplicity and ease of use. Butterfly valves are used in many food transporting and chemical plants

where controllable product flow is required. Other specific industries include HVAC, tertiary petroleum recovery and industries that use high pressure water. When properly used, butterfly valves offer many benefits. First of all, they are lower priced than many other types of valves, and generally have a longer life cycle. Butterfly valves are easy to maintain, are lightweight and compact and are able to handle a wide range of temperatures. These valves are also very reliable because of their tight shut-off, reducing the amount of leakage. One of the problems with butterfly valves, however, is that their design makes it difficult to efficiently and thoroughly clean all residual contaminants. Also, these valves are not good for use with highly abrasive or corrosive materials, because the disc can be easily eroded. Overall, butterfly valves are one of the fastest growing types of valves in the industry.

What are Ball Valves?

There are three general body styles of ball valves: split body, top entry, and welded. There are three general types of ball valves: full port, standard port, and reduced port. - A full port ball valve has an oversized ball so that the hole in the ball is the same size as the pipeline resulting in lower friction loss. Flow is unrestricted, but the valve is larger. - A standard port ball valve is usually less expensive, but has a smaller ball and a correspondingly smaller port. Flow through this valve is one pipe size smaller than the valve's pipe size resulting in slightly restricted flow. - In reduced port ball valves, flow through the valve is two pipe sizes smaller than the valve's pipe size resulting in restricted flow. - A trunnion ball valve has a mechanical means of anchoring the ball at the top and the bottom. Manually operated ball valves can be closed quickly and thus there is a danger of water hammer. Some ball valves are equipped with an actuator that may be pneumatically or motor (electric) operated. These valves can be used either for on/off or flow control. A pneumatic flow control valve is also equipped with a positioner which transforms the control signal into actuator position and valve opening accordingly.

What are Globe Valves?

Globe valves are named for their spherical body shape. The two halves of the valve body are separated by an internal baffle which has an opening forming a seat onto which a movable disc can be screwed in to close (or shut) the valve. In globe valves, the disc is connected to a stem which is operated by screw action. When a globe valve is manually operated, the stem is turned by a handwheel. Although globe valves in the past had the spherical bodies which gave them their name, many modern globe valves do not have much of a spherical shape, but the term globe valve is still often used for valves that have such an internal mechanism. In plumbing, valves with such a mechanism are also often called stop valves since they don't have the global appearance, but the term stop valve may refer to valves which are used to stop flow even when they have other mechanisms or designs. Globe valves are used for applications requiring throttling and frequent operation. For example, globe

valves or valves with a similar mechanism may be used as sampling valves, which are normally shut except when liquid samples are being taken. Since the baffle restricts flow, they're not recommended where full, unobstructed flow is required. Globe valves are typically two-port valves. Ports are openings in the body for fluid flowing in or out. The two ports may be oriented straight' across from each other on the body, or oriented at an angle such as a 90 angle. Globe valves with ports at such an angle are called angle globe valves. A bonnet provides leakproof closure for the valve body. The threaded section of stem goes through a hole with matching threads in the bonnet. Globe valves may have a screw-in, union, or bolted bonnet. Screwin bonnet is the simplest bonnet, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal. Union bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection or cleaning. It also gives the body added strength. A bonnet attached with bolts is used for larger or higher pressure applications. Economical globe valves or stop valves with a similar mechanism used in plumbing often have a rubber washer at the bottom of the disc for the seating surface, so that rubber can be compressed against the seat to form a leak-tight seal when shut. Many globe valves have a class rating that corresponds to the pressure specifications of ANSI 16.34. Bibcocks and sillcocks are variations of globe or stop valves used in plumbing. Needle valves are variations of globe valves where instead of a separate attached disc piece, the internal end of the stem is conically tapered to act as the disc to fit into a matching seat for fine flow adjustment. Other different types of valve usually are called globe style valves because of the shape of the body or the way of closure of the disk. As an example typical swing check valves could be called globe type.

What are Gate Valves?

A Gate Valve, or Sluice Valve, as it is sometimes known, is a valve that opens by lifting a round or rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid. The distinct feature of a gate valve is the sealing surfaces between the gate and seats are planar. The gate faces can form a wedge shape or they can be parallel. Gate valves are sometimes used for regulating flow, but many are not suited for that purpose, having been designed to be fully opened or closed. When fully open, the typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very low friction loss. Gate valves are characterised as having either a rising or a nonrising stem. Rising stems provide a visual indication of valve position. Nonrising stems are used where vertical space is limited or underground.

Bonnets provide leakproof closure for the valve body. Gate valves may have a screw-in, union, or bolted bonnet. Screw-in bonnet is the simplest, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal. Union bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection and cleaning. It also gives the body added strength. Bolted bonnet is used for larger valves and higher pressure applications. Another type of bonnet construction in a gate valve is pressure seal bonnet. This construction is adopted for valves for high pressure service, typically in excess of 15 MPa (2250 psi). The unique feature about the pressure seal bonnet is that the body - bonnet joints seals improves as the internal pressure in the valve increases, compared to other constructions where the increase in internal pressure tends to create leaks in the body-bonnet joint. Gate valves normally have flanged ends which are drilled according to pipeline compatible flange dimensional standards. Cast Iron, Cast Carbon Steel, Gun Metal, Stainless Steel, Alloy Steels & Forged Steels are different materials in which Gate Valves are made available.

What are Solenoid Valves?

Solenoid valves are electrically operated devices that control the flow of liquids. Solenoid valves are electro-mechanical devices that use a wire coil and a movable plunger, called a solenoid, to control a particular valve. The solenoid controls the valve during either the open or closed positions. Thus, these kinds of valves do not regulate flow. They are used for the remote control of valves for directional control of liquids. Solenoid valves have two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. After the coil receives a current, the actuating magnetic field is created. The magnetic field acts upon the plunger, resulting in the actuation of the valve, either opening or closing it. There are two general types of solenoid valves: direct-acting and pilot-operated. Direct-acting solenoid valves have a plunger that is in direct contact with the primary opening in the body. This plunger is used to open and close the orifice. The pilot-operated solenoid valve works with a diaphragm rather than a

plunger. This valve uses differential pressure to control the flow of fluids. The air-venting valve is opened to allow the pressure to equalize and permit the fluids to flow through. The design of solenoid valves allows them to have many applications. Their most common use is as water valves, oil valves, gas valves, steam valves, solvents valves, cryogenics valves, air and vapors valves, as well as many other applications as hydraulic valves and pneumatic valves. Typical environments for solenoid valves are in medical and biomedical equipment, analytical instrumentation, semiconductors, HVAC and other industrial OEM environments. A unique feature that solenoid valves have is the automatic triggering from remote locations by different voltages, making them useful in rough or hazardous locations. Important items to consider when looking at solenoid valves are proportionality, linearity, frequency response, repeatability, power consumption, leakage, life expectancy and cost. With so many types of solenoid valves and other related valves, the application requirements are very important. Because solenoid valves are designed to perform operations, ranging from water valves, air valves pneumatic valves or used in applications such as ones to restrict, meter and maintain the flow of liquid and gaseous materials, they are widely used in vastly different fields and industries.

WHAT-IS . NET Information and answers to all your common and special questions.
Pressure transducers are devices that convert the mechanical force of applied pressure into electrical energy. This electrical energy becomes a signal output that is linear and proportional to the applied pressure. Pressure transducers are very similar to pressure sensors and transmitters. In fact, transducers and transmitters are nearly synonymous. The difference between them is the kind of electrical signal each sends. A transducer sends a signal in volts (V) or millivolt per volt (mV/V), and a transmitter sends signals in milliamps (mA). Both transmitters and transducers convert energy from one form to another and give an output signal. This signal goes to any device that interprets and uses it to display, record or alter the pressure in the system. These receiving devices include computers, digital panel meters, chart recorders and programmable logic controllers. There are a wide variety of industries that use pressure transducers and transmitters for various applications. These include, but are not limited to, medical, air flow management, factory automation, HVAC and refrigeration, compressors and hydraulics, aerospace and automotive. Copyright 2009 What-is.Net All rights reserved. Last Updated: Sep 2009

What are Pressure Transmitters?

There are important things to consider when deciding what kind of pressure transducer to choose. The first consideration is the kind of connector needed to physically connect the transducer to a system. There are many kinds of connectors for different uses, including bulletnose and submersible connectors, which have unique applications. Another important part is the internal circuitry of the transducer unit, which is housed by a "can" that provides protection and isolates the electronics. This can be made of stainless steel or a blend of composite materials and stainless steel. The various degrees of protection extend from nearly no protection (an open circuit board) to a can that is completely submersible in water. Other kinds of enclosures safeguard the unit in hazardous areas from explosions and other dangers. The next thing to consider is the sensor, which is the actual component that does the work of converting the physical energy to electrical energy. The component that alters the signal from the sensor and makes it suitable for output is called the signal conditioning circuitry. The internal circuitry must be resistant to harmful external energy like radio frequency interference, electromagnetic interference and electrostatic discharge. These kinds of interferences can cause incorrect readings, and are generally to be avoided when doing readings. Overall, pressure transducers are well-performing and high-accuracy devices that make life easier for many industries.

WHAT-IS . NET Information and answers to all your common and special questions.
Pressure controllers are used to regulate positive or negative (vacuum) pressure. They receive pressure sensor inputs, provide control functions, and output control signals. Pressure controllers use several control types. Limit controls protect personnel and equipment by interrupting power through a load circuit when pressure exceeds or falls below a set point. Advanced controls use non-linear control strategies such as adaptive gain, dead-time compensation, and feed-forward control. Linear controls use proportional, integral and derivative (PID) control; proportional and integral (PI) control; proportional and derivative (PD) control; or proportional (P) control. PID control uses an intelligent input/output (I/O) module or program instruction for automatic closed-loop operation. PI control integrates error signaling for steady-state or offset errors. By contrast, PD control differentiates error signals to derive the rate of change. PD control increases the speed of controller response, but can be noisy and decrease system stability. Copyright 2009 What-is.Net All rights reserved. Last Updated: Sep 2009

What are Pressure Controllers?

Pressure controllers differ in terms of performance specifications, control channels, control signal outputs, and sensor excitation supply. Performance specifications include adjustable dead-band or hysteresis, minimum and maximum set points, update rate or bandwidth, and percentage accuracy. Hysteresis or switching differential is the range through which an input can be changed without causing an observable response. Hysteresis is usually set around the minimum and maximum end points. Control channel specifications for pressure controllers include the number of inputs, outputs, and feedback loops. Multifunction controllers and devices with multiple, linked looped are commonly available. Control signal outputs include analog voltages, current loops, and switched outputs. Some controllers power sensors with voltage levels such as 0 5 V or 0 10 mV. Others power sensors with current loops such as 0 20 mA, 4 20 mA, or 10 50 mA. Selecting pressure controllers requires an analysis of discrete I/O specifications, user interface options, and special features. Devices differ in terms of the total number of inputs, total number of outputs, and total number of discrete or digital channels. Some pressure controllers provide alarm outputs or are designed to handle high power. Others are compatible with transistor-transistor logic (TTL). Analog user interfaces provide inputs such as potentiometers, dials and switches. Digital user interfaces are set up or programmed with a digital keypad or menus. Pressure controllers with a graphical or video display are commonly available. Devices that include an integral chart recorder can plot data on a strip chart, in a circular pattern, or on a video display. Special features for pressure controllers include self-tuning, programmable set points, signal computation or filters, and built-in alarms or indicators.

WHAT-IS . NET Information and answers to all your common and special questions.
Temperature measurement using modern scientific thermometers and temperature scales goes back at least as far as the early 18th century, when Gabriel Fahrenheit adapted a thermometer (switching to mercury) and a scale both developed by Ole Christensen Remer. Fahrenheit's scale is still in use, alongside the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale. Many methods have been developed for measuring temperature. Most of these rely on measuring some physical property of a working material that varies with temperature. One of the most common devices for measuring temperature is the glass thermometer. This consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working fluid. Temperature increases cause the fluid to expand, so the temperature can be determined by measuring the volume of the fluid. Such thermometers are usually calibrated, so that one can read the temperature, simply by observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer. Another type of thermometer that is not really used much in practice, but is important from a theoretical standpoint is the gas thermometer. Copyright 2009 What-is.Net All rights reserved. Last Updated: Sep 2009

What are Temperature Transmitters?

Temperature transmitters, RTD, convert the RTD resistance measurement to a current signal, eliminating the problems inherent in RTD signal transmission via lead resistance. Errors in RTD circuits (especially

two and three wire RTDs) are often caused by the added resistance of the leadwire between the sensor and the instrument. Transmitter input, specifications, user interfaces, features, sensor connections, and environment are all important parameters to consider when searching for temperature transmitters, RTD. Transmitter input specifications to take into consideration when selecting temperature transmitters, RTD include reference materials, reference resistance, other inputs, and sensed temperature. Choices for reference material include platinum, nickel or nickel alloys, and copper. Platinum is the most common metal used for RTDs - for measurement integrity platinum is the element of choice. Nickel and nickel alloys are very commonly used metal. They are economical but not as accurate as platinum. Copper is occasionally used as an RTD element. Its low resistivity forces the element to be longer than a platinum element. Good linearity and economical. Upper temperature range typically less than 150 degrees Celsius. Gold and Silver are other options available for RTD probes - however their low resistivity and higher costs make them fairly rare, Tungsten has high resistivity but is usually reserved for high temperature work. When matching probes with instruments - the reference resistance of the RTD probe must be known. The most standard options available include 10 ohms, 100 ohms, 120 ohms, 200 ohms, 400 ohms, 500 ohms, and 1000 ohms. Other inputs include analog voltage, analog current, and resistance input. The temperature range to be sensed and transmitted is important to consider. Important transmitter specifications to consider when searching for temperature transmitters, RTD, include mounting and output. Mounting styles include thermohead or thermowell mounting, DIN rail mounting, and board or cabinet mounting. Common outputs include analog current, analog voltage, and relay or switch output. User interface choices include analog front panel, digital front panel, and computer interface. Computer communications choices include serial and parallel interfaces. Common features for temperature transmitters, RTD, include intrinsically safe, digital or analog display, and waterproof or sealed. Sensor connections include terminal blocks, lead wires, screw clamps or lugs, and plug or quick connect. An important environmental parameter to consider when selecting temperature transmitters, RTD, is the operating temperature

WHAT-IS . NET Information and answers to all your common and special questions.
Temperature controllers accept inputs from temperature sensors or thermometers, and output a control signal to keep the temperature at the desired level. Temperature controllers use several different control techniques. Limit control establishes set points that, when reached, sends a signal to stop or start a process variable. Linear control matches a variable input signal with a correspondingly variable control signal. Feedforward control does not require a sensor and provides direct control-compensation from the reference signal. Proportional, integral and derivative (PID) control requires real-time system feedback. PID control monitors the error between the desired variable value and the actual value, and adjusts the control accordingly. Fuzzy logic is a control technique in which variables can have imprecise values (as in partial truth) rather than a binary status (completely true or completely false). Temperature controllers that use advanced or non-linear controls such as neural networking, adaptive gain, or emerging algorithms are also available.

Copyright 2009 What-is.Net All rights reserved. Last Updated: Sep 2009

What are Temperature Controllers?

Specifications for temperature controllers include number of inputs, number of outputs, input types, output types, and number of zones (if applicable). The number of inputs is the total number of signals sent to the temperature controller. The number of outputs is the sum of all outputs used to control, compensate or correct the process. Input types for temperature controllers include direct current (DC) voltage, current loops, analog signals from resistors or potentiometers, frequency inputs, and switch or relay inputs. Output types include analog voltage, current loops, switch or relay outputs, and pulses or frequencies. Some temperature controllers can also send inputs or receive outputs in serial, parallel, Ethernet or other digital formats which indicate a process variable. Others can send inputs and receive outputs from information converted to an industrial fieldbus protocol such as CANbus, PROFIBUS, or SERCOS. Temperature controllers differ in terms of user interface features and regulatory compliance. Many temperature controls feature a digital front panel or analog components such as knobs, switches, and meters. Computer-programmable, web-enabled, and Ethernet or network-ready temperature controllers are also available. In terms of compliance, a temperature control that is destined for sale in the European marketplace should meet the requirements of the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) and Waste Electrical and Electronics Equipment (WEEE) directives from the European Union (EU).

WHAT-IS . NET Information and answers to all your common and special questions.
Level sensors are used to detect liquid or powder levels, or interfaces between liquids. These level measurements can be either continuous or point values represented with various output options. Continuous level sensors are devices that measure level within a specified range and give output of a continuous reading of level. Point level sensors devices mark a specific level, generally used as high alarm or switch. Multiple point sensors can be integrated together to give a stepped version of continuous level. These level sensors can be either plain sensors with some sort of electrical output or else can be more sophisticated instruments that have displays and sometimes computer output options. The measuring range is probably the most important specification to examine when choosing a level sensor. Field adjustability is a nice feature to have for tuning the instrument after installation. Copyright 2009 What-is.Net All rights reserved. Last Updated: Sep 2009

What are Level Sensors?

Depending on the needs of the application, level sensing devices can be mounted a few different ways. These sensors can be mounted on the top, bottom or side of the container holding the substance to be measured. Among the technologies for measuring level are air bubbler technology, capacitive or RF

admittance, differential pressure, electrical conductivity or resistivity, mechanical or magnetic floats, optical units, pressure membrane, radar or microwave, radio frequency, rotation paddle, ultrasonic or sonic and vibration or tuning fork technology. Analog outputs level sensors can be current or voltage signals. Also possible is a pulse or frequency. Another option is to have an alarm output or a change in state of switches. Computer signal outputs that are possible are usually serial or parallel. Level sensors can have displays that are analog, digital or video displays. Control for the devices can be analog with switches, dials and potentiometers; digital with menus, keypads and buttons

WHAT-IS . NET Information and answers to all your common and special questions.
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid or gas movement. It can be measured in a variety of ways. Volumetric flow rate is sometimes measured in "standard cubic centimeters per minute" (abbreviation sccm), a unit acceptable for use with SI except that the additional information attached to the unit symbol. The SI standard would be m3/s (with any appropriate prefix, with temperature and pressure specified). The term "standard" indicates that the given flow rate assumes a standard temperature and pressure. Many other similar abbreviations are also in use, such as standard cubic feet per minute or per second. Other units used include gallons (U.S. liquid or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute, and acre-feet per day. Another method of flow measurement involves placing an object (called a shedder bar) in the path of the fluid. As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the flow called vortices are created. Copyright 2009 What-is.Net All rights reserved. Last Updated: Sep 2009

What is a Flowmeter?
The vortices trail behind the cylinder in two rolls, alternatively from the top or the bottom of the cylinder. This vortex trail is called the Von Krmn vortex street after von Karman's 1912 mathematical description of the phenomenon. The speed at which these vortices are created is proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside the shedder bar is a piezoelectric crystal, which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created. The frequency of this voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid flow rate, and is measured by the flowmeter electronics. Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic devices that can correct for varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, non-linearities, and for the characteristics of the fluid.

WHAT-IS . NET Information and answers to all your common and special questions.
Flow controllers monitor and maintain proper humidity levels in environmental test applications, or in other areas such as food storage or electronic room regulation. They can have three main ways of controlling low: limit control, linear control and advanced or nonlinear control. Limit control interrupts power through the load circuit when flow exceeds or falls below the limit set point. A limit controller can protect equipment and people when it is correctly installed with its own power supply, power lines, switch and sensor. Advanced or nonlinear control uses process control strategies beyond PID loop control, such as dead-time compensation, lead/lag, adaptive gain, neural networks, and fuzzy logic. Common functionalities for flow controllers are rate indication and control as well as batch or totalizer indication and control. Flow controllers with linear control use a classical type of control and can incorporate linear regulation, proportional, integral and derivative (PID), and feedforward methods. Copyright 2009 What-is.Net All rights reserved. Last Updated: Sep 2009

What are Flow Controllers?

Proportional, Integral, and derivative control use an intelligent I/O module or program instruction, which provides automatic closed-loop operation of process control, loops. With Proportional plus integral control the error signal is integrated and is for eliminating steady state or offset errors. This may also be called automatic reset/bias/offset control. Proportional plus derivative control has the error signal differentiated to get the rate of change. This type pf control is used to increase the controller's speed of response, but can be noisy and make the system less stable. Proportional control by itself has a control signal that is proportional to the error between the reference and feedback signals. Feedforward control is a direct control or compensation from the reference signal. It may be open loop or in conjunction with PID control. To choose a flow controller, one important piece of information is the number of inputs and control outputs and control or feedback loops desired. These controllers can have multiple controls modes or functions, which may or may not use different inputs and outputs. Also, multiple control loops may be linked to improve control performance and/or stability. Typical control signals for flow controllers are analog voltage or current or else a switch turning on or off. Update rate is also an important specification. This is the frequency with which devices take readings and adjust their output. Flow controllers can have PLC and discrete control and can be compatible with TTL type I/O. Some controllers are able to handle high power switching such as relays and optoisolators. Displays for flow controllers can be simple analog indicators, numeric or alphanumeric digital readouts, or video terminal displays. User interfaces are similar. Analog interfaces can have switches, dials and potentiometers. Digital user controls are typically keypads, menus and other digital interfaces. A remote computer can also program these controllers. Common computer interfaces are serial and parallel, but other options such as SCSI or network connections may be specified.

WHAT-IS . NET Information and answers to all your common and special questions.
A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a common feedback loop component in industrial control systems.

The controller takes a measured value from a process or other apparatus and compares it with a reference setpoint value. The difference (or "error" signal) is then used to adjust some input to the process in order to bring the process' measured value back to its desired setpoint. Unlike simpler controllers, the PID can adjust process outputs based on the history and rate of change of the error signal, which gives more accurate and stable control. PID controllers do not require advanced mathematics to design and can be easily adjusted (or "tuned") to the desired application, unlike more complicated control algorithms based on optimal control theory. The PID controller algorithm itself has some limitations. In practice most problems arise from instrumentation connected to the controller. Copyright 2009 What-is.Net All rights reserved. Last Updated: Sep 2009

What are PID Controllers?

One common problem is "integral windup". It might take too long for the output value to ramp up to the necessary value when the loop first starts up. Sometimes this can be fixed with a more aggressive differential term. Sometimes the loop has to be "preloaded" with a starting output. Another option is to disable the integral function until the measured variable has entered the proportional band. Some PID loops control a valve or similar mechanical device. Wear of the valve or device can be a major maintenance cost. In these cases, the PID loop may have a "deadband" to reduce the frequency of activation of the mechanical device. This is accomplished by designing the controller to hold its output steady if the change would be small (within the defined deadband range). The calculated output must leave the deadband before the actual output will change. Then, a new deadband will be established around the new output value. Another problem with the differential term is that small amounts of noise can cause large amounts of change in the output. Sometimes it is helpful to filter the measurements, with a running average, or a lowpass filter. However, low-pass filtering and derivative control cancel each other out, so reducing noise by instrumentation means is a much better choice. Alternatively, the differential band can be turned off in most systems with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PID controller as a PI controller.